THE 


NEW 


By 
RICHARD  LYDEKKER,  B.A.,  KG.S.,  RZ.S. 


and 

R.  BOWDLER    SHARPE,    H.  A.  MACPHERSON,    F.  O.  PICKARD-CAM- 

BR1DGE,  W.  R.  OG1LVIE  GRANT,  C.  J.  GAHAN,  F.  A.  BATHER, 

EDGAR    A.    SMITH,    R.     I.    POCOCK,    M.    BERNARD, 

H.    BERNARD    AND    R.    KIRKPATRICK. 


With  Introductions,  by 
ERNEST   SETON-THOMPSON 

NATURALIST  AND  ARTIST,  AUTHOR  OF  "  WILD  ANIMALS  I  HAVE  KNOWN,"  ETC. 


JOEL   A.   ALLEN 

CURATOR  OF  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


Illustrated  with 
SEVENTY-TWO   COLORED  PLATES  AND   TWENTY-ONE  HUNDRED  ENGRAVINGS 


VOLUME 


NEW  YORK 

MERRILL   &    BAKER 

PUBLISHERS 


BIOLOGY 

R^ 
G 


COPYRIGHT,  1901,  BY  THE  SAALFIELD  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


CONTENTS 


MAMMALS 


CHAPTER  XVI.—  CARNIVORES,—  continued. 

PAGE 

BEARS  (Ursidce). — General  Characteristics — Distribution — The  Typical  Bears  (Ursus) 

—  Polar   Bear  —  Brown   Bear  —  Crowther's  Bear  —  Grizzly  Bear  —  American  Black 
Bear — Himalayan  Black  Bear  —  Spectacled  Bear  —  Malayan  Bear — Extinct  Cave- 
Bear— The    Sloth-Bear  (Melursus)—  The    Parti-Colored    Bear  (^luropus)  —  Ex- 
tinct Bear-like  Genera,       ............       591 

CHAPTER   XVII.—  CARNIVORES,—  continued. 

THE  RACCOON  TRIBE  (Procyonidce). —  Distinctive  Features  of  Raccoons  —  Their  Peculiar 
Distribution  —  The  Panda  (^fZlurus)  —  Raccoons  (Procyon)  — Habits  —  Crab- 
Eating  Raccoon  —  Cacomixles  (Bassaris)  — Coatis  (Nasua) — The  Kinkajou  (  Cerco- 
Icptcs},  ...............  623 

CHAPTER  XVIII.—  CARNIVORES,—  continued. 

THE  WEASEL  TRIBE  (Mustelidfe)  —  Characteristics  and  Distribution — Tayra  and  Grison 
(Galictis) — Martens,  Polecats,  and  Weasels  (Mustela) — Pine-Marten  —  Beech- 
Marten —  Sable  —  American  Marten  —  Fisher  Marten  —  Indian  Marten  —  Polecat  — 
Sarmatian  Polecat  —  Black-Footed  Polecat  —  Ferret — Weasel" — Stoat  or  Ermine  — 
Other  Species  —  Extinct  Forms  —  Mink — Its  Fur  in  Commerce — Siberian  Mink  — 
South- African  Weasel  (Pacilogale)  —  Glutton  or  Wolverene  (Gulo) —  The  Skunks 
( Mephitis  andConcpatus) — Common  Skunk  —  Long-Tailed  Skunk — Lesser  Skunk  — 
White-Backed  Skunk  —  Fossil  Skunks  —  The  Cape  Polecat  (Ictonyx)  —  Ferret- 
Badgers  (Helictis) —  Ratels  ( Mcllivora) — Fossil  Species  —  The  American  Badger 
(Taxidea) — Common  Badger  (Meles) — The  Malayan  Badger  (Mydans) — The  Sand- 
Badger  (A rctonyx) — Otters  (Lutrd) — European  Otter — Habits  —  Tame  Otters  — 
Otter  Hunting — North-American  Otter  —  Brazilian  Otter — Feline  Otter — Smooth 
Indian  Otter  —  Hairy-Nosed  Otter  —  Clawless  Otter  —  African  Otter — Spotted- 
Necked  Otter  —Extinct  Otters  —  The  Sea-Otter  (Latax),  .  .  635 

CHAPTER  XIX.—  CARNIVORES,  —  concluded 

EARED  SEALS,  WALRUSKS,  AND  SEALS  (Otariidce,  Tricheckidce  and  Phocidce). —  Distinctive 
Characteristics  of  the  Group  —  The  Eared  Seals  (OtariidtE}  —  Habits — Hair-Seals 
and  Fur-Seals  —  Southern  Sea-Lion  —  Distribution  and  Habits  —  Northern  Sea-Lion 

—  Distribution  —  Californian  Sea-Lion — Hooker's  Sea-Lion  —  Australian  Hair-Seal 
— The  Northern  Sea-Bear — Seal  Rockeries  —  Southern  Fur-Seals  —  South- American 
Fur-Seal  —  Cape   Fur-Seal—New  Zealand   Fur-Seal  — The  Walrus   (Tricftcclius)  — 
The  True,  or  Earless  Seals  (Pfiocidte)  —  Their    Distinctive    Features,   Distribution, 
and  Habits  —  The  Gray  Seal  (Halichccrus) — Common  and  Greenland  Seals  (Phoca) 

(v)  sift- 

248633 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

•  —  Allied  Species  —  The  Monk-Seal  (Monachus) — West-Indian  Seal  —  The  Leopard- 
Seal  (Ogmorhinus) — Crab-Eating  Seal  (Lobodon) —  Weddell's   Seal  (Leptonychotes) 

—  Ross's   Seal   (Ommatophoca) — Crested  Seal  (Cystophora) —  Elephant-Seal  (Mac- 
rorJiinus) — Seal  Hunting — The  Primitive  Carnivores,      ......       692 

CHAPTER  XX. —  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS, —  Order  Ungulata. 

THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS  (Bovida) —  Characteristics  of  Ungulates  —  Their  Feet 

—  Odd-Toed  and  Even-Toed  Groups  —  Structure  of   Teeth  —  Characteristics  —  Size 

—  Horns  —  Distribution —  Hollow-Horned    Ruminants  —  Even-Toed    Ungulates  — 
Oxen  (Bos)  —  Characteristics,    Distribution,    Habits,  and   Specialization  —  Aurochs 
and  Domestic  Oxen  —  Domestication  —  Park  Cattle  —  Chillingham  Cattle  —  Cadzow 
Cattle  — Chartley    Cattle— Other    Herds  — Shetland    Cattle  —  Highland    Breed  — 
Welsh  Breed  —  Kerry  Breed  —  Polled  Angus  —  Galloways  —  Polled  Suffolk  —  Alder- 
neys    and    Jerseys  —  Ayrshire  —  Devons  —  Herefords  —  Longhorns —  Shorthorns  — 
Continental  Breeds  —  Indian  Cattle  —  American   and  Australian  Cattle  —  Humped 
Cattle  —  Galla  Cattle  —  Extinct  Species — The  Gaur  —  The  Gayal  —  The  Banteng  — 
The   Yak  —  European  Bison  —  The   American  Bison  —  Extinct  Bison — The   Cape 
Buffalo  —  Short-Horned   Buffalo — Extinct    Forms  —  The    Indian    Buffalo  —  Fossil 
Indian  Species  —  The  Tamarao  —  The  Anoa  —  The  Musk  Ox   (Ovzbos) — Its  Distri- 
bution and  Habits  —  Sheep  (Ovis) — Their  Characteristics  and  Distribution  —  Ameri- 
can  and   Kamchatkan   Wild.  Sheep  —  The  Mongolian  and  Tibetan  Argalis — The 
Pamir   Wild   Sheep  —  The    Urial   or   Sha  —  Armenian   and   Cyprian    Sheep  —  The 
Mouflon  —  Domestic  Sheep  —  Flat-Tailed  Sheep  —  Shetland  Breed  —  Scotch  Breeds 
— Welsh  Sheep  —  Irish  Breeds — Heath  Breed — Cheviots  —  Norfolk  Breed  —  Moor 
Breeds  —  Southdowns  —  Dorsets  —  Merino  and  Long-Woolled  Breeds  —  The  Bharal 

—  Barbary  Sheep  —  The  Goats  (Capra) — Their  Characteristics  and  Distribution  — 
Caucasian  Wild  Goats,  or  Tur  —  Pallas's  Tur — Caucasian  Tur  —  Severtzow's  Tur 

—  Spanish  Wild  Goat  —  Persian   Wild  Goat  —  Domestic  Goats  —  Angora  Breed  — 
Kashmir  Goat  —  Syrian  Goat  —  Egyptian  Goat  — Sudan  Goat  —  Feral  Goats  —  Ibex 

—  Alpine  Ibex  —  Himalayan  Ibex- — Arabian  Ibex  —  Abyssinian    Ibex  —  The  Mark- 
hoor  —  TheTahrand  Nilgiri  Wild  Goat  (Hemitragus} — The   Gorals  (Cemas)  —  The 
Serows  (Nemorluedus) — The   Takin   (Budorcas)  —  Rocky- Mountain   Goat  (Haplo- 
ceros) —  The  Chamois  (Rupicapra) —  Eland  (Or/as)  — Characteristics  and  Distribu 
tion   of   Antelopes  —  Size,  Distribution,    and   Habits  of  Eland  —  Derbian   Eland  — 
Kudu    (Strepsiceros) — Common  and  Lesser  Kudu  —  Harnessed  Antelopes  (  Trag- 
e.laphus) — Bongo —  Nyala — West-African  Harnessed  Antelope  —  Nakong  —  Guib  — 
The  Nylghau  (BoselapJtus) — The  Addax  (Addax) — Oryx  (Oryx) — Gemsbok —  Beisa 

—  East- African  Oryx  —  Beatrix  Antelope  —  Sabre-Horned  Antelope  —  Extinct  Forms 

—  Sable  Antelope  and  Roan  Antelope  (Hippotragus) — Blaubok  —  Baker's  Antelope 

—  Extinct  Species,     ........  ....       741 

CHAPTER    XXI. —  UNGULATES, —  continued. 

THE  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS, —  continued. —  The  Gazelles  (Gazella]  —  Springbok  — 
Dorcas  Gazelle  —  Indian  Gazelle — Persian  Gazelle  —  Grant's  Gazelle  —  Thomson's 
Gazelle — Other  Species  —  Clarke's  Antelope  (Ammodorcas) — Gerenuk  (Litho- 
cranius)  —  Chiru,  or  Tibetan  Antelope  (Pantholops} — The  Saiga  (Saiga) — Palas 
(^Epyceros) — Lesser  Pala  —  Angola  Pala  —  Black  Buck  (Antilope)  —  Rietbok 
(Cervicapra)  —  Water  Buck,  Lichi,  etc.  (Cobus)—  Sing-Sing—  Puku—  Rheeboc(Pe- 
lea) —  Klipspringer  (Oreotragus) —  Steinbocks  (Nanotragus) — Oribi — Grysbok — 
Salt's  Antelope  (Neotragus)  —  Duikerbok  (  Ccphalopfius) —  Red  Buck  —  Blue  Buck  — 
Zebra- Antelope  —  Wood-Antelope  —  Four-Horned  Antelope  ( Tetraceros) —  Wilde- 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

beests    (Connochaetes)  —  Hartbeests,    Blesbok,  and    Bontebok    (Bubalis) — Titel  — 
Hartbeest  —  Cooke's  Hartbeest —  Konze  —  Herota —  Korrigum  —  Sassaby  —*  Blesbok 

—  Extinct  Species,      ...  .........       877 

CHAPTER    XXII. —  UNGULATES,  —  continued. 

THE  PRONGBUCK  (Antilocapridcz),  AND  THE  GIRAFFE  (Giraffidce}. —  The  Prongbuck 
(Antilocapra) — Shedding  and  Renewal  of  Horns  —  Habits  —  Hunting  —  Extinct 
Forms  —  The  Giraffe  (Giraffa) — Distribution  —  Habits  —  Hunting — Extinct  Mam- 
mals allied  to  the  Giraffe —  Samothere  —  Sivathere,  .  .  ....  913 

CHAPTER    XXIII. —  UNGULATES, —  continued. 

THE  DEER  TRIBE  (Cervida). —  Nature  and  Growth  of  Antlers — Other  Characteristics  — 
The  Red- Deer  Group  (Cervus  elaphus,  etc.) — Characteristics  and  Habits  of  Red 
Deer  —  Allied  Species  —  Hangul  —  Shou —  Maral  —  Wapiti  —  The  Japanese-Deer 
Group  (  C.  sika,  etc.)  —  Manchurian  Deer  —  Dybowski's  Deer  —  Formosan  Deer  — 
Caspian  Deer  —  Indian  Spotted  Deer,  or  Chital  (C.  axis) — The  Sambur  Group  (C. 
un icolor,  etc.)  —  Allied  Species  —  Hog-Deer — The  Swamp-Deer  Group  (C.  duvauceli, 
etc.)  —  Schomburgk's  Deer  —  Eld's  Deer  —  David's  Deer(C.  davidianus) — Fallow- 
Deer  Group  (  C.  dama,  etc.)  —  Persian  Fallow  Deer  —  Extinct  Irish  Deer  —  The 
Muntjacs  (Cervulus) — The  Tufted  Deer  (Elaphodus) — The  Reindeer  (Rangifer) — 
Caribou  —  The  Elk  or  Moose  (Alces)  —  Distribution  —  Habits  —  Hunting  —  The  Roe- 
deer  (Capreolus) — Tartarian  Roe  —  Chinese  Water  Deer  (Hydropotes) — The 
American  Deer  (Cariacus) — Characteristics  of  Their  Antlers  —  Brockets  —  Costa 
Rica  Deer  —  Guemals  —  Pampas  Deer  —  Marsh  Deer — Virginian  Deer — Naked- 
Eared  Deer  —  Mule-Deer — Black-Tailed  Deer — The  Pudu  Deer  (Pudua) — The 
Musk  Deer  (Moschus),  ............  926 

CHAPTER    XXIV.—  UNGULATES,—  continued. 

CHEVROTAINS    AND    CAMELS     (Tragulida    and     Camelidcz). — The    Chevrotains  —  True 

Chevrotains  (Tragulus}  —  Water  Chevrotain  (Dorcatherium}^ Camels  and  Llamas 

—  Their  Distinctive  Characteristics  —  The  Camels    (Camelus) — Arabian  Camel  — 

Its  Various  Breeds  —  Bactrian  Camel  —  The    Llamas  (Lama) — Vicuna  —  Guanaco 

—  Llama  —  Alpaca  —  Extinct  Camel-like  Ungulates,  ......       986 

CHAPTER    XXV.—  UNGULATES,—  continued. 

THE  PIG-LIKE  UNGULATES,  PIGS,  PECCARIES,  AND  HIPPOPOTAMI. —  The  Pigs  (Suidtz)  — 
The  True  Pigs  (Sus) — European  and  Indian  Wild  Boars  —  Andaman  Pig  —  Pygmy 
Hog  —  Malayan  Pigs  —  Domestic  Swine  —  European  Breeds  —  Masked  Swine  — 
Bush  Pigs  —  Extinct  Pigs  —  The  Babiroussa  (Babiroiissa) — Its  Remarkable  Tusks  — 
The  Wart  Hogs  (Phacochcerus)  —  The  Peccaries  (Dicofylidce)  —  Extinct  Types  — 
Hippopotami  (Hippopofamidte) —  Common  Hippopotamus — Its  Distribution  and 
Habits  —  Hunting  —  The  Pygmy  Hippopotamus — Extinct  Species,  .  .  .  1007 

CHAPTER    XXVI.—  UNGULATES,—  continued. 

TAPIRS,  RHINOCEROSES,  AND  HORSES. —  Characteristics  of  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  —  The 
Tapirs  (Tapiridce) — Characteristics  and  Distribution  —  Malayan  Tapir  —  American 
Tapirs  —  Habits  —  Hunting  —  The  Rhinoceroses  (Rhinocerotida;) —  Characteristics 

—  Teeth  —  Horns  —  Habits  —  The     Asiatic     Rhinoceroses  —  Indian     Rhinoceros  — 
Javan   Rhinoceros  —  Allied   Extinct  Species — Sumatran  Species  —  African  Rhinoc- 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

eroses  —  Common  African  Species  —  Size  of  Horns —  Habits  —  Hunting —  Burchell's 
Rhinoceros — Holmwood's  Rhinoceros — Extinct  Rhinoceroses  —  The  Horse  Tribe 
(Equidce)  —  Characteristics  —  Specialization  (Equus)  —  Nomenclature  of  Limbs  — 
Indications  of  Age  —  The  Horse  —  Its  Distribution  —  Tarpan  —  Prejevalski's  Horse 
—  Domestication  —  In  America  —  In  Australia  — Barbs  and  Arabs — Arab  —  Levant 
and  Persian  Horses  —  English  Race  Horse  —  Hunters,  etc. —  Leaping  Powers  — 
American  Trotter  —  Shetland,  and  other  Ponies  —  Cart  Horses  —  Shire  Horse  — 
Clydesdale  —  Suffolk  Punch  —  Foreign  Breeds  —  The  Zebras  —  True  Zebra  — 
Burchell's  Zebra  —  Grdvy's  Zebra  —  Quagga  —  The  Asses  —  Asiatic  Wild  Ass  — 
Varieties,  Distribution,  and  Habits  —  African  Wild  Ass  —  Domestic  Ass  —  Mule  — 
Fossil  Horses  —  Other  Extinct  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  —  Ancestry  of  the  Horse  —  Palae- 
otheres  and  Lophiodons  —  Titanotheres  and  Chalicotheres  —  Palseosyops,  .  .  1041 


CHAPTER    XXVII.—  UNGULATES,—  concluded. 

KYRACES,  ELEPHANTS,  ETC. —  Characteristics  of  Foot  in  the  Elephants  and  Their  Allies  — 
The  Hyraces  (Hyracoidea) —  Characteristics  of  the  Procaviidce  —  Distribution  — 
Abyssinian  Hyraces  —  CapeHyrax  —  Syrian  Hyrax — Tree  Hyraces — Elephants(/V0- 
boscidea) — Characteristics  of  the  Elephantidce —  The  Skull  and  Teeth — Habits  — 
Indian  Elephant  —  Distribution  —  Habits  —  Breeding  —  Elephant  Shooting  —  Modes 
of  Capture  —  Value  and  Uses  of  Elephants  —  The  Mammoth  —  The  African  Elephant 

—  Distribution  —  Habits  —  Hunting  —  Mode  of  Capture — Extinct  Elephants — Sut- 
ledje  Elephant  —  Narbada  Elephant  —  Straight-Tusked   Elephant  —  Pygmy  Species 

—  Southern  Elephant  —  Stegodont  Elephants  —  The  Mastodons  —  The  Dinothere  — 
Short-Footed  Ungulates  (Amblypoda) — The  Macrauchenia  and  Its  Allies  (Litopterna\ 

—  The  Astrapotheres  and  Their  Kin  (Asirapotheria) —  The  Toxodonts  ( Toxodontia) , 


1106 


CHAPTER   XXVIIL— MANATEES  AND   DUGONGS,— Order  SIRENIA. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  GROUP. —  Mode  of  Life  —  Distribution  —  Classification  — 
Manatees  (Manatus) — Distribution  and  Number  of  Species — Habits  —  The  Dugong 
(Halicore) — Distribution  —  Habits —  Northern  Sea-Cow  (Rhytina} — Distribution 
and  Habits  —  Extermination  —  Tertiary  Sirenians,  ...... 


"55 


1165 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


COLORED  PLATES 


THE  EUROPEAN  BISON, 
WHITE-NOSED  COATI,    . 
EUROPEAN  OTTER, 
HOOKER'S  SEA-LION, 
LEOPARD-SEAL,    . 
BHARAL,    . 
DORCAS  GAZELLE, 
SOUTH-AFRICAN   GIRAFFES, 
FALLOW  DEER,    . 
INDIAN   RHINOCEROS,     . 
ZEBRA, 
AFRICAN   ELEPHANT,     . 


FACING 
PAGE 

Frontispiece 

632 
683 
697 

734 
821 
877 
920 

95i 
1051 
1093 
"33 


FULL  PAGE  PLATES 


POLAR  BEARS  AND  THEIR  PREY, 

THE  GRIZZLY  BEAR,      .... 

SLOTH-BEARS  IN  A  FOREST  GLADE,  . 

A  FAMILY  PARTY  OF  SOUTHERN  SEA-LIONS, 

WILD  CATTLE  OF  C&.DZOW  PARK, 

DOMESTIC    YAK,  .... 

ALPINE  IBEX,       ..... 

CHAMOIS  AT  BAY,  .... 

MALE  AND  FEMALE  KUDU, 

GROUP  OF  AFRICAN  ANTELOPES, 

A  FAMILY  OF  RED  DEER, 

ARABIAN  CAMEL,  .... 

A  FAMILY  OF  EUROPEAN  WILD  SWINE, 

INDIAN  ELEPHANT,         .... 

THE   HAUNT  OF  THE   AFRICAN  ELEPHANT, 

SKELETON  OF  TOXODON, 


PAGE 

597 
605 
616 
694 
755 
773 
835 
852 
861 
906 
93i 
993 
1010 
1119 

"35 
1152 


TEXT  ENGRAVINGS 


Brown  Bears  on  the  March, 
Skeleton  of  Bear,    . 
Polar  Bear  Climbing  a  Floe, 
The  Brown  Bear,    . 
Head  of  Brown  Bear, 
The  American  Black  Bear, 


592 
595 
599 
600 
607 


The  Himalayan  Black  Bear, 

The  Malayan  Bear, 

Skull  of  Cave-Bear, 

The  Parti-Colored  Bear,    . 

Jaw  of  Arctothere, 

Molar  Teeth  of  Hysenarctus, 


PAGE 

609 
612 
614 
620 

621 

622 


(ix) 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Palate  of  the  Cacomixle,  .  .  623 

The  Panda,  .  .  .  .625 

Skeleton  of  Raccoon,  .  .  .  627 

The  Common  Raccoon,  .  .  .  628 

The  Cacomixle,  ....  630 
The  Kinkajou,  ....  633 
Skeleton  of  Weasel,  .  .  .  635 

The  Tayra,  .  .  .  .  .637 

The  Pine-Marten,  ....  640 
The  Beech-Marten,  .  .  .  642 

The  Sable,  .  .  .  .  -644 

Skeleton  of  Polecat,  .  .  .648 

The  Polecat,  .  .  .  -649 

The  Ferret,  ....  650 

The  Weasel,  .  .  .  .652 

The  Stoat,  or  Ermine,  in  Winter  Dress,  654 
European  Mink,  ....  657 
The  Glutton,  or  Wolverene,  .  .  661 

White-Backed  Skunk,  .  .  .666 

The  Cape  Polecat,  .  .  .669 

The  Cape  Ratel,  .  .  .  .671 

Palate  of  Fossil  Indian  Ratel,  .  .  672 

Skeleton  of  Badger,  .  .  .  674 

The  Common  Badger,  .  .  .  675 

The  Malayan  Badger,  .  .  .  678 

Palate  of  C  lawless  Otter,  .  .  .681 

Skeleton  of  Otter,  .  .  .682 

Tooth  of  Extinct  Otter,  .  .  .687 

The  Sea-Otter,  .  .  .  .688 

Northern  Sea-Lion,  .  .  .  700 

Head  of  Californian  Sea-Lion,  .  .  702 

Northern  Sea- Bear,  .  .  .  705 

Skeleton  of  Walrus,  .  .  .  713 

Head  of  Walrus,  ....  714 
Walruses  on  the  Ice,  .  .  .  715 

Flippers  of  Ringed  Seal,  .  .  .  721 

Skeleton  of  Seal,  ....  725 
Common  Seal,  ....  726 
Greenland  Seal,  ....  727 
Seals  Swimming,  ....  729 
Skull  of  Leopard-Seal,  .  .  .  732 

Crested  Seal,  ....  734 

Teeth  of  Elephant-Seal,  .  .  .  735 

Bones  of  Wrist  and  Foot  of  Coryphodon,  742 
Bones  of  the  Left  Wrist  and  Foot  of 

Titanothere,  ....  742 
Bones  of  Left  Fore-Foot  of  Three-Toed 

and  Four-Toed  Horse-like  Animals,  .  743 
Bones  of  Foot  of  Horse  and  Deer,  .  744 

Teeth  of  Nylghau  and  Merycopotamus,  745 
Teeth  of  Four-Horned  Antelope,  .  748 

Skeleton  of  European  Bison,  .  .  748 

Skull  of  Swayne's  Hartbeest,  .  .  749 

Skull  of  Aurochs,  ....  752 
Durham  Shorthorn,  .  .  .  756 


PAGE 

Friburg  Bull,  ....       759 

Dutch  Cow,  ....       761 

Skull  of  Galla  Ox,  .  .  .  .762 

Indian  Humped  Bull,         .  .  .       763 

Galla  Bull,  .....  764 
Bull  Gaur,  .  .  .  .  766 

Cow  Gayal,  ....       770 

The  Banteng,  ....       771 

Skull  of  Domestic  Yak,     .  .  .       775 

American  Bison,  ....  780 
Head  of  Bull  Bison,  .  .  -783 

Cape  Buffalo,  ....       788 

Short-Horned  Buffalo,        .  .  .       790 

Congo  Variety  of  Buffalo,  .  .       792 

Indian  Buffalo,  ....  793 
The  Anoa,  .....  796 
The  Musk  Ox,  .  .  .  798 

Head  of  Bull  Musk  Ox,      .  .  -799 

Musk  Oxen  at  Bay,  .  .  .       800 

Skeleton  of  Mouflon,          .  .  .       801 

Bones  of  Foot  of  Sheep,    .  .  .       802 

Skull  of  Kamchatkan  Wild  Sheep,  .       803 

American  Wild  Sheep,  or  Bighorn,  .  804 
Head  of  Kamchatkan  Wild  Sheep,  .  805 
Skull  and  Horns  of  Tibetan  Argali,  .  807 
Pamir  Wild  Sheep,  .  .  .  810 

Skull  and  Horns  of  Pamir  Sheep,  .       811 

Head  of  Cyprian  Sheep,    .  .  .       814 

The  Mouflon,  .  .  .  .815 

Black-Headed  Sheep,         .  .  .       817 

Head  of  Merino  Ram,         .  .  .       819 

Barbary  Sheep,  ....  822 
Skeleton  of  Ibex,  ....  824 
Horns  of  Pallas's  Tur,  .  .  .  825 

Spanish  Wild  Goat,  .  .  .827 

Persian  Wild  Goat,  .  .  .       829 

Angora  Goat,  ....       832 

Head  of  Himalayan  Ibex,  .  .       837 

Arabian  Ibex,  ....       838 

The  Markhoor,  Cabul  Variety,     .  .       840 

Head  of  Pir-Panjal  Markhoor,      .  .       842 

The  Himalayan  Tahr,        .  .  .  ,    844 

The  Goral,  .  .  .  .  .846 

Horns  of  Himalayan  Serow,          .  .       848 

Skull  and  Horns  of  Takin,  .  .       849 

The  Chamois,  ....  851 
The  Leap  of  the  Chamois,  .  .  854 

Head  of  Bull  Eland,  .  .  -855 

Skeleton  of  the  Addax,       .  .  .856 

The  Eland,  .  .  .  .  .857 

Head  of  Kudu,         .  .  .  .860 

Head  of  West-African  Harnessed  Ante- 
lope,         .....       863 
Male  and  Female  Guib,      .  .  .       864 

The  Nylghau,  .  .  .  .866 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


XI 


PAGE 

The  Addax,  .  .  .  .868 

Head  of  Gemsbok,  .  .  .869 

The  Beisa,  .  .  .  .  .  870 

Sabre-Horned  Antelope,  .  .  871 

Sable  Antelope  and  Roan  Antelope,  .  873 
Head  of  Fringe-Eared  Oryx,  etc.,  .  874 

Head  of  Sable  Antelope,  .  .  .  876 

A  "  Trek "  of  Springbok,  .  .  877 

Head  of  Grant's  Gazelle,  .  .878 

The  Springbok,  ....  879 
Dorcas  Gazelle,  ....  880 
Skull  of  Indian  Gazelle,  .  .  .881 

Horns  of  Thomson's  Gazelle,  .  .  882 

Head  of  Clarke's  Antelope,  .  .  883 

Head  and  Neck  of  the  Gerenuk,  .  .  884 

Head  of  Chiru,  .  .  .  .885 

The  Saiga,  .  .  .  .886 

Head  of  Pala,  .  .  .  .887 

Male  and  Female  Black  Buck,  .  .  888 

Skull  of  Black  Buck,  .  .  .889 

Head  of  Water  Buck,  .  .  .  892 

The  Puku,  ...  .  893 

Male  and  Female  Klipspringer,  .  .  895 

TheOribi,  .  .  .  .  .896 

The  Duikerbok,  .  .  .  .898 

Male  and  Female  Four-Horned  Antelopes,  899 
Skull  of  Four-Horned  Antelope,  .  .  900 

White-Tailed  Wildebeest,  .  .  902 

Blue  Wildebeest,  ....  903 
Wildebeests  curveting  roun'd  a  Wagon,  .  904 
Hartbeests,  .  * .  .  .  .  905 

Skull  and  Horns  of  Cooke's  Hartbeest,  .  908 
Head  of  Swayne's  Hartbeest,  .  .  909 

Head  of  Hunter's  Hartbeest,  .  .  910 

Head  of  Korrigum  or  Senegal  Antelope,  911 
Group  of  Prongbuck,  .  .  .  914 

Head  of  Prongbuck,  with  newly-growing 

Horns,  .....  916 
Giraffes  at  a  Pool,  ....  919 
Skeleton  of  Giraffe,  .  .  .  920 

South-African  Giraffe,  .  .  .  922 

Skull  of  Samothere,  .  .  .  925 

Skull  of  Sivathere,  .  .  .  925 

Skeleton  of  Male  Red  Deer,  .  .  926 

Head  of  Red  Deer  with  New  Antlers  in 

the  "  Velvet,"  .  .  .927 

Left  Antlers  of  Asiatic  Deer,  .  •  928 

Antler  of  Red  Deer,  .  .  .  930 

Red  Deer  at  a  Pool,  .  .  .  933 

Wapiti  Chased  by  Wolves,  .  .  936 

Antlers  of  Spotted  Deer,  Swamp  Deer, 

and  Sambur,  .  .  .  .  941 

Indian  Spotted  Deer,  .  .  .  942 

The  Sambur,  ....  944 

Head  of  Schomburgk's  Deer,  .  .  948 


Antlers  of  Irish  Deer,  ,  ,  .  .  952 
The  Indian  Muntjac,  .  .  953 
Head  of  Hairy-Fronted  Muntjac,  .  955 
Michie's  Deer,  ....  956 
Bones  of  Foot  of  Roebuck,  .  .  957 
Foot  of  Reindeer,  ....  958 
Reindeer,  .....  959 
Foot  of  Elk,  .  .  .  -963 
A  Family  of  Elk,  .  .  .  -965 
A  Moose  Yard,  ....  967 
Male  and  Female  Roedeer,  .  .  970 
Skull  of  Chinese  Water  Deer,  .  .  971 
Antlers  of  Marsh,  Virginian,  and  Mule- 
Deer,  .  .  973 
The  Red  Brocket,  .  .  .  -974 
Pampas  Deer,  ....  976 
Virginian  Deer,  ....  978 
Virginian  Deer  Swimming,  .  .  980 
Head  of  Mule-Deer,  .  .  .  981 
Head  and  Shoulders  of  Pudu  Deer,  .  983 
Male  and  Female  Musk  Deer,  .  .  984 
Bones  and  Foot  of  Chevrotains,  .  .  987 
The  Smaller  Malayan  Chevrotain,  .  988 
Skeleton  of  Arabian  Camel,  .  .  990 
Bones  of  Camel's  Foot,  .  .  991 
Water  Cells  in  Camel's  Stomach,  .  991 
The  Bactrian  Camel,  .  .  .  997 
A  Drove  of  Vicunas,  .  .  .  1000 
The  Llama,  ....  1003 
The  Alpaca,  '  .  .  .  .  1005 
Skeleton  of  Wild  Boar,  ,  .  .  1007 
Molar  Teeth  of  Extinct  Pig-like  Animals,  1008 
Bones  of  Foot  of -Pig,  .  .  .  1009 
Skull  of  Bearded  Pig,  .  .  .  1009 
Molar  Tooth  of  Pig,  .  .  .  ion 
A  "Sounder"  of  Wild  Swine,  .  .  1013 
Berkshire  Pig,  ....  1014 
Harrison  Pig,  ....  1016 
Dwarf  Chinese  Pig,  .  .  .  1018 
Masked  Japanese  Pig,  .  .  •  1020 
The  Red  Bush  Pig,  .  .  .1021 
The  Babiroussa,  .  .  •  1023 
Skull  of  Babiroussa,  .  •  1024 
^Elian's  Wart  Hog,  .  .  •  1025 
Head  of  Pallas's  Wart  Hog,  .  1026 
The  Collared  Peccary  and  Young,  .  1029 
Skeleton  of  Hippopotamus,  .  1031 
A  Family  Party  of  Hippopotami,  .  1033 
Hippopotami  at  Home,  .  .  1037 
Skeleton  of  Malayan  Tapir,  .  1041 
Bones  of  Foot  of  Rhinoceros,  .  .  1042 
Teeth  of  the  Anchithere,  .  .  1042 
Malayan  Tapir,  .  •  1045 
American  Tapir,  .  .  .  1047 
Teeth  of  Rhinoceroses,  .  .  .1051 


Xll 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Indian  Rhinoceros  in  Zoological  Gar- 
dens, ...  .  1053 
The  Indian  Rhinoceros,  .  .  .  1055 
The  Sumatran  Rhinoceros,  .  .  1058 
The  Common  African  Rhinoceros,  .  1060 
Head  of  Common  African  Rhinoceros,  .  1061 
Burchell's  Rhinoceros,  .  .  .  1067 
Head  of  Burchell's  Rhinoceros,  .  .  1069 
Skull  of  Extinct  Rhinoceros,  .  .  1071 
Teeth  of  Anchithere,  Horse,  and  Hip- 

parion,  .....  1075 

Skull  of  Three-Toed  Horse,  .  .  1076 

Shire  Stallion,         ....  1077 

Teeth  of  the  Horse  at  Various  Ages,       .  1078 

English  Race  Horse  ("  Doncaster  "),       .  1080 

The  Tarpan,  ....  1082 

English  Race  Horse  ("Bend-Or"),  .  1084 

German  Half-Bred  Horse,  .  .  1086 

Percheron  Cart  Horse,       .  .  .  1089 

Clydesdale  Mare,    ....  1090 

Burchell's  Zebra,    ....  1092 

Grevy's  Zebra,        ....  1094 

The  Quagga,  .  .  .  1095 

Tibetan  Wild  Ass,  or  Kiang,        .  .  1096 

A  Troop  of  Persian  Wild  Asses,  .  .  1098 

The  African  Wild  Asses,  .  .  .  1099 

Domestic  Ass,          ....  noi 

Cheek-Teeth  of  Palaeothere,         .  .  1104 


PAGE 

Molar  Teeth  of  Palaeosyops,          .             .  1104 

Foot  Bones  of  Elephant,  .             .             .  006 

Skeleton  of  Cape  Hyrax,    .             .             .  1 107 

Foot  Bones  of  Hyrax,        .             .             .  1108 

Syrian  Hyrax,          ....  1109 

Tree  Hyrax,             .             .             .             .  mo 

Skeleton  of  Indian  Elephant,         .             .  1112 
Molar  Teeth  of  Mammoth,             .             .1114 

Molar  Tooth  of  Cliffs  Elephant,  .             .  1115 
Molar  Tooth  of  Elephant,              .             .1117 

Indian  Elephant  Drinking,            .             .  1121 

Indian  Elephants  Enjoying  Themselves,  1123 

Indian  Elephant  Kneeling,             .              .  1128 

Elephant  Carrying  Timber,           .             .  1130 

Molar  Tooth  of  African  Elephant,            .  1133 

Last  Molar  Teeth  of  Mastodons,  .             .  1144 

Molars  of  Mastodons,         .              .              .  1145 

Skull  of  Dinothere,             .             .             .  1147 

Cheek-Teeth  of  Uintathere,           .             .  1147 

Palate  of  Homalodontothere,        .            .  1149 

Lower  Jaw  of  Astrapothere,          .             .  1150 

Skull  of  Nesodon,   ....  1153 

Skeleton  of  Manatee,          .            .            .  1156 

The  American  Manatee,    .             .             .  1158 

The  Dugong,            ....  1161 

Skeleton  of  Northern  Sea-Cow,    .             .  1162 

Head  of  the  African  Elephant,      .             .  1164 


LIBRARY  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


VOL.  II 


^Sgr*t 

•    -i»<siSfc- .- jrar^.y 

s>  Tttomof  A^tehMK. 

tuA^t^^a^f. 


MAMMALS 


CHAPTER  XVI 
CARNIVORES—  continued 

BEARS 


Family 

THE  bears  are  so  different  in  appearance  from  the  other  Carnivores  that  no  one 
could  fail  to  recognize  their  representatives  at  a  glance,  or  would  hesitate  to  admit 
that,  so  far  at  least  as  living  forms  are  concerned,  they  are  entitled  to  constitute  a 
group  by  themselves.  The  number  of  species  included  in  the  family  is  comparatively 
small  ;  and  the  whole  of  them  are  arranged  under  three  genera,  two  of  which  are 
represented  by  but  a  single  species  each. 

.  Bears  differ  from  the  Carnivores  hitherto  noticed  in  an  important  feature  con- 
nected with  the  hinder  part  of  the  under  surface  of  the  skull.  Thus,  whereas  in  all 
the  preceding  families  the  so-called  tympanic  bulla  at  the  base  of  the  internal  por- 
tion of  the  ear  forms  an  inflated  bladder-like  capsule,  which  is  generally  divided 

(590 


592 


THE   CARNIVORES 


internally  by  a  larger  or  smaller  bony  partition,  in  the  bears  (as  well  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing families  of  the  raccoons  and  weasels),  this  bulla  is  depressed  and  flattened, 
and  has  no  trace  of  an  internal  partition  ;  and  its  mouth,  leading  to  the  external  ear, 
is  produced  much  further  outward.  There  are  also  other  characteristics  connected 
with  the  skull  which  help  to  distinguish  the  bears  and  the  members  of  the  next  two 
families  from  the  Carnivores  hitherto  described,  but  the  bulla  alone  is  sufficient  to 
determine  at  a  glance  to  which  of  the  two  groups  any  given  skull  may  belong,  and 
the  reader  will  accordingly  perceive  how  important  is  this  apparently  insignificant 
feature.  The  degree  of  inflation  of  the  bulla  of  the  skull  is  doubtless  associated  with 
the  acuteness  of  hearing  ;  the  Carnivores  with  the  longest  ears,  like  the  African  fen- 
nee,  having  larger  bullae  than  their  nearest  relatives.  Bears  are  notoriously  defi- 
cient in  the  sense  of  hearing  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  raccoons  and  weasels  are  also 


SKELETON   OE  BEAR. 

less  acute  in  this  respect  than  cats,  civets,  and  dogs.  Although  many  of  the  Carni- 
vores with  inflated  bullae  have,  like  the  cats,  comparatively  small  ears,  it  is  note- 
worthy that  no  bear,  raccoon  or  weasel  has  these  organs  of  very  large  dimensions, 
while  in  some  instances  they  are  almost  absent. 

The  members  of  the  bear  family  are  characterized  by  their  heavy  and  massive 
build,  their  thick  limbs,  extremely  short  tails,  and  the  presence  of  five  toes,  armed 
with  powerful  claws,  on  both  the  fore  and  hind-feet.  Moreover,  when  walking,  the 
whole  sole  of  the  foot  is  applied  to  the  ground,  in  the  old-fashioned  plantigrade  man- 
ner, so  that  the  impression  of  a  bear's  foot  presents  a  considerable  superficial  resem- 
blance to  that  of  a  man.  The  claws  of  the  feet  are  incapable  of  being  retracted,  and 
are  well  adapted  for  digging,  although  no  members  of  the  family  are  in  the  habit  of 
constructing  burrows  for  themselves  after  the  manner  of  foxes.  In  most  bears  the 


BEARS  593 

under  surface  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  completely  devoid  of  hair  ;  and  the  ordinary 
gait  is  peculiarly  slow  and  measured.  All  the  bears  are  of  considerable  bodily  size, 
while  some  of  them  are  among  the  largest  of  the  Carnivores. 

The  living  species  of  bears,  with  which  alone  we  are  at  present  dealing,  are 
likewise  readily  distinguished  from  other  Carnivores  by  the  characteristics  of  their 
teeth.  They  agree  with  the  true  dogs  in  having  two  pairs  of  molars  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  three  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw,  but  the  shape  of  these  teeth  is  different ;  the 
crowns  being  nearly  flat,  very  broad,  and  mainly  adapted  for  grinding,  while  those 
of  the  upper  jaw  are  either  oblong  or  square,  and,  therefore,  quite  unlike  the 
triangular  upper  molars  of  the  dogs.  Then,  again,  the  flesh-tooth  in  both  jaws  is 
very  unlike  that  of  ordinary  Carnivores;  the  upper  one  being  small,  and  having  no 
inner  root,  and  its  crown  looking  much  like  that  of  a  molar.  Similarly,  the  lower 
flesh-tooth  (which  we  may  once  more  remind  our  readers  is  the  first  of  the  molar 
series,  while  the  upper  one  is  a  premolar)  is  very  like  the  two  molars  by  which  it  is 
followed.  A  third  distinctive  feature  is  that  the  first  three  premolar  teeth  in  both 
jaws  are  exceedingly  minute,  and  are  very  generally  shed  when  their  owner  attains 
maturity. 

The  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  cheek-teeth  clearly  indicate  that  the  food  of 
the  bears  is  very  different  from  that  of  other  Carnivores  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
majority  of  these  animals  subsist  on  a  vegetable  diet,  or  on  insects,  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  on  flesh.  From  their  evident  descent  (as  we  shall  fully  indicate 
later  on)  from  dog-like  animals,  it  is  clear  that  the  peculiar  features  of  the  dentition 
of  the  bears  have  been  acquired  ;  and  we  may  hence  regard  these  animals,  so  far  as 
their  teeth  are  "concerned,  as  highly  specialized.  The  loss  of  the  tail  is  likewise  a 
specialized  feature.  On  the  other  hand,  in  their  retention  of  the  old-fashioned  planti- 
grade mode  of  walking,  bears  are  much  more  generalized  animals  than  dogs,  and 
in  this  respect  retain  a  feature  which  was  present  in  the  ancestral  types  from  which 
the  two  groups  have  sprung. 

The  whole  of  the  members  of  the  family  have  a  marked  resemblance  to  one 
another,  so  that  the  characteristics  by  which  the  different  species  are  distinguished 
are  apparently  somewhat  trivial.  Their  fur  is  coarse,  and  generally  long,  thick,  and 
shaggy,  although  it  may  be  short  and  thinner  in  some  of  the  tropical  species.  Ex- 
cept for  the  not  unfrequent  presence  of  a  white  collar  round  the  throat,  the  fur  is 
nearly  always  of  one  color,  and  generally  some  shade  of  either  brown  or  black.  It 
is  true,  indeed,  that  the  Polar  bear  is  a  marked  exception  to  this  rule,  but  in  this 
case  the  color  of  the  fur  has  evidently  been  specially  modified  to  suit  the  natural 
surroundings.  The  great  prevalence  of  black  among  the  bears  is  a  feature  un- 
known in  any  other  group  of  Carnivores,  and  is,  indeed,  rare  among  Mammals  in 
general. 

Bears  have  a  wide  geographical  distribution,  occuring  throughout  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America,  while  one  species  inhabits  the  South-American  Andes, 
and^mother  the  African  Atlas.  South,  however,  of  the  Atlas  not  a  single  member 
of  the  family  is  to  be  found  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  Africa.  Geolog- 
ically speaking,  true  bears,  that  is  to  say,  those  which  can  be  referred  to  the  genera 
now  living,  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  none  being  yet  known  before  the 
38 


594  THE   CARNIVORES 

Pliocene,  while  it  is  not  till  the  succeeding  period  that  they  became  abundant. 
This  late  appearance  of  the  bears  is  in  harmony  with  what  we  have  already  stated 
as  to  their  specialization. 


With  the  exception  of  the  Indian  sloth-bear  and  a  peculiar  species  from  Tibet, 
all  the  bears  are  now  generally  included  in  the  genus  Ursus.  This  genus  is  charac- 
terized by  having  a  total  of  forty-two  teeth  (when  all  the  small  premolars  are  pres- 
ent), of  which  f  are  incisors,  \  canines,  \  premolars,  and  f  molars  on  each  side. 
In  the  adults,  as  already  mentioned,  several  or  all  of  the  three  anterior  premolars 
may  disappear  from  both  jaws,  although  the  one  immediately  behind  the  tusk  may 
remain  longer  than  the  others.  The  molar  teeth  are  characterized  by  their  crowns- 
being  longer  than  they  are  broad  ;  the  last  upper  molar  being  a  much  elongated 
tooth,  while  in  the  lower  jaw  the  last  molar  is  shorter  than  the  tooth  which  pre- 
cedes it.  As  a  rule,  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  naked  ;  and  the  claws  are  of  moderate 
length  and  curvature.  As  in  the  other  genera  of  the  family,  the  ears  are  small, 
erect,  and  thickly  haired  ;  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  round.  The  geographical 
distribution  of  the  genus  is  coextensive  with  that  of  the  family. 


THE  POLAR  BEAR  (Urszis  maritimus) 

Not  only  does  the  Polar  bear  differ  from  all  other  bears  by  its  pure  white  coat, 
but  it  is  also  distinguished  from  the  greater  number  of  white  Mammals  in  that  this 
color  is  retained  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  instead  of  being  exchanged  in  summer 
for  a  darker  tint.  In  addition  to  this  distinctive  white  coloration,  the  Polar  bear  is 
further  characterized  by  the  relatively-small  size  and  extremely-elongated  form  of 
its  head,  as  well  as  by  the  molar  teeth  being  relatively  smaller  and  narrower  than  in 
the  other  members  of  the  genus.  Moreover,  the  soles  of  the  feet  have  a  certain 
amount  of  hair  growing  upon  them,  doubtless  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  ani- 
mal to  have  a  better  hold  upon  the  ice.  The  neck  is  also  longer  than  in  other  bears, 
while  the  ears  are  unusually  small.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  members  of  the  group, 
not  unfrequently  attaining  a  length  of  close  upon  nine  feet,  although  exact 
measurements  from  recently-killed  wild  examples  are  but  few. 

The  Polar  bear  is  found  throughout  the  Arctic  regions  of  both  Hemispheres. 
It  is  now  rare  on  the  southwestern  coasts  of  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla,. 
where  the  ice  almost  completely  disappears  in  summer.  According  to  Baron  Nor- 
denskjold,  it  is  more  common  on  the  northern  parts  of  those  islands,  where  there  i& 
perpetual  ice.  On  the  north  coasts  of  America  and  Asia  it  is  found  everywhere, 
and  becomes  more  and  more  numerous  as  we  travel  northward.  In  Labrador, 
where  it  is  now  very  rare,  there  is  evidence  that  it  was  once  comparatively  common, 
and  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard  is  of  opinion  that  its  range  originally  extended  even  down 
into  the  State  of  Maine.  The  white  bears  seen  by  John  Cabot  in  the  year  1497  are 


THE  POLAR    BEAR 


595 


believed  by  Dr.  Packard  to  have  been  observed  in  Newfoundland  ;  while  further 
evidence  of  their  former  existence  is  afforded  by  the  observations  of  Corte  Real  in 
1500  and  Cartier  in  1534.  The  bones  found  in  the  shell  mounds  of  Goose  island, 
Casco  bay,  Maine,  are  considered  to  belong  to  the  present  species,  and  thereby  in- 
dicate the  probability  of  its  range  having  extended  thus  far  south.  In  Southern 
Labrador  the  Polar  bear  seems  to  be  totally  extinct,  the  last  specimen  that  was  seen 
on  the  shores  of  the  strait  of  Belle  Isle  (dividing  Labrador  from  Newfoundland) 
having  been  killed  in  the  year  1849.  In  Labrador  the  range  of  the  white  bear 
overlaps  that  of  the  American  black  bear. 

Baron  Nordenskjold  states  that  the  Polar  bear  generally  lives  on 
such  coasts  and  islands  as  are  surrounded  by  ice,  while  it  is  often 
found  on  the  ice  fields  far  out  at  sea,  which  form  its  best  hunting  grounds.       In  re- 


Habits 


POI^AR    BEAR     CUMBING    A     FI.OE. 

gard  to  the  numbers  of  these  animals,  he  states  that  the  Norwegian  ' '  vessels  from 
Tromsoe  brought  home  in  1868  twenty,  in  1869  fifty-three,  in  1870  ninety-eight,  in 
1871  seventy-four,  and  in  1873  thirty-three  bears.  It  may  be  inferred  from  this 
that  the  Norwegian  walrus  hunters  kill  yearly  on  an  average  at  least  a  hundred 
bears.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  this  large  number  a  pregnant  female  or  one  with 
newly-born  young  is  never  found.  The  female  bear  appears  to  keep  herself  well 
concealed  during  the  time  she  is  pregnant,  —  perhaps  in  some  ice-hole  in  the  interior 
of  the  country." 

In  Nordenskj old's  opinion  it  is  not  certain  that  the  Polar  bear  hibernates, 
although  there  are  several  circumstances  indicating  that  it  probably  does  so.  In  the 
most  northerly  wintering-stations  of  ships,  the  bears  almost  completely  disappear 


596  THE   CARNIVORES 

during  the  long  Arctic  winter,  while  there  are  cases  where  some  of  them  have  been 
found  concealed  in  holes.  It  will,  however,  be  obvious  that  this  disappearance  from 
the  more  northern  regions  in  winter  may  well  be  due  to  migration,  while  the  individ- 
uals found  in  concealment  may  all  have  been  females,  which  are  known  to  bring  forth 
their  young  beneath  the  snow.  Other  writers,  as  we  shall  see  below,  definitely 
state  that  in  many  districts  males  and  young  cubs  are  to  be  found  in  active  life 
throughout  the  winter  ;  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  most  northern  portions  of 
its  range  both  sexes  may  habitually  hibernate.  According  to  Eskimo  accounts,  the 
female  bears  are  very  fat  at  the  time  they  retire  beneath  the  snow.  During  their  ex- 
tended excursions  after  prey,  the  male  and  the  female,  the  latter  generally  attended 
by  one  or  two  good-sized  young  ones,  keep  each  other  company.  More  are  seldom 
seen  together,  unless  at  places  where  many  carcasses  of  walruses,  seals,  or  white 
whales  are  lying.  Formerly  the  sight  of  a  bear  created  dismay  in  Arctic  travelers, 
but  now  the  walrus  hunters  do  not  hesitate  a  moment  to  attack,  lance  in  hand,  con- 
siderable numbers  of  bears.  The  bear's  principal  food  consists  of  the  seal  and  wal- 
rus. There  is  not  the  least  doubt,  continues  Nordenskjold,  "  that,  along  with  flesh, 
the  bear  also  eats  such  vegetable  substances,  as  seaweed,  grass,  and  lichens.  The 
flesh  of  the  bear,  if  he  is  not  too  old  or  has  not  recently  eaten  putrid  seal  flesh,  is  very 
eatable,  being  intermediate  in  taste  between  pork  and  beef.  The  flesh  of  the  young 
bear  is  white,  and  resembles  veal."  In  addition  to  seals  and  walruses,  the  Polar 
bear  also  subsists  on  the  flesh  of  certain  Cetaceans,  and  our  illustration  represents  a 
female  carrying  a  porpoise  in  her  mouth.  In  some  districts  the  Polar  bear  con- 
sumes a  large  quantity  of  fish,  more  especially  salmon.  It  is  in  summer  that  it 
resorts  to  a  vegetable  diet. 

From  the  personal  experience  of  Dr.  Robert  Brown  it  appears  that  the  accounts 
given  by  the  older  voyagers  of  the  ferocity  of  the  Polar  bear  were  considerably  ex- 
aggerated, although  at  close  quarters  it  is  a  formidable  foe.  ' '  Unlike  its  congeners, ' ' 
writes  Dr.  Brown,  "  it  does  not  hug  but  bites  ;  and  it  will  not  eat  its  prey  till  it  is 
dead,  playing  with  it  like  a  cat  with  a  mouse.  I  have  known  several  men  who, 
while  sitting  watching  or  skinning  seals,  have  had  its  rough  hands  laid  on  their 
shoulders.  Their  only  chance  then  has  been  to  feign  being  dead,  and  manage  to 
shoot  it  while  the  bear  was  sitting  at  a  distance  watching  its  intended  victim. 
Though  Eskimos  are  often  seen  who  have  been  scared  by  it,  yet,  unless  attacked  or 
rendered  fierce  by  hunger,  it  rarely  attacks  man.  During  our  last  trip  to  Green- 
land none  of  our  party  saw  one  ;  indeed,  they  are  only  killed  in  the  vicinity  of  Disco 
bay  during  the  winter  or  spring,  when  they  have  either  come  or  drifted  south  on 
ice  floes." 

Much  the  same  account  is  given  by  Mr.  G.  S.  M'Tavish,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  who  states  that  in  his  district  it  is  only  occasionally  that  a  Polar  bear  will 
attack  first.  This  observer  writes  that  ' '  although  the  Polar  bear  is  synonymously 
termed  the  white  bear,  they  are  not  all  white.  Those  that  are  most  likely  to  run 
away  from  the  hunter  are  pure  white.  From  the  smallest  to  the  largest  size  these 
\vhite  bears  are  timid,  and  I  have  noticed,  on  their  being  killed,  they  are  the  fattest. 
The  most  dangerous  and  aggressive  kinds,  other  than  females  with  cubs,  is  the 
large-sized  male  bear  of  a  yellowish,  dirty  color.  .  .  .  Another  sort  is  the 


POLAR    BEARS   AND   THEIR    PREY. 


(597) 


598  THE   CARNIVORES 

small-sized  bear,  of  both  sexes,  neither  white  nor  yellow,  but  rather  dirty  looking  ; 
and  these  are  likewise  the  best  runners. 

Mr.  M'Tavish  proceeds  to  observe  that  the  pace  of  a  Polar  bear  is  considerable, 
and  that  he  has  known  instances  where  they  have  overtaken  and  killed  Indians  in  a 
fair  chase.  Their  fleetness  depends,  however,  largely  upon  their  condition  at  the 
time,  the  thinner  they  are  the  greater  being  their  speed.  The  weight  of  a  large  and 
fat  Polar  bear  is  estimated  at  from  600  to  700  pounds. 

In  the  Hudson's  Bay  district,  the  female  bears  proceed  to  their  winter  hiber- 
nation for  the  purpose  of  producing  their  young  at  the  end  of  September  or  begin- 
ning of  October,  and  return  in  March,  April  or  May.  The  hibernation  always  takes 
place  some  distance  inland,  and  the  males  accompany  their  consorts  to  their  resting 
places,  after  which  they  come  back  to  the  coast,  where  they  hunt  throughout  the 
winter.  Generally  two  cubs  are  produced  at  a  birth,  but  the  number  may  be  some- 
times diminished  to  one,  and  occasionally  increased  to  three. 

Mr.  M'Tavish  gives  the  following  account  of  the  manner  in  which  these  bears 
capture  their  prey:  "The  bear  having  discovered  a  seal  asleep  on  an  icefloe, 
immediately  slips  into  the  water  if  he  himself  be  on  another  ice  floe.  Diving, 
he  swims  under  the  water  for  a  distance,  then  reappears  and  takes  observa- 
tions. Alternately  diving  and  swimming,  he  approaches  close  to  his  victim. 
Before  his  final  disappearance  he  seems  to  measure  the  intervening  distance,  and 
when  he  next  appears  it  is  alongside  of  the  seal.  Then,  either  getting  on  the  ice, 
or  pouncing  upon  the  seal  as  it  tries  to  escape,  he  secures  it.  Both  seals  and  por- 
poises are  not  unfrequently  met  with,  bearing  the  marks  of  a  bear's  claws  upon 
their  backs." 

THE  BROWN  BEAR  (Ursus  arctos] 

With  the  brown  bear  we  come  to  the  typical  and  best-known  representative  of 
the  entire  group.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  Polar  bear,  not  only  by  its  color,  but 
also  by  its  larger  and  wider  head,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  shorter,  the  profile  more 
curved,  and  the  ears  larger.  The  neck  is  also  shorter  and  thicker,  the  teeth  are 
relatively  larger,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  entirely  naked. 

Owing  to  variations  in  color  several  so-called  species,  such  as  the  Syrian  bear 
and  the  snow  or  isabelline  bear  of  the  Himalayas,  have  been  established  on  what  are 
now  known  to  be  merely  local  races  of  the  brown  bear. 

Including  all  these  varieties,  the  brown  bear  may  be  described  as  one  of  the 
largest  species  of  the  genus,  furnished  in  winter  with  long,  thick,  shaggy,  and  soft 
fur,  beneath  which  is  a  thick  and  woolly  under-fur  ;  the  ears  being  of  moderate 
size,  and  covered  with  long  hair.  The  color  is  generally  some  shade  of  brown, 
although  subject  to  great  individual  and  local  variation.  In  general  it  varies  from 
very  pale  to  very  dark  brown,  some  of  the  lighter  varieties  being  almost  cream 
colored  in  certain  parts  ;  while,  in  a  variety  from  Eastern  Tibet,  the  fur  on  the 
back  and  limbs  is  blackish,  with  tawny  tips  to  the  hairs.  In  other  varieties,  again, 
the  fur  has  a  silvery  tinge,  owing  to  the  hairs  being  tipped  with  white  ;  while  some 
Specimens  have  a  decidedly  reddish  tinge.  In  the  light  Himalayan  variety  the  color 


THE  BROWN  BEAR 


599 


deepens  with  age,  this  darkening  being  generally  most  developed  in  old  males, 
which  are  frequently  indistinguishable  in  color  from  the  ordinary  European  form. 
Young  animals  have  a  white  collar  on  the  throat,  traces  of  which  may  frequently  be 
observed  in  the  newly-grown  fur  of  the  adult.  The  summer  coat  is  much  shorter 
and  thinner  than  the  winter  dress,  and  is  likewise  darker  in  color.  The  claws  are 
of  moderate  length,  and  their  color  varies  from  brown  to  nearly  white. 


THE    BROWN    BEAR. 

(One-sixteenth  natural   size.) 

Mr.  Blanford  suggests  that  the  generally  lighter  color  of  the  Himalayan  brown 
Dear  may  be  due  to  the  circumstance  that  it  inhabits  more  open  ground  than  the 
European  variety.  To  this  I  would  add  that  the  silver-barked  birch,  among  which 
these  bears  are  so  often  found,  suggests  another  reason  why  their  color  should  so 
generally  be  comparatively  light,  as  among  such  surroundings  a  dark  animal  would 
be  conspicuous.  Moreover,  it  may  be  that  the  snow  lies  longer  on  the  ground  in 


6oo 


THE   CARNIVORES 


the  regions  frequented  by  the  Himalayan  bear  than  is  the  case  in  the  habitats  of  the 
European  bear.  It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  Himalayan  bears  are  decidedly 
lighter  when  they  issue  from  their  winter  sleeping  places  than  they  are  later  on  in 
the  season  ;  and  as  it  is  then  that  they  are  generally  shot,  on  account  of  the  fur 
being  in  its  best  condition,  the  prevalent  idea  as  to  their  extremely  light  color  has 
been  intensified. 

Although,  as  in  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  the  males  are  considerably  larger 
than  the  females,  there  is  nearly  as  much  variation  in  point  of  size  in  the  brown  bear 
as  there  is  in  respect  of  color.  As  a  rule,  the  Himalayan  race  is  smaller  than  the 
European.  Exact  measurements  of  large  European  examples  are  not  easy  to  obtain, 
but  it  is  probable  that  some  specimens  reach  at  least  eight  feet  from  the  tip  of  the 
snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  In  the  Himalayas  the  same  dimensions  are  not  generally 
more  than  five  or  five  and  one-half  feet,  but  large  specimens  reach  about  seven  feet, 
and  one  has  been  recorded  of  seven  and  one-half  feet  in  length  and  three  feet  five 
inches  in  height.  The  tail  does  not  measure  more  than  two  or  three  inches. 

The  brown  bear  may  be  regarded  as  an  inhabitant  of  almost  the  whole  of  Eu- 
rope, and  of  Asia  northward  of  the  Himalayas  ;  its  former  range  extending  from  the 
British  Islands  and  Spain  in  the  west  to  Kamchatka  in  the  east.  Bears  are  still 
found  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  are  comparatively  common  in  many  parts  of  Scandinavia, 
Germany,  Hungary,  and  Russia.  At  what  date  they  finally  disappeared  from  the 
British  Islands  cannot  be  determined.  Mr.  Harting,  however,  adduces  evidence  to 

show  that  bears  were  still 
in  existence  in  the  eighth 
century;  and,  in  the  time 
of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
the  town  of  Norwich  had 
to  furnish  annually  one 
bear  to  the  king.  There 
is  no  decisive  historical 
evidence  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  bears  in  Ireland, 
but  remains  have  been 
found  there  in  various 
parts,  which  in  all  proba- 
bility belonged  to  the  pres- 
ent species,  although  they 
have  been  referred  by  some 
to  the  American  grizzly 
bear. 

In  the  Himalayas  the 
brown  bear  is  found  from 
Afghanistan  in  the  west  to 

Nipal  in  the  east.  It  does  not  occur  in  the  more  or  less  Tibetan  districts  of  Zanskar 
and  Ladakh,  but  extends  up  the  valley  of  the  Indus  as  far  as  Gilgit.  In  the 
mountains  around  the  valley  of  Kashmir  brown  bears  were  once  very  numerous,  but 


HEAD   OK   BROWN   BEAR. 

(From   Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1867.) 


THE    BROWN  BEAR  601 

they  have,  I  believe,  become  much  rarer  now.  When  I  first  knewoKashmir,  in  1874, 
it  was  no  uncommon  event  in  the  Tilel  district  to  see  several  at  once,  when  standing 
on  a  mountain  ridge  ;  but  eight  years  later  I  saw  but  very  few  the  whole  time  I  was 
there,  and  it  would  be  interesting  to  hear  the  reports  of  sportsmen  who  have  recently 
visited  Tilel  and  the  neighboring  valleys. 

In  Kamchatka,  Dr.  Guillemard,  in  the  Cruise  of  the  "Marchesa,"  speaks  of  brown 
bears  being  extremely  plentiful  and  attaining  large  dimensions.  The  country  near 
the  rivers  is  there  covered  by  an  almost  impenetrable  jungle,  but  the  bears  manage 
to  force  themselves  through  it  without  much  apparent  difficulty.  "Just  inside  the 
forest,"  writes  Dr.  Guillemard,  "  at  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  feet  from  the  river 
bank,  is  a  firmly-trodden  path  some  two  feet  in  width,  made  entirely  by  these  ani- 
mals ;  and,  as  these  paths  are  to  be  found  without  a  break  on  either  side  of  the  river 
in  its  whole  course  through  the  forest  country  —  a  distance  of  about  five  hundred 
miles  —  it  will  be  understood  why  bears'  skins  do  not  command  a  very  high  price  in 
the  peninsula." 

The  brown  bear  is  a  comparatively  unsociable  animal,  though  not  unfrequently 
a  male  and  a  female  may  be  seen  together,  while  the  females  are,  of  course,  accom- 
panied by  their  cubs.  Their  favorite  haunts  are  wooded,  hilly  districts.  In  the 
Himalayas  the  brown  bear  is  to  be  found  at  considerable  elevations,  in  the  spring 
haunting  the  higher  birch  and  deodar  forests,  while  in  the  late  summer  it  ascends 
to  the  open  grass  lands  above,  where  it  may  not  unfrequently  be  seen  grazing  close 
to  herds  of  ponits  and  flocks  of  sheep  or  goats.  Both,  in  these  regions,  and  the 
colder  districts  of  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  these  bears  regularly  hibernate  ;  and 
while  they  are  extremely  fat  at  the  commencement  of  their  winter  sleep,  they  are 
reduced  to  little  more  than  skin  and  bone  at  its  conclusion.  In  the  Himalayas  the 
winter's  sleep  generally  lasts  till  April  or  May,  but  varies  somewhat  in  different  dis- 
tricts according  to  the  date  at  which  the  snow  melts.  The  cubs  are  generally  born 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  hibernation,  and  accompany  the  mother  when  she  issues 
forth.  They  are  almost  invariably  two  in  number,  and  are  born  blind  and  naked, 
in  which  condition  they  remain  for  about  four  weeks.  In  Europe  the  brown  bear 
not  unfrequently  kills  and  eats  other  animals,  its  depredations  extending,  it  is  said, 
even  to  cattle  and  ponies  ;  but  in  the  Himalayas,  except  when  carcasses  come  in  its 
way,  the  animal  is  almost  exclusively  an  insect  and  vegetable  feeder.  There  it  is 
fond  of  the  numerous  species  of  bulbous  plants  growing  on  the  mountains  around 
Kashmir  ;  but  it  will  also  descend  into  the  orchards  of  the  upland  villages  to  plunder 
the  crops  of  mulberries,  apricots,  walnuts,  etc.  On  such  occasions  it  ascends 
the  trees  readily  enough,  although  it  is  by  no  means  such  a  good  climber  as  its 
cousin  the  Himalayan  black  bear.  It  seeks  for  insects  by  overturning  stones. 

In  Kamchatka  the  brown  bear  is  stated  to  subsist  for  a  certain  portion  of  the 
year  upon  salmon  ;  Dr.  Guillemard  observing  that  in  some  places  he  met  with  nu- 
merous half-eaten  fish  left  by  the  bears,  and  adding  that  he  found  in  almost  every  in- 
stance that  "  though  the  head  had  been  crunched  up,  it  had,  together  with  the  tail 
and  intestines,  invariably  been  rejected.  We  were  never  fortunate  enough  to  wit- 
ness these  animals  fishing,  but  we  were  told  that  they  walk  slowly  into  the  water, 
where  it  is  about  eighteen  inches  in  depth,  and,  facing  down  stream,  motionless 


602  THE   CARNIVORES 

await  their  prey.  The  incautious  fish,  swimming  heedlessly  up  the  river,  doubtless 
mistakes  the  bear's  broad  legs  for  a  rock  or  tree  stump,  and  those  who  have  once 
witnessed  the  almost  lightning-like  rapidity  of  a  stroke  from  Bruin's  fore-paws  will 
have  no  difficulty  whatever  in  completing  the  drama  for  themselves.  The  fish  is 
apparently  always  taken  to  the  bank  to  be  devoured  for  even  the  small  ones  do  not 
appear  to  be  eaten  whole. ' ' 

As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  the  brown  bear,  in  common  with 
its  relatives,  is  dull  of  hearing,  and  it  is  also  by  no  means  well  gifted  as  regards 
sight.  What  it  lacks  in  these  respects  it  makes  up  for,  however,  in  the  great 
development  of  the  sense  of  smell.  Owing  to  this  deficiency  of  hearing,  a  bear  can 
be  approached  from  the  leeward  to  within  a  very  short  distance,  and  the  writer  has 
shot  many  in  the  Himalayas  with  a  smooth-bore  gun.  Care  should,  however,  always 
be  taken  to  approach  a  bear  from  above,  as  a  wounded  one  rolling  down  hill  on  to 
the  hunter  is  a  very  dangerous  object.  If  two  bears  are  feeding  together  and  one  is 
hit  by  a  bullet,  it  will  not  unfrequently  turn  fiercely  on  its  companion,  apparently 
under  the  impression  that  the  latter  was  its  aggressor.  In  the  Himalayas,  at  least, 
the  brown  bear  never  voluntarily  attacks  human  beings  if  unmolested,  and  it  rarely 
turns  on  them  when  wounded,  unless  brought  to  close  quarters.  There  is  but  little 
doubt  that  the  current  stories  of  the  fierceness  of  the  European  bear  are  exaggerated. 
In  regard  to  the  proverbial  "  hug,"  Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  the  story  is  appar- 
ently devoid  of  foundation.  "A  bear,  from  its  anatomical  structure,  strikes  round 
with  its  paws,  as  if  grasping,  and  the  blow  of  its  powerful  arm  drives  its  claws  into 
the  body  of  its  victim,  causing  -terrible  wounds,  but  the  idea  of  its  '  hugging ' 
appears  not  confirmed  by  recent  observers." 

At  the  best,  a  brown  bear  is  uncouth  and  grotesque  in  its  movements,  and  in 
no  case  is  this  more  marked  than  when  one  of  these  animals  suddenly  catches  a  whiff 
of  human  scent,  and  starts  off  with  a  loud  "whuff"  at  a  shambling  gallop.  In 
spite,  however,  of  their  uncouthness,  bears  can  travel  pretty  quickly  when  so  minded, 
although  their  usual  gait  is  deliberate  in  the  extreme. 

The  brown  bear  is  easily  tamed,  and  both  in  Europe  and  India  is  the  companion 
of  itinerant  showmen,  by  whom  it  is  taught  to  dance,  and  go  through  various  other 
performances.  Formerly  native  English  bears,  and  subsequently  foreign  ones  im- 
ported for  the  purpose,  were  kept  in  England  for  the  purpose  of  "  bear-baiting,"  and 
the  office  of  Master  of  the  Bears  was  a  Crown  post,  while  every  nobleman  kept  his 
"bearward."  Bear-baiting  was  continued  up  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  The 
well-known  bear  garden  at  Berne  in  Switzerland  is  doubtless  a  survival  of  the 
mediaeval  establishments  kept  up  for  this  so-called  sport.  As  showing  the  age 
to  which  the  brown  bear  may  live,  it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  one  kept  in  the  gar- 
den at  Berne  survived  for  upward  of  forty-seven  years  while  it  is  on  record  that  a 
female  gave  birth  to  young  at  the  age  of  thirty-one  years.  From  the  beauty  of 
their  color,  and  the  length  of  their  fur,  the  skins  of  the  Himalayan  brown  bear,  if 
procured  early  in  the  spring,  are  held  in  high  estimation. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  fossil  remains,  referred  to  the  brown  bear, 
have  been  found  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  Ireland;  and  it  may  be  added  that 
bones  and  teeth  undoubtedly  belonging  to  this  species  occur  in  the  fens,  brick  earths, 


THE   GRIZZLY  BEAR  603 

.and  caverns  of  England,  as  well  as  the  corresponding  deposits^-of  the  continent. 
Whether  the  remains  from  the  same  formations  that  have  been  assigned  to  the 
grizzly  bear  do  not  likewise  belong  to  the  European  species,  may,  we  think,  be  a 
subject  of  doubt. 

Crowther's  bear  (U.  crowtheri)  is  a  closely-allied  if  not  identical  form  from  the 
Atlas  mountains,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  bear  exists  in  Morocco  and  Algeria  which 
may  be  either  the  common  brown  bear  or  Crowther's  bear,  if  the  latter  be  distinct. 


THE  GRIZZLY  BEAR  (  Ursus  horribilis  ) 

The  gigantic  grizzly  bear  of  Western  North  America,  whose  range  extends  from 
Alaska  through  the  Rocky  mountains  to  Mexico,  is  genenally  regarded  as  a  species 
•distinct  from  the  brown  bear,  although  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  two  are 
very  closely  related.  There  are,  however,  some  slight  differences  in  the  characteristics 
of  the  skull  and  cheek-teeth  in  the  two  forms,  while  the  grizzly  bear  is  generally 
larger  in  size,  grayer  in  color,  and  has  shorter  and  less  valuable  fur  than  its  European 
cousin.  Some  of  the  brown  bears  from  Northern  Asia  are  probably  nearly  or  quite  as 
large  as  an  average-sized  grizzly  ;  while  the  difference  in  this  respect  between  brown 
bears  from  different  districts  indicates  that  mere  size  cannot  be  a  matter  of  much  im- 
portance. All  the  American  hunters  recognize  several  varieties  of  grayish  bears, 
respectively  known  as  the  "silver-tip,"  "roach-back,"  and  the  "barren-ground" 
bear,  in  addition  to  the  typical  grizzly;  and  Dr.  Hart  Merriam  is  disposed  to  regard 
the  last  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  of  U.  richardsoni.  We  prefer,  how- 
ever, to  adopt  the  view  that  there  are  but  two  distinct  species  of  North- American 
bears.  Occasionally,  as  in  the  case  of  the  black  bear,  there  may  be  cinnamon-colored 
varieties  of  the  grizzly  ;  and  it  was  at  one  time  considered  that  such  yellow-haired 
bears  constituted  a  distinct  species  —  the  so-called  cinnamon  bear  (  U.  cinnamomus), 
but  it  is  now  known  that  such  coloration  is  merely  a  phase  common  to  each  species. 
Dr.  W.  S.  Rainsford  states,  indeed,  that  he  has  seen  a  female  grizzly  with  three  cubs, 
•of  which  one  was  almost  yellow,  a  second  nearly  black,  and  the  third  gray.  The  so- 
called  barren-ground  bear  of  Arctic  America  is  stated  to  come  very  close  to  the 
European  brown  bear,  and  may  prove  to  be  the  connecting  link  between  it  and  the 
typical  grizzly.  Whether,  then,  the  grizzly  bear  be  rightly  regarded  as  a  distinct 
species,  or  whether  it  be  merely  a  well-marked  race  of  the  brown  bear,  we  take  it  to 
include  all  the  gray  and  brownish  bears  of  North  America.  In  addition  to  this  wide 
range  in  color,  there  are  considerable  differences  in  form.  Thus,  some  have  a  well- 
marked  hump  at  the  back  of  the  head,  extending  to  the  shoulders,  which  is  totally 
wanting  in  others  ;  while  the  width  of  the  sole  of  the  hind-foot  is  subject  to  great 
individual  variation. 

Dimensions  ^e  accounts  of  the  size  and  weight  of  the  grizzly  are  very  discrepant, 

and  have  probably  been  much  exaggerated;  most  of  the  measurements 
having  been  taken  from  pegged-out  skins,  while  the  weights  are  mere  estimates. 
It  is  said  that  the  finest  grizzlies  hail  from  Alaska,  but  it  is  probable  that 
those  formerly  inhabiting  the  Pacific  flanks  of  the  high  Sierra  Nevada  were  really 


604  THE    CARNIVORES 

the  largest.  These,  however,  have  been  nearly  or  completely  exterminated  by  the 
shepherds,  who  poisoned  them  on  account  of  the  ravages  they  committed  on  their 
flocks.  These  Sierra  grizzlies  are  reported  to  have  been  of  the  enormous  weight  of 
i, 800  pounds  ;  and  there  seems  no  doubt  that  instances  of  i  ,400  and  1,200  have  been 
reached.  Dr.  Rainsford  states,  however,  that  he  estimates  the  weight  of  the  largest 
grizzly  with  which  he  was  acquainted  at  1,000  pounds;  and  gives  900  pounds  as 
that  of  an  unusually  large  male.  The  skin  of  this  animal  measured  nine  feet  three 
inches  from  the  nose  to  the  hind-foot,  when  pegged  out  without  undue  stretching  ; 
another  skin  measured  in  the  same  manner  reached  ten  feet,  while  a  third  was 
still  larger.  Unfortunately  the  length  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail  is  not 
given,  but  it  is  probable  that  in  large  specimens  this  must  be  close  on  nine  feet. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  grizzly  is  found  from  Alaska  to  Mex- 
ico ;  and  it  may  be  added  that  from  east  to  west  it  reaches  from  the 
Coast  Range  across  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  the  Big  Horn  mountains  in  Wyoming,  and 
some  distance  on  to  the  plains  at  its  foot.  Its  distribution  is,  however,  becoming 
gradually  more  and  more  restricted.  In  1868  bears  were  to  be  found  on  the  plains 
for  several  hundred  miles  eastward  of  the  Big  Horn,  but  they  are  now  rare  even  in 
that  range  itself.  Similarly,  they  have  greatly  diminished  in  numbers  in  Southern 
California  and  the  parallel  valleys  of  the  Coast  hills  further  to  the  northward. 

That  the  grizzly  bear  will  eat  flesh  whenever  it  has  the  chance  is  ad- 
mitted by  all,  but  there  is  some  decrepancy  of  opinion  as  to  whether  it 
ever  kills  large  Mammals  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh.  Thus,  while  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
denies  that  they  ever  do  so,  Dr.  Rainsford  relates  a  case  where  his  hunter  saw  a 
grizzly  attack  one  of  three  bisons.  Wherever  wapiti  are  abundant  there  will  grizzly 
bears  be  found.  Failing  meat,  the}7,  according  to  Dr.  Rainsford,  thrive  on  nuts, 
acorns,  etc.  ;  "and,"  he  says  "  the  fattest  grizzles  I  ever  killed  were  those  that  had 
been  feeding  for  weeks  on  the  pine-nuts  that  the  mountain  squirrels  stow  away  in  such 
great  plenty  in  the  little  colonies  on  the  upper  hillsides.  Where  the  nut  pine  is  plen- 
tiful, you  may  also  expect  to  find  bears."  The  grizzly  is  a  bad  climber,  and  seldom 
resorts  to  trees  at  all.  Its  strength  is,  however,  prodigious.  One  has  been  seen  to 
break  the  neck  of  a  tall  bison  with  a  single  blow  of  its  paw;  another  has  bodily  car- 
ried off,  over  very  rough  ground,  a  male  wapiti,  weighing  nearly  1,000  pounds. 

Sir  Samuel  Baker  states  that  a  frequent  practice  in  bear  shooting  is  to  kill  sev- 
eral deer,  and  leave  them  untouched  on  the  ground  as  baits.  "At  daybreak  on  the 
following  morning  the  hunter  visits  his  baits,  and  he  will  probably  find  that  the  bears 
have  been  extremely  busy  during  the  night  in  scratching  a  hole  somewhat  like  a 
shallow  grave  or  trench,  in  which  they  have  rolled  the  carcass  ;  they  have  then  cov- 
ered it  with  earth  and  grass,  and  in  many  cases  the  bears  may  be  discovered  either 
in  the  act  of  working,  or,  having  completed  their  labor,  they  may  be  found  lying 
down  asleep,  half  gorged  with  flesh." 

In  the  northern  part  of  its  range  the  grizzly  bear  hibernates,  but  it  is  probable 
that  in  the  south  it  remains  active  throughout  the  winter.  When  it  first  comes  out 
in  the  spring,  it  has  a  habit  of  standing  upright  against  a  pine  or  other  tree  and 
scoring  its  bark  with  its  claws.  Very  incorrect  conclusions  have  been  drawn  from 
these  marks  as  to  the  size  of  the  bears  by  which  they  were  made,  it  having  been 


THE    GRIZZLY  BEAR. 


(605) 


606  THE  CARNIVORES 

forgotten  that  the  animals  were  generally  standing  on  from  three  to  five  feet  of  snow 
when  they  thus  scored  the  trees. 

The  grizzly  has  been  accredited  with  extreme  ferocity  toward  man  ;  but,  grant- 
ing that  its  great  strength  and  extreme  tenacity  of  life  make  it  a  most  formidable  foe 
when  brought  to  close  quarters,  Dr.  Rainsford  is  inclined  to  think  that  there  has 
been  considerable  exaggeration  on  this  point,  and  many  of  the  stories  of  these  ani- 
mals charging  is  due  to  their  rolling  downhill  upon  the  hunter  who  has  incautiously 
fired  at  them  from  below  instead  of  from  above.  The  same  writer  also  considers 
that  at  the  present  day  Winchester  repeaters  and  other  rifles  have  established  in 
the  grizzly  a  wholesome  dread  of  man,  and  that  it  is  now  altogether  a  more  cautious 
and  timid  animal  than  formerly. 


THE  AMERICAN  BLACK  BEAR  (Ursus  americanus) 

The  American  black  bear  is  a  well-marked  species,  differing  from  the  brown 
bear  much  more  decidedly  than  does  the  grizzly.  It  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the 
brown  bear,  from  which  it  differs  by  the  proportionately  smaller  head,  the  sharper 
muzzle,  and  more  regularly  convex  profile  of  the  face,  as  well  as  by  the  much  shorter 
hind-foot.  In  length  this  bear  seldom  exceeds  five  feet.  The  fur  is  less  shaggy, 
and  altogether  smoother  and  more  glossy  than  that  of  either  the  brown  or  grizzly 
bear;  being  typically  of  a  uniformly  black  color,  except  on  the  muzzle,  where  it  be- 
comes tawny  yellow.  Occasionally,  however,  specimens  are  found  with  white  mar- 
gins to  the  lips  and  white  streaks  on  the  chest.  The  smaller  size  of  the  hind-feet  of 
this  species  renders  its  trail  distinguishable  at  a  glance  from  that  of  the  grizzly  bear. 
As  already  mentioned,  the  so-called  cinnamon  bear  may  be  a  pale-colored  variety, 
either  of  the  black  bear  or  of  the  grizzly. 

The  black  bear  formerly  had  a  wider  distribution  than  the  grizzly,  extending 
from  Labrador  and  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  east  to  the  west 
coasts  of  the  continent.  Colonel  D.  G.  Alexander  states  that  it  frequented  "all  the 
mountains,  the  thickets  of  the  vast  plains,  and  every  creek,  river,  and  bay  or  bot- 
tom. At  the  present  day  its  habitat  is,  however,  confined  to  some  portions  of  the 
various  ranges  of  mountains  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  the  Great  Lakes,  and, 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  to  parts  of  those  portions  of  the  Mississippi  river  and 
its  tributaries  which  are  yet  unsettled,  and  where  it  has  been  able  to  escape  destruc- 
tion from  hunters.  Some  few  are  yet  found  in  the  dense  thickets  of  the  Colorado, 
Trinity,  and  Brazor  rivers."  As  with  other  bears,  the  male  of  this  epecies  is  much 
larger  than  the  female  ;  when  full  grown  the  former,  according  to  Colonel  Alexander, 
will  stand  about  three  feet  in  height,  and  will  often  turn  the  scale  at  from  600  to  700- 
pounds. 

According  to  Dr.  Merriam,  the  food  of  the  American  black  bear  "consists 
not  only  of  mice  and  other  small  Mammals,  turtles,  frogs  and  fish,  but  also,  and 
largely  of  ants  and  their  eggs,  bees  and  their  honey,  cherries,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, blueberries,  and  various  other  fruits,  vegetables,  and  roots.  He  sometimes 
makes  devastating  raids  upon  the  barnyard,  slaying  and  devouring  sheep,  calves, 


THE  AMERICAN  BLACK  BEAR 


607 


pigs,  and  poultry."  Another  writer,  Mr.  C.  C.Ward,  states,  as  thefresult  of  his  own 
experience,  that  the  black  bear  "is  growing  more  carnivorous  and  discontented  with 
a  diet  of  herbs.  Assuredly,  he  is  growing  bolder.  He  is  also  developing  a  propen- 
sity to  destroy  more  than  he  can  eat,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  his  posterity  may 
cease  to  be  frugi-carnivorous.  It  is  fortunate  that  an  animal  of  the  strength  and 
ferocity  which  he  displays  when  aroused  seldom  attacks  man.  The  formation  of  his 
powerful  jaws  and  terrible  canine  teeth  are  well  adapted  to  seize  and  hold  his  prey, 
and  his  molars  are  strong  enough  to  crush  the  bones  of  an  ox.  His  great  strength, 
however,  lies  in  his  fore-arms  and  paws.  His  mode  of  attacking  his  prey  is  not  to 
seize  it  with  his  teeth,  but  to  strike  terrific  blows  with  his  fore-paws.  His  weakness  is 


AMERICAN  BI,ACK:  BEAR. 
(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

for  pork,  and  to  obtain  it  he  will  run  any  risk.  When  the  farmers,  after  suffering 
severe  losses  at  his  hands,  become  unusually  alert,  he  retires  to  the  depths  of  the 
forest  and  solaces  himself  with  a  young  moose,  caribou,  or  deer.  He  seldom  or 
never  attacks  a  full-grown  moose,  but  traces  of  desperate  encounters,  in  which  the 
cow-moose  has  battled  for  her  offspring,  are  frequently  met  with  in  the  woods." 
Dr.  Merriam  states  that  the  black  bears  visit  the  Adirondacks  from  the  wooded  dis- 
tricts about  twenty  miles  to  the  westward  in  Lewis  county  during  the  autumn, 
crossing  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated  valley.  They  are  good  climbers,  but,  from 
their  weight  are  unable  to  ascend  to  the  tree  tops  or  climb  far  out  on  the  branches, 
although  they  will  ascend  straight  stems  for  a  considerable  height  after  honey. 
They  are  also  excellent  swimmers,  many  being  killed  while  swimming  in  the  lakes. 


608  THE   CARNIVORES 

We  likewise  learn  that,  as  a  rule,  the  black  bear  hibernates,  although  its  torpor  is  not 
deep,  and  the  time  of  entering  upon  the  winter  repose  depends  upon  the  severity  of 
the  season  and  the  amount  of  food  supply.  And  it  appears  that  the  males  will  re- 
main active  in  any  weather,  so  long  as  they  can  find  abundance  of  food.  The 
female  is,  however,  compelled  to  seek  shelter  sooner  on  account  of  her  prospective 
family.  The  winter  den  of  a  black  bear  is  generally  a  partial  excavation  under  the 
upturned  roots  of  a  fallen  tree,  or  beneath  a  pile  of  logs,  with  perhaps  a  few  bushes 
and  leaves  scraped  together  by  way  of  a  bed,  while  to  the  first  snowstorm  is  left 
the  task  of  completing  the  roof  and  filling  the  remaining  chinks.  Not  unfrequently 
the  den  is  a  great  hole  or  cave  dug  into  the  side  of  a  knoll,  and  generally  under 
some  standing  tree,  whose  roots  serve  as  side  posts  to  the  entrance.  The  amount  of 
labor  bestowed  upon  it  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  the  bear  expects  to  hiber- 
nate. If  the  prospects  point  toward  a  severe  winter,  and  there  is  a  scarcity  of 
food,  they  "den"  early,  and  take  pains  to  make  a  comfortable  nest;  but  when 
they  stay  out  late,  and  then  "den  "  in  a  hurry,  they  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  fix 
up  their  nests  at  all.  At  such  times  they  simply  crawl  into  any  convenient  shelter 
without  gathering  so  much  as  a  branch  of  moss  to  soften  their  bed.  Snow  com- 
pletes the  covering,  and  as  their  breath  condenses  and  freezes  into  it  an  icy  Wall 
begins  to  form,  and  increases  in  thickness  and  extent  day  by  day  till  they  are  soon 
unable  to  escape,  even  if  they  would,  and  are  obliged  to  remain  in  this  icy  cell  till 
liberated  by  the  sun  in  April  or  May. 

The  young  are  born  about  January  or  February,  and  are  usually  two  or  three 
in  number,  although  four  have  been  found  in  a  litter.  It  is  believed  that  the  female 
does  not  give  birth  to  young  oftener  than  every  alternate  year. 

The  black  bear  was  pursued  by  the  early  colonists  of  North  America  by  ' '  still- 
hunting  ' ' ;  and  it  appears  that  this  requires  much  more  care  than  is  the  case  with 
other  bears,  since  the  American  black  bear  is  very  acute  of  hearing.  A  favorite 
expedient  was  to  watch  a  herd  of  pigs  in  the  cultivated  districts,  upon  which  the 
bears  would  make  a  raid,  and  could  then  be  shot  with  ease.  Mr.  C.  C.  Ward  wrrites 
that  ' '  sometimes  the  black  bear  is  hunted  with  dogs  trained  for  the  purpose.  The 
dogs  are  not  taught  to  seize  the  bear,  but  to  nip  his  heels,  yelp  around  him,  and 
retard  his  progress,  until  the  hunters  come  up  and  dispatch  him  with  their  rifles. 
Common  yelping  curs  possessed  of  the  requisite  pluck  are  best  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose. Large  dogs  with  sufficient  courage  to  seize  a  bear  would  have  but  a  small 
chance  with  him,  for  he  could  disable  them  with  one  blow  of  his  powerful  paw. 
Another  way  of  hunting  is  to  track  Bruin  to  his  winter  den,  and  either  smoke  or 
dig  him  out,  when  he  may  be  dispatched  by  a  blow  on  the  head  with  the  pole 
of  an  axe  as  he  struggles  out.  Various  kinds  of  traps,  set-guns,  and  dead-falls  are 
also  employed  against  him. ' ' 

THE  HIMALAYAN  BLACK  BEAR  {Ursus  torquatus) 

With  the  black  bear  of  the  Himalayas  we  come  to  a  very  different  animal, 
readily  recognized  by  the  white  chevron  or  inverted  cresent  on  the  chest,  from 
which  it  takes  its  scientific  title,  and  which  stands  out  in  marked  contrast  to  the 


THE  HIMALAYAN  BLACK  BEAR 


609 


jetty  black  of  the  remainder  of  the  fur.  This  species  does  not  attaia  by  any  means 
such  large  dimensions  as  the  brown  or  grizzly  bear  ;  the  length  from  the  tip  of  the 
snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  usually  averaging  in  Nipalese  examples  from  about  four 
and  three-fourths  to  five  and  one-half  feet,  although  one  specimen  has  been  recorded 


THE   HIMALAYAN   BLACK   BEAR. 

(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

measuring  six  feet  five  inches.     We  think,  however,  that  bears  of  this  species  from 
Kashmir  would  average  somewhat  larger. 

The  fur  is  very  different  to  that  of  either  of  the  three  preceding  species,  being 
short  and  smooth,  without  any  under-fur,  and  becoming  very  thin  in  summer.     In 
39 


610  THE   CARNIVORES 

winter  the  hair  on  the  shoulders  becomes  considerably  elongated,  so  as  to  produce 
the  appearance  of  a  kind  of  hump.  The  ears  are  relatively  large,  and  covered  with 
rather  long  hair.  In  addition  to  the  white  mark  on  the  chest,  the  chin  is  also 
white  ;  while  the  upper  lip  may  be  whitish,  and  the  nose  reddish  brown.  The 
claws  are  comparatively  short,  and  black  in  color. 

Mr.  Blanford  gives  the  weight  of  full-grown  males  as  varying  from  two  hun- 
dred to  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  ;  but  these  weights  are  probably  exceeded  in 
autumn,  when  the  Himalayan  black  bear  becomes  enormously  fat,  the  thickness  of 
the  fat  on  the  haunches  reaching  several  inches.  At  such  seasons  the  skin  —  never 
very  valuable  —  becomes  utterly  useless,  from  being  saturated  with  oil.  The  skull 
of  this  bear  has  a  relatively-shorter  muzzle  and  a  longer  portion  behind  the  eye  than 
that  of  the  brown  bear  ;  from  which  it  may  also  be  distinguished  by  the  slight  de- 
velopment of  the  bony  ridge  along  the  middle  of  the  brain  case. 

The  Himalayan  black  bear  is  an  exclusively  forest-dwelling  animal,  except  in 
Baluchistan,  where  it  inhabits  open  country.  Its  range  extends  from  about  the 
eastern  portion  of  Persia  through  Baluchistan  into  Afghanistan  and  Sind  ;  and 
thence  through  the  forest-clad  portions  of  the  Himalayas  to  Assam,  and  so  on  into 
Burma.  The  species  is  also  found  in  the  south  of  China  and  the  islands  of  Hainan 
and  Formosa,  but  in  L,adakh  and  Tibet  it  is  quite  unknown. 

The  black  bear  may  be  found  in  the  Himalayas,  from  near  the  foot 
to  elevations  of  some  ten  thousand  to  twelve  thousand  feet  in  summer. 
It  is,  perhaps,  most  abundant  in  the  dense  chestnut  and  oak  woods  surrounding  the 
valley  of  Kashmir,  whence  it  issues  forth  at  night  to  make  extensive  depredations 
on  the  crops  and  orchards  of  the  natives.  Although,  according  to  General  Kinloch, 
the  black  bear  will  at  times  take  to  killing  sheep,  cattle,  and  ponies,  it  is,  as  a  rule, 
a  vegetable  feeder.  In  the  forest  the  chief  food  of  these  bears  consists  of  chestnuts,, 
acorns,  roots,  berries,  ants,  and  honey.  Whenever  they  raid  the  cultivated 
grounds,  they  consume  maize,  rice,  buckwheat,  and  a  number  of  fruits,  such  as 
mulberries,  apples,  pears,  apricots,  and  walnuts  —  the  latter  being  especial  favorites. 
The  gourds  and  melons  which  are  cultivated  in  many  of  the  gardens  in  Kashmir 
are  also  sometimes  eaten  by  these  bears.  So  numerous  are  they  that  it  is  by  no 
means  unfrequent  to  see  two,  three,  or  even  more,  up  a  single  fruit  tree  in  some  of 
the  less  frequented  districts  of  Kashmir.  They  are,  indeed,  excellent  climbers  ; 
and  their  short  claws  are  much  better  adapted  for  this  purpose  than  for  digging. 
When  in  the  forests  they  may  be  stalked  during  the  day  with  comparative  ease,  and 
will  generally  be  found  feeding  on  roots  or  wild  fruits.  This  sport,  as  the  writer 
can  state  from  personal  experience,  is  by  no  means  very  exciting,  as  they  are  easy 
of  approach.  Another  method  of  hunting  is  by  beating  small  patches  of  jungle  on 
the  hills  —  from  below  upward  —  when  the  bears  will  be  driven  out.  They  very 
frequently  go  in  family  parties,  comprising  the  two  parents,  the  two  youngest  cubs, 
and  one  or  perhaps  two  cubs  of  the  preceding  litter.  When  driven  from  the  forest, 
the  whole  party  emerges  in  single  file,  headed  by  the  male,  who  is  followed  by  the 
female,  after  which  come  the  cubs  according  to  seniority.  They  always  break 
cover  with  the  usual  deliberate  and  sober  pace  characteristic  of  all  bears,  and  when 
the  party  comprises  five  or  six  individuals  the  sight  is  ludicrous  in  the  extreme. 


THE  HIMALAYAN  BLACK  BEAR  611 

The  black  bear,  which  is  known  in  Kashmir  as  the  Siyah  Haput  (in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  Kunea  Haput,  or  bro\vn  bear),  does  not  thoroughly  hibernate,  but, 
according  to  General  Kinloch,  "  appears  to  pass  a  great  deal  of  his  time  during  the 
cold  months  in  a  state  of  semitorpor;  occasionally  wandering  out  in  search  of  food, 
when  an  unusually  mild  day  thaws  his  blood  and  awakens  him  to  the  sense  of  hunger. ' ' 

Like  its  similarly-colored  relative  in  North  America,  the  black  Himalayan  bear 
is  sharper  in  hearing  than  the  brown  bear,  and  it  may  be  that  the  black  color- 
ation has  some  connection  with  the  greater  development  of  this  sense.  In 
disposition  the  black  bear  is  decidedly  more  savage  and  prone  to  attack  man  than 
the  brown  bear  ;  and  in  the  fruit  season  a  large  number  of  natives  are  annually 
badly  mauled  in  Kashmir  by  its  talons.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  these 
wounds  are  largely  due  to  the  foolhardiness  of  the  natives  themselves,  who  will  not 
hesitate  to  drive  off  the  bears  from  their  crops  and  orchards  when  armed  solely  with 
a  stick.  In  addition  to  its  skill  as  a  climber  this  bear  is  a  good  swimmer.  The 
young,  which  are  nearly  always  two  in  number,  are  born  in  the  spring. 

The  small  variety  from  Baluchistan,  locally  known  as  the  Mam,  and 
originally  described  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  of  U.  gedrosi- 
anus,  is  chiefly  interesting  as  inhabiting  a  country  of  such  a  totally  different  nature 
from  the  typical  habitat  of  the  present  species.  The  Japanese  black  bear  (£/. 
faponicus)  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  Himalayan  species  that  it  is  regarded  by  some 
writers  merely  as  a  local  variety,  mainly  characterized  by  the  white  mark  on  the 
throat  being  less  distinct.  It  appears  to  be  very  common  in  Northern  Japan,  where 
it  is  of  great  importance  to  the  Ainos,  who  use  its  skin  for  clothing,  its  flesh  for 
food,  and  the  stones  in  its  gall  bladder  for  medicine.  Aino  houses  are  commonly 
decorated  with  the  skulls  of  these  bears  ;  and,  according  to  Miss  Bird,  "the  Ainos 
may  be  distinguished  as  bear  worshipers,  and  their  great  religious  festival,  or 
saturnalia,  as  the  Festival  of  the  Bear.  ...  In  all  Aino  houses,  specially  near 
the  chief's  house,  there  are  several  tall  poles  with  the  fleshless  skull  of  a  bear  on 
the  top  of  each  ;  and  in  most  there  is  also  a  large  cage,  made  gridiron  fashion  of 
stout  timbers,  and  raised  two  or  three  feet  from  the  ground.  At  the  present  time 
such  cages  contain  young  but  well-grown  bears,  captured  when  quite  small  in  the 
early  spring.  After  the  capture  the  bear  cub  is  introduced  into  a  dwelling  house, 
generally  that  of  the  chief  or  subchief,  when  it  is  suckled  by  a  woman,  and  played 
with  by  the  children,  till  it  grows  too  big  and  rough  for  domestic  life,  and  is  placed 
in  a  strong  cage,  in  which  it  is  fed  and  cared  for,  as  I  understand,  till  the  autumn 
of  the  following  year,  when,  being  strong  and  wrell  grown,  the  Festival  of  the  Bear 
is  celebrated.  The  customs  of  this  festival  vary  considerably,  and  the  manner  of  the 
bear's  death  differs  among  the  mountain  and  coast  Ainos  ;  but  everywhere  there  is  a 
general  gathering  of  the  people,  and  it  is  the  occasion  of  a  great  feast,  accompanied 
by  much  sake,  and  a  curious  dance,  in  which  men  alone  take  part.  Yells  and 
shouts  are  used  to  excite  the  bear,  and  when  he  becomes  much  agitated  a  chief 
shoots  him  with  an  arrow,  inflicting  a  slight  wound  which  maddens  him,  on  which 
the  bars  of  the  cage  are  raised,  and  he  springs  forth,  very  furious.  At  this  stage  the 
Ainos  run  upon  it  with  various  weapons,  each  one  striving  to  inflict  a  wound,  as  it 
brings  good  luck  to  draw  his  blood.  As  soon  as  he  falls  down  exhausted,  his  head 


6l2 


THE   CARNIVORES 


is  cut  off,  and  the  weapons  with  which  he  has  been  wounded  are  offered  to  it,  and 
he  is  asked  to  avenge  himself  upon  them.  Afterward  the  carcass,  amidst  a  frenzied 
uproar,  is  distributed  among  the  people,  and  amidst  feasting  and  riot  the  head, 
placed  upon  a  pole,  is  worshiped,  z.  e.,  it  receives  libations  of  sakg,  and  the  festival 


THE    MALAYAN    BEAR. 

(One-twelfth   natural   size. ) 

closes  with  general  intoxication."  In  another  part  of  the  country  the  neck  of  the 
bear  is  broken  by  means  of  a  pole  placed  across  it,  upon  which  a  number  of  men 
bring  their  weight  together.  Somewhat  similar  customs  used  to  take  place  in  Nor- 
way when  a  brown  bear  was  killed. 


THE  EXTINCT  CAVE- BEAR  613 

The  spectacled  bear  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  (  Ursus  pinatus) ,  which 
i  ?B          is  the  sole  representative  of  the  family  inhabiting  South  America,  is  a 

small-sized  black  species,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  tawny  rings 
or  semicircles  round  the  eyes,  whereby  a  most  grotesque  appearance  is  communi- 
cated to  the  whole  physiognomy.  The  jaws,  cheeks,  throat,  and  chest  are  white  ; 
and  the  whole  length  of  the  animal  is  only  about  three  and  one-half  feet.  It  has 
been  generally  considered  that  this  bear  is  nearly  related  to  the  next  species  ;  but, 
although  specimens  have  been  exhibited  in  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gar- 
dens, little  or  no  information  exists  as  to  its  habits  in  the  native  state. 

The  small  black  Malayan  bear  ( Ursus  malayanus}  is  a  very  well- 
_  marked  species,  distinguished  by  its  small  and  rounded  ears,  covered 

with  short  hair,  its  much  elongated  and  almost  prehensile  tongue,  its 
very  short  and  wide  molar  teeth,  and  the  shortness  and  breadth  of  the  skull,  in  which 
the  nose  is  but  slightly  produced.  The  claws  are  considerably  curved,  and  pale  in 
color.  The  fur  of  this  species  is  very  short  and  coarse,  and  is  mostly  black, 
although  tending  to  brown  in  some  parts ;  the  whole  of  the  muzzle  is  paler,  or 
whitish,  and  the  light  band  on  the  chest  varies  from  white  to  orange,  and  is  subject 
to  considerable  diversity  of  form,  sometimes  extending  as  a  streak  on  to  the  under 
part  of  the  body.  The  general  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  only  about  four  feet, 
and,  according  to  Mr.  Blauford,  never  exceeds  four  and  one-half  feet.  A  female 
mentioned  by  the  same  writer,  although  fully  adult,  had  a  length  of  only  three  and 
one-half  feet,  and  did  not  weigh  more  than  sixty  pounds.  This  species  is  found  in 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo,  and  also  extends 
through  Burma  into  the  Garo  hills  in  Northeastern  India.  Of  its  habits,  Mr. 
Blanford  states  that  little  is  known  except  in  captivity.  It  is  a  purely  forest 
animal,  and  an  admirable  climber.  It  is  essentially  frugivorous,  but  like  other 
bears  occasionally  kills  and  eats  Mammals  and  birds.  It  is  said  to  be  very  fond  of 
honey,  and  it  probably  devours  insects  and  larvae.  When  caught  young,  it  is 
generally  easily  tamed,  and  is  usually  gentle  and  amusing  when  in  captivity.  Its 
general  pace  is  much  quicker  than  that  of  other  bears,  and  a  specimen  kept  some 
years  ago  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Calcutta,  used  to  pace  up  and  down  its  cage 
with  great  rapidity,  turning  very  suddenly  ever}7  time  it  came  to  the  end  of  its  track. 
A  fragment  of  the  jaw  of  an  extinct  bear,  obtained  from  the  gravels  of  the  Nar- 
bada  valley,  in  India,  appears  to  indicate  a  more  or  less  closely-allied  species. 


THE  EXTINCT  CAVE-BEAR  ( Ursus  spelceus') 

No  account  of  the  typical  bears  would  be  complete  without  some  reference  to 
the  great  extinct  cave-bear,  of  which  the  remains  are  found  in  such  profusion  in 
the  caverns  of  Europe,  and  less  commonly  in  the  brick-earths  and  other  superficial 
deposits.  This  gigantic  species,  of  which  the  skull  is  represented  in  the  annexed 
figure,  was  a  contemporary  of  the  mammoth  and  early  human  inhabitants  of  Europe. 
The  skull  is  readily  distinguished  from  that  of  all  other  species  by  the  great 
prominence  immediately  above  the  eyes ;  while  the  molar  teeth  are  characterized 


614 


THE   CARNIVORES 


SIDE-VIEW  OF  SKUU,  OF  CAVE-BEAR. 


by  the  extremely  fine  tuberculation  of  their  crowns,  in  which,  when  unworn,  the 
enamel  has  a  kind  of  wavy  pattern. 

The  cave-bear,  although  it  had  a  wide  range  in  Europe,  is  unknown  both  in 
the  extreme  north  and  the  extreme  south  of  that  continent;  it  is  found  in  the 
British  Isles  as  far  north  as  Yorkshire,  but  it  is  not  definitely  known  to  occur  in 

Ireland.  The  number  of  in- 
dividuals inhabiting  Brixham 
cave,  near  Torquay,  and  the 
celebrated  cavern  of  Gailen- 
reuth  in  Franconia,  must  have 
been  prodigious,  although  it 
will  be  obvious  that  all  of  these 
did  not  exisit  at  one  time. 
From  its  size,  which  exceeded 
that  of  the  largest  grizzly,  as 
well  as  from  its  numbers,  it 
must  have  been  a  formidable 
foe  to  the  early  hunters  of 

Europe,  armed  only  with  flint  hatchets  and  spears.  In  the  earlier  Pliocene  deposits 
of  Europe  there  occur  the  remains  of  the  Etruscan  bear  ( U.  arvemensis] ,  which 
was  considerably  inferior  in  size  to  the  brown  bear.  The  extinct  Theobald's  bear 
(U.  theobaldi)  from  the  Siwalik  hills  of  Northern  India,  appears  to  have  been  a 
species  closely  connecting  the  typical  bears  with  the  one  next  on  our  list. 

THE  SLOTH-BEAR 
Genus  Melursus 

The  well-known  Indian  sloth-bear  (Melursus  .ur sinus) ,  commonly  known  in  its 
native  country  by  the  name  of  Bhalu,  but  by  the  Mahrattas  termed  the  Aswal, 
differs  so  remarkably  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  that  it  is  generally 
regarded  as  forming  a  genus  by  itself.  It  differs  from  all  the  typical  bears  by 
having  but  two  pairs  of  incisor  or  front  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  so  that  the  total 
number  of  teeth  is  forty  instead  of  forty-two.  Moreover,  all  the  cheek-teeth  are 
much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  skull  than  in  other  bears,  while  the 
palate  of  the  skull  is  deeply  concave,  instead  of  being  nearly  flat.  The  claws  are 
also  unusually  large  and  powerful,  and  the  snout  and  lower  lip  are  much  elongated 
and  very  mobile.  The  sloth-bear  is,  at  best,  but  an  ugly-looking  animal,  and  is 
generally  of  smaller  size  and  less  bulk  than  the  Himalayan  black  bear.  It  is  covered 
with  very  long  and  coarse  fur,  which  attains  its  greatest  length  on  the  shoulders. 
With  the  exception  of  the  end  of  the  muzzle  being  dirty  gray,  and  of  the  white 
chevron  on  the  chest,  the  color  of  the  fur  is  black,  but  the  long  claws  are  white. 
As  regards  size,  this  species  measures  from  about  four  and  one-half  feet  to  five  feet 
eight  inches  in  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  the  tail  generally  measuring  from 
four  to  five  inches,  exclusive  of  the  hair  ;  the  height  at  the  shoulder  varying  from 
two  feet  two  inches  to  about  two  feet  nine  inches.  Large  males  may  weigh  as  much 


THE    SLOTH-BEAR  615 

as  280  pounds,  while  there  is  one  instance  recorded  of  a  specimen  weighing  as  much 
as  320  pounds. 

The  sloth-bear  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  characteristic,  and  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  Mammals  of  India.  It  is  found  in  Ceylon, 
and  in  the  peninsula  of  India  from  Cape  Comorin  nearly  to  the  foot  of  the  Hima- 
layas. Mr.  Blanford  states  that  it  ranges  as  far  west  as  the  province  of  Katiawar, 
and  is  also  occasionally  found  in  Cutch,  while  to  the  northward  its  range  is  prob- 
ably limited  by  the  great  Indian  desert.  It  occurs  in  Northeastern  Bengal,  but  how 
far  its  range  extends  in  this  direction  is  not  fully  ascertained,  there  being  some 
doubt  whether  the  large  black  bear  found  in  the  plains  of  Assam  is  this  species  or 
the  Himalayan  black  bear.  Within  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  it  has  been  com- 
pletely exterminated  from  some  parts  of  Bengal  and  the  Deccan. 

Perhaps  the  best  account  of  the  habits  of  this  bear  is  one  drawn 
up  by  Mr.  Blanford,  partly  from  the  results  of  his  own  observations  and 
partly  from  those  of  others.  It  is  there  stated  that  these  bears  "  are  generally  found 
solitary  or  in  pairs,  or  three  together ;  in  the  latter  case  a  female  with  two  cubs,  of- 
ten nearly  or  quite  full  grown.  Occasionally  four  or  five  are  met  with  in  company. 
They  inhabit  bush  and  forest,  jungle  and  hills,  and  are  particularly  fond  of  caves  in 
the  hot  season  and  monsoon,  and  also  when  they  have  young.  Throughout  several 
parts  of  the  peninsula  of  India  there  are  numerous  hills  of  a  granitoid  gneiss  that 
weathers  into  huge  loose  rounded  masses.  These  blocks  remain  piled  on  each  other, 
and  the  great  cavities  beneath  them  are  favorite  resorts  of  bears,  as  in  such  places 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  some  of  the  insects  that  are  most  troublesome  in  the  mon- 
soon can  be  avoided.  In  the  cold  season,  and  at  other  times  when  no  caves  are  avail- 
able, this  animal  passes  the  day  in  grass  or  bushes,  or  in  holes  in  the  banks  of  ra- 
vines. It  roams  in  search  of  food  at  night,  and  near  human  habitations  is  hardly 
seen  in  the  daytime  ;  but  in  wild  tracts  uninhabited  by  man,  it  may  be  found  wan- 
dering about  as  late  as  eight  or  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  again  an  hour  or 
even  more  before  sunset  in  the  afternoon.  In  wet  or  cloudy  weather,  as  in  the  mon- 
soon, it  will  sometimes  keep  on  the  move  all  day.  But  the  sloth-bear,  although  like 
most  other  Indian  animals,  shuns  the  midday  sun,  appears  by  no  means  so  sensi- 
tive to  heat  as  might  be  expected  from  its  black  fur,  and  appears  far  less  reluctant 
to  expose  itself  at  noonday  than  is  the  tiger.  I  have  seen  a  family  of  bears 
asleep  at  midday  in  May  on  a  hillside  in  the  sun.  They  had  lain  down  in  the  shade 
of  a  small  tree,  but  the  shade  had  shifted  without  their  being  disturbed.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that  this  bear  does  not  hibernate.  Owing  to  its  long, 
shaggy,  coarse  fur,  its  peculiarly  shaped  head,  its  long  mobile  snout,  and  its  short 
hind-legs,  this  is  probably  the  most  uncouth  in  appearance  of  all  the  bears,  and  its 
antics  are  as  comical  as  its  appearance.  Its  usual  pace  is  a  quick  walk,  but  if 
alarmed  or  hurried  it  breaks  into  a  clumsy  gallop,  so  rough  that  when  the  animal  is 
going  away  it  looks  almost  as  if  propelled  from  behind  and  rolled  over  and  over.  It 
climbs  over  rocks  well,  and,  like  other  bears,  if  alarmed  or  fired  at  on  a  steep  hill- 
side, not  unfrequently  rolls  head  over  heels  down  hill.  It  climbs  trees,  but  slowly 
and  heavily  ;  the  unmistakable  scratches  left  on  the  bark  showing  how  often  its  feet 
have  slipped  back  some  inches  before  a  firm  hold  was  obtained." 


6i6 


THE   CARNIVORES 


SI,OTH-BEARS    IN   A    FOREST    GLADE. 


THE   SLOTH-BEAR  617 

As  might  have  been  predicted  from  the  small  size  and  half-rudimentary  condi- 
tion of  its  molar  teeth,  the  food  of  the  sloth-bear  consists  almost  exclusively  of  fruits, 
flowers,  and  insects,  together  with  honey.  Its  favorite  fruits  appear  to  be  those  of 
the  ebony  tree,  the  jujube-plum,  several  kinds  of  figs,  and  the  long  pods  of  the  cas- 
sia. Whether  grapes,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  form  also  part  of  the  diet  of  these 
bears,  or  whether  this  is  merely  a  fancy  on  the  part  of  the  artist,  we  are  unaware. 
During  the  months  of  February  and  March,  in  many  parts  of  India,  the  beautiful 
fleshy-scarlet  flowers  of  the  mowha  tree  are  nightly  shed  in  great  profusion,  and  form 
a  rich  feast  for  many  denizens  of  the  jungle,  prominent  among  which  is  the  sloth- 
bear,  by  whom  these  flowers  are  greatly  relished.  In  addition  to  beetles  and  their 
larvae,  as  well  as  young  bees  and  honey,  the  sloth-bear  is  also  passionately  fond  of 
white  ants  or  termites.  On  this  point  Colonel  Tickell,  as  abridged  by  Dr.  Jerdon, 
observes  that  ' '  the  power  of  suction  in  this  bear,  as  well  as  of  propelling  wind  from 
its  mouth,  is  very  great.  It  is  by  this  means  it  is  enabled  to  procure  its  common 
food  of  white  ants  and  larvae  with  ease.  On  arriving  at  an  ant-hill,  the  bear  scrapes 
away  with  the  fore- feet. until  he  reaches  the  large  combs  at  the  bottom  of  the  gal- 
leries. He  then  with  violent  puffs- dissipates  the  dust  and  crumbled  particles  of  the 
nest,  and  sucks  out  the  inhabitants  of  the  comb  by  such  forcible  inhalations  as  to  be 
heard  at  two  hundred  yards'  distance  or  more.  Large  larvae  are  in  this  way  sucked 
out  from  great  depths  under  the  soil.  Where  bears  abound,  their  vicinity  may  be 
readily  known  by  numbers  of  these  uprooted  ants'  nests  and  excavations,  in  which  the 
marks  of  their  claws  are  plainly  visible.  They  occasionally  rob  birds'  nests  and  devour 
the  eggs.  .  .  .  The  sucking  of  the  paw,  accompanied  by  a  drumming  noise  when  at  rest, 
and  especially  after  meals,  is  common  to  all  bears,  and  during  the  heat  of  the  day  they 
may  often  be  heard  humming  and  puffing  far  down  in  caverns  and  fissures  of  rocks. ' ' 

Like  the  fox-bats  and  the  palm-civets,  the  sloth-bear  will  often  visit  the  vessels 
hung  on  the  palm  trees  for  the  sake  of  their  juice,  and  is  said  to  frequently  become 
very  drunk  in  consequence.  Sugar  cane  is  likewise  a  favorite  dainty  of  these  bears, 
which  frequently  do  a  large  amount  of  damage  to  such  crops.  Although  they  gen- 
erally subsist  entirely  on  vegetable  substances  and  insects,  it  seems  that  they  will 
occasionally  eat  flesh  ;  Sanderson  mentioning  an  instance  where  one  of  them  devoured 
the  carcass  of  a  recently-killed  muntjac  deer,  the  proof  that  the  bear  was  the  devourer 
beingafforded  by  the  imprints  of  its  feet  in  the  wet  soil.  The  same  observer  also  mentions 
that  he  has  known  bears  to  gnaw  the  dry  bones  of  cattle  that  have  died  in  the  jungle. 

With  the  exception  of  the  puffing  and  humming  noises  already  mentioned,  the 
Indian  sloth-bear  is  generally  a  silent  animal.  Mr.  Blanford  states,  however,  that 
"  occasionally  they  make  the  most  startling  noise,  whether  connected  with  pairing 
or  not  I  cannot  say.  I  have  only  heard  it  in  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season,  which 
is  not  their  usual  pairing  time.  They  occasionally  fight  under  fruit  trees,  but  I 
think  the  noise  then  made  is  rather  different." 

Like  most  other  members  of  the  family,  the  sloth-bear  has  the  sense  of  hearing 
but  poorly  developed,  and  its  eyesight  is  also  far  from  good  ;  and  hence  it  has  a  pe- 
culiarly comical  way  of  peering  about  when  it  suspects  intruders,  as  though  it 
were  shortsighted.  From  these  deficiencies  of  sense  it  can  be  approached  very 
closely  from  the  leeward  side.  Its  sense  of  smell,  is,  however,  wonderfully  acute, 


6:8  .  THE   CARNIVORES 

and  by  its  aid  it  is  enabled  to  detect  concealed  supplies  of  honey,  and  also  to  scent 
out  ants'  nests  when  situated  far  below  the  ground. 

The  number  of  cubs  produced  at  a  birth  is,  as  by  most  bears,  usually  two,  but  it 
appears  that  there  may  sometimes  be  three.  The  young  cubs  are  generally  carried 
on  the  back  of  the  female  when  the  animals  are  on  the  move  ;  and  the  author  last 
mentioned  observes  that  it  is  an  amusing  sight  to  watch  the  cubs  dismount  at  the  feed- 
ing grounds,  and  scramble  back  to  their  seat  at  the  first  alarm.  We  are  informed  by 
Mr.  Sanderson  that  the  cubs  are  carried  about  in  this  manner  till  they  are  several 
months  old  and  have  attained  the  dimensions  of  a  sheep-dog,  and  that  when  there  is 
room  for  only  one  cub  on  the  maternal  back  the  other  has  perforce  to  walk  by  the  side. 

In  regard  to  their  family  life,  Mr.  Sanderson  observes  that  these  ' '  bears  are  ex- 
ceedingly affectionate  animals  among  themselves,  and  are  capable  of  being  most 
thoroughly  tamed  when  taken  young.  Either  wild  or  tame  they  are  very  amusing 
in  their  ways,  being  exceedingly  demonstrative  and  ridiculous.  Though  hard  to 
kill,  they  are  very  soft  as  to  their  feelings,  and  make  the  most  hideous  outcries 
when  shot  at  —  not  only  the  wounded  animal,  but  also  its  companions.  It  has  fre- 
quently been  stated  by  sportsmen  that  if  a  bear  be  wounded  he  immediately  attacks 
his  companions,  thinking  that  they  have  caused  his  injuries.  But  I  think  this  is  not 
quite  correct,  at  least  in  the  majority  of  cases.  I  have  observed  that  a  wounded  bear's 
companions  generally  rush  to  him  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  his  grief,  joining  the  while 
in  his  cries,  when  he,  not  being  in  the  best  of  humors,  lays  hold  of  them,  and  a  fight 
ensues,  really  brought  about  by  the  affectionate  but  ill-timed  solicitude  of  his  friends. ' ' 

In  commenting  upon  the  latter  portion  of  this  passage,  Mr.  Blanford  supports 
the  old  view  that  the  attack  is  made  directly  by  the  wounded  animal ;  and  one  in- 
stance is  mentioned  where  he  saw  a  female  when  wounded  immediately  commence 
an  unprovoked  attack  upon  her  two  half-grown  cubs,  which  were  severely  cuffed. 
In  another  case,  when  two  full-grown  bears  were  both  hit,  they  stood  up  and  fought 
on  their  hind-legs,  till  one  fell  dead  from  the  effects  of  the  bullet. 

Although  generally  timid  in  their  nature,  sloth-bears  will  on  rare  occasions  at- 
tack human  beings  without  provocation,  and  when  they  do  so,  fighting  both  with 
teeth  and  talons,  and  inflicting  terrible  wounds,  more  especially  on  the  head  and 
face.  These  attacks  generally  occur  when  a  bear  is  accidently  stumbled  upon  by  a 
native  wandering  in  the  jungle,  and  are  then  due  more  to  timidity  than  to  ferocity. 
Mr.  Sanderson  is  of  opinion  that  a  bear,  being  a  slow-witted  animal,  is  more  likely 
to  attack  in  such  a  case  than  is  a  tiger  or  a  leopard,  which  more  rapidly  collect  their 
senses,  and  are  thus  less  embarrassed  by  the  sudden  and  unexpected  encounter.  Mr. 
Blanford  states  that  when  thus  surprised  a  sloth-bear  will  sometimes  merely  knock 
a  man  over  with  its  paws,  although  thereby  inflicting  severe  wounds  ;  but  on  other 
occasions  it  seizes  and  holds  in  its  paws  its  unfortunate  victim,  who  is  not  released 
until  bitten  and  clawed  to  death.  Females  with  young,  and  occasionally  solitary 
bears,  will  at  times  make  unprovoked  attacks  of  great  ferocity.  The  idea  that  sloth- 
bears  hug  their  victims  is  scouted  by  both  writers. 

Sloth-bears  are  usually  hunted  in  India  either  by  driving  them  from  cover  with 
a  line  of  beaters,  or  by  the  sportsman  going  to  their  caves  or  lairs  among  the  rocks 
at  daybreak,  and  shooting  them  as  they  return  home  from  their  nightly  wanderings. 


THE  PARTI-COLORED  BEAR  619 

Mr.  Sanderson  says  that  in  the  forests  of  Mysore  he  was  in  the  ^habit  of  shooting 
bears  by  following  them  with  trackers ;  and  that,  as  they  seldom  left  off  feeding  be- 
fore nine  in  the  morning,  it  was  generally  possible  by  starting  at  daybreak  to  come 
up  with  them  before  they  had  retired  to  rest  for  the  day.  If,  however,  the  party  did 
not  succeed  in  this,  the  bears  would  generally  be  found  lying  asleep  under  the  shade 
of  a  clump  of  bamboos,  or  a  rock,  as  there  were  no  caves  in  the  district  into  which 
they  could  disappear.  Elephants,  it  appears,  have  a  great  dislike  to  bears,  and  on 
this  account,  as  well  as  from  the  rocky  nature  of  the  country  generally  inhabited  by 
these  animals,  are  but  rarely  employed  in  bear  shooting.  Mr.  Sanderson  was  also 
in  the  habit  of  hunting  bears  with  large  dogs,  and  dispatching  them  when  brought 
to  bay  with  his  hunting  knife  ;  and  in  this  exciting  sport  was  very  successful. 

Regarding  the  sport  afforded  by  the  sloth-bear,  the  same  hunter  observes  that 
"  bear  shooting  is  one  of  the  most  entertaining  of  sports.  Some  sportsmen  have 
spoken  disparagingly  of  it,  and  I  daresay  sitting  up  half  the  night  watching  for  a 
bear's  return  to  his  cave,  and  killing  him  without  adventure,  may  be  poor  fun.  .  .  . 
But  bear  shooting  conducted  on  proper  principles,  with  two  or  three  bears  afoot  to- 
gether, lacks  neither  excitement  nor  amusement.  It  is  not  very  dangerous  sport, 
as  the  animal  can  be  so  easily  seen,  while  he  is  not  so  active -as  a  tiger  or  a  panther. 
-Still  he  is  very  tough,  and  to  anyone  who  would  value  him  for  his  demonstrations, 
he  would  appear  sufficiently  formidable.  If  a  bear  charges  he  can  generally  be 
killed  without  more  ado  by  a  shot  in  the  head  when  within  two  paces.  The  belief 
that  a  bear  rises  on  his  hind-legs  when  near  his  adversary,  and  thus  offers  a  shot  at 
the  horseshoe  mark  on  his  chest,  is  groundless.  I  have  shot  several  bears  within  a 
few  feet,  and  they  were  still  coming  on  on  all  fours.  No  doubt  when  a  bear  reaches 
liis  man  he  rises  to  claw  and  bite  him,  but  not  before." 

Jerdon  states  that  in  the  extreme  south  of  India,  among  certain  hill  tribes 
know  as  Polygars,  sloth-bears  used  to  be  hunted  with  large  dogs,  and  when  brought 
to  bay  were  attacked  by  the  hunters  with  long  poles  smeared  at  the  end  with  bird- 
lime. The  birdlime  caused  the  shaggy  coat  of  the  bears  to  become  fixed  to  the  end 
of  the  pole,  so  that  the  animals  soon  become  firmly  held.  A  single  fragment  of  a 
bone  of  the  fore-limb  discovered  in  a  cave  in  Madras  proves  that  the  sloth-bear  has 
been  an  inhabitant  of  India  since  a  period  when  several  kinds  of  extinct  Mammals 
flourished  there.  And  the  extinct  Theobald's  bear  from  the  Siwalik  hills,  men- 
tioned on  p.  26,  serves  to  indicate  that  the  sloth-bear  is  a  specially-modified  form 
derived  from  bears  belonging  to  the  typical  genus,  since  the  skull  of  that  extinct 
species  presents  characteristics  intermediate  between  those  of  ordinary  bears  and 
that  of  the  sloth-bear. 

THE  PARTI-COLORED  BEAR 
Genus  sEluropus 

A  large  number  of  the  Mammals  from  the  highlands  of  Tibet  belong  to  types 
quite  unlike  those  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  and  in  no  case  is  this 
dissimilarity  more  marked  than  in  the  animal  which  may  be  termed  the  parti-colored 
bear  {Ailuropus  melanolcucus} . 


62O 


THE   CARNIVORES 


This  strange  animal,  which  has  been  known  to  European  science  only  since  the 
year  1869,  is  of  the  approximate  dimensions  of  a  small  brown  bear,  and  has  a  gen- 
eral bear-like  aspect,  although  differing  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  in 
its  parti-colored  coat.  The  fur  is  long  and  close,  with  a  thick,  woolly  under-fur. 
The  general  color  is  white,  but  the  eyes  are  surrounded  with  black  rings,  the  small 
ears  are  also  black,  while  the  shoulders  are  marked  by  a  transverse  stripe  of  the 
same  color  gradually  increasing  in  width  as  it  approaches  the  fore-limbs,  which  are 
also  entirely  black,  as  are  likewise  the  hind-limbs.  This  peculiar  coloration  com- 
municates a  most  extraordinary  appearance  to  the  creature ;  and  without  knowing 


THE    PARTI-COT.ORED    BEAR. 

more  of  its  natural  surroundings  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  the  object  of  such  a  star- 
ing contrast.     The  tail  is  extremely  short,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  hairy. 

In  addition  to  these  external  characteristics,  the  parti-colored  bear  also  presents 
some  peculiar  features  in  regard  to  the  skull  and  teeth.  Thus  the  skull  is  remark- 
able for  the  great  width  of  the  zygomatic  arches  and  the  enormous  development  of 
the  longitudinal  ridge  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  brain  case,  both  these  features  in- 
dicating greater  power  of  jaw  than  has  at  present  been  found  in  any  other  member 
of  the  entire  carnivorous  order.  Then,  again,  the  teeth  differ  both  in  number  and 
form  from  those  of  all  the  other  Ursidae.  Instead  of  the  forty-two  teeth,  character- 
istic of  the  typical  bears,  the  parti-colored  bear  has  but  forty  teeth,  all  told  ;  the 
diminution  in  number  being  due  to  the  absence  of  the  first  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in 


EXTINCT  BEAR-LIKE   GENERA 


621 


the  lower  jaw.  As  regards  form,  the  molar  teeth  are  distinguished  from  those  of 
other  bears  by  their  shorter  and  wider  crowns  ;  this  being  most  marked  in  the  first 
molar  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  broader  than  it  is  long.  The  second  upper  molar 
tooth  agrees,  however,  with  the  corresponding  tooth  of  other  bears  in  being  longer 
than  the  one  in  front  of  it.  The  pattern  formed  by  the  tubercles  on  the  crowns  of 
these  teeth  is  exceedingly  complex,  and  approaches  to  that  obtaining  in  the  panda, 
among  the  raccoon  family,  to  be  noticed  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  parti-colored  bear  is  reported  to  inhabit  the  most  inaccessible  districts  of 
Eastern  Tibet,  and  to  be  of  extremely  rare  occurrence.  Unfortunately  we  are  at 
present  quite  ignorant  of  its  habits,  although  it  is  said  to  feed  chiefly  on  roots  and 
the  young  shoots  of  bamboos,  and  to  be  entirely  herbivorous. 


EXTINCT  BEAR-LIKE  GENERA 

At  the  close  of  the  preceding  volume  it  has  been  mentioned,  that,  unlike  as 
modern  dogs  and  bears  are  to  each  other,  yet  both  families  are  merely  divergent 
branches  from  a  common  stock.  In  that  passage  we  referred  only  to  those  extinct 
animals  most  nearly  related  to  the  modern  dogs,  and  it  was  then  shown  that  the 
so-called  amphicyon  of  the  Miocene  and  upper  part  of  the  Eocene  period  appeared 
to  be  a  dog  with  one  more  pair  of  upper  molar  teeth  than  the  true  dogs,  and  ap- 
proaching the  bears  in  its  plantigrade  feet.  We  have  now  to  allude  to  the  extinct 
genera  more  nearly  allied  to  the  modern  bears.  The  first  of  these  is  a  bear-like 
animal  from  the  superficial  deposits  of  South  America,  known  as  the  arctothere. 
This  animal,  of  which  the  left  side  of  the  palate  is  shown  on  a  greatly-reduced 
scale  in  the  accompanying  figure, 
had  the  same  number  of  teeth 
as  the  true  bears.  The  upper 
molar  teeth  (the  two  on  the 
right  side  of  the  figure)  are,  how- 
ever, relatively  shorter  and  wider 
than  in  the  latter,  and  the  second 
is  not  greatly  larger  than  the 
first.  Then,  again,  the  upper 
flesh-tooth  (the  third  from  the 
right  in  the  figure)  is  much  larger 
than  in  modern  bears,  and  is  thus 
more  like  the  corresponding  teeth  of  other  Carnivores.  Further,  the  upper  arm 
bone,  or  humerus,  has  a  perforation  at  its  lower  end,  which  is  not  found  in  any 
living  dog  or  bear,  although  occurring  in  the  extinct  amphicyon. 

Another  type  is  the  so-called  hyaenarctus,  of  which  large  species  occur  in  the 
Siwalik  hills  of  India  and  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Europe,  while  smaller  ones  are 
found  in  the  European  Miocene  strata  ;  the  two  upper  molar  teeth  of  one  of  the 
latter  being  shown  in  the  woodcut  on  the  next  page.  In  these  animals  the  upper 
molars  (as  in  our  illustration)  were  sometimes  oblong,  with  the  second  not  longer 
than  the  first;  while  in  other  cases  they  were  more  or  less  completely  triangular 


THK  LEFT  HAT.F  OF  THE  UPPER  JAW   OF  THE  ARCTO- 
THERE— AN  EXTINCT  SOUTH-AMERICAN  BEAR-LIKE 

ANIMAL.     (Much  reduced.) 


622 


THE   CARNIVORES 


and  thus  but  little  different  in  form  from  the  corresponding  teeth  of  the  dogs.  The 
most  important  difference  from  the  bears  occurs,  however,  in  the  form  of  the  flesh- 
tooth  in  both  jaws  ;  these  teeth  being  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  dogs,  and  of  a  thoroughly  carnivorous  type.  Whereas, 
however,  the  upper  flesh-tooth  of  the  dogs  has  but  two  lobes 
to  its  cutting  blade,  that  of  the  hysenarctus  had  three  such 
lobes.  That  the  hysenarctus  was  a  thoroughly  carnivorous 
animal,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt.  Another  Miocene 
Carnivore,  known  as  the  hernicyon,  has  still  more  dog-like 
teeth  ;  and  the  transition  from  this  animal  to  the  planti- 
grade and  dog-like  amphicyon  is,  therefore,  scarcely  more 
than  a  step,  so  that  the  passage  from  the  dog-like  bears 
to  the  bear-like  dogs  is  practically  complete. 


THE  LEFT  UPPER  MOLAR 
TEETH  OF  A  SMALL 
SPECIES  OF 
ARCTUS. 

(After  Koken.) 


CHAPTER   XVII 
CARNIVORES — continued 


THE  RACCOON  FAMILY 
Family  PROCTONID^^ 

THE  raccoons  and  their  allies  constitute  a  very  small  family  of  Carnivores, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  one  outlying  and  somewhat  aberrant  genus,  are  con- 
fined to  America,  and  are  very  characteristic  of  the  central  and  southern  portions  of 
that  continent.  Their  nearest  allies  are  the  bears,  with  which  they  appear  to  be 
connected  by  the  panda,  of  which  the  teeth  present  some 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  parti-colored  bear.  The  skull 
has  the  same  essential  characteristics  as  in  the  bears,  and 
the  accompanying  illustration  of  the  right  half  of  the  skull 
in  one  of  the  raccoons  is  intended  to  show  the  position 
of  the  tympanic  bulla,  and  its  general  form  and  relations  in 
the  present  family  and  in  the  two  allied  families  of  the 
bears  and  the  weasles. 

The  raccoons  agree  with  the  bears  in  their  plantigrade 
feet  (as  is  well  exhibited  in  our  figure  of  the  panda),  but 
differ  in  that  they  have  only  two,  in  place  of  three,  molar 
teeth  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  upper  molar  teeth  are,  more- 
over (as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure),  usually  of  the 
same  general  type  as  those  of  the  dogs,  having  squared  or 
triangular  crowns,  and  being  generally  elongated  in  the 
transverse  rather  than  in  the  antero-posterior  direction ; 
while  the  second  of  these  teeth  is  smaller,  instead  of  larger, 
than  the  first.  Moreover,  the  flesh-tooth  in  each  jaw 
approaches  the  ordinary  carnivorous  type,  and  is  thus 
very  different  from  the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  modern  THE  RIGHT  HALF  OF  THE 
bears ;  it  has,  however,  three  lobes  to  the  blade,  and  a  very  PALATAL  ASPECT  OF 
large  inner  tubercular  portion. 

The  members  of  the  raccoon  family  are  all  animals  of 

,  .  The  letters  am.  indicate  the 

comparatively  small  size  ;    and  they  differ  markedly  in  gen-  entrance    to    the    tympanic 
eral  appearance    from   the  bears  in   having   well-developed  bulla.  which  is  the  swelling 

.,  .  ,11        between    that    and    the    point 

tails,  which  may  be  of  great  length.     Very  generally  the  indicated  by  car.    The  other 
hair  of  the  tail  is  marked  by  alternate  dark  and  light  rings.   letters    indicate    the    various 

foramina,    etc.     (After    Sir  W. 

The  whole  of  these  animals  are  good  climbers,   and  they  H.  Flower,  Proc.  zooi.  soc.) 

(623) 


THE   SKULL   OF   THE 
CACOMISTLE. 


624  THE   CARNIVORES 

are  generally  of  more  or  less  exclusively  nocturnal  habits.  It  is  noteworthy  that, 
with  the  exception  of  one  Old- World  genus,  no  remains  of  this  family  have  ever 
been  discovered  beyond  the  limits  of  the  New  World. 

THE   PANDA 
Genus  sElurus 

The  curious  animal  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  and  known  as 
the  panda  {^Elurus  fulgens, )  is  one  in  regard  to  whose  serial  position  there  has 
been  much  diversity  of  opinion.  It  was  at  one  time  placed  in  the  Bear  family,  next 
to  the  parti-colored  bear  ;  while  it  has  also  been  regarded  as  the  representative  of  a 
distinct  family  by  itself.  Mr.  Blanford  has,  however,  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
its  true  position  is  in  the  raccoon  family,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  view  will  be 
pretty  generally  adopted  in  the  future. 

The  panda,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  red  cat-bear,  is  restricted  to  the  South- 
eastern Himalayas,  and  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  large  cat.  Externally  it  is 
characterized  by  its  broad  and  rounded  head,  it  which  the  muzzle  is  extremely 
short,  the  small  eyes  are  directed  forward,  and  the  ears  are  of  considerable  size. 
The  stout  limbs  are  furnished  with  large,  curved,  and  sharp  claws,  which  can  be 
partially  retracted  ;  and  the  soles  of  the  large  feet  are  covered  with  hair.  The  tail 
is  long  and  rather  thick,  its  length  being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  body,  or  rather 
more  than  two-thirds  of  that  of  the  head  and  body  together.  The  fur  is  long  and 
thick,  with  a  woolly  under- fur. 

In  color,  a  large  portion  of  the  fur  of  the  panda  is  a  bright,  rusty  red,  of  some- 
what variable  shade  ;  this  color  prevailing  on  the  back,  the  upper  part  of  the  head, 
and  the  darker- rings  on  t4ie  tail.  The  forehead  is  of  a  lighter  tint  of  red;  as  are 
also  the  paler  rings  on  the  tail,  its  tip  being  black.  The  under  parts  and  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  limbs  are  black,  tending  to  a  brownish  tint  on  the  abdomen.  The 
face,  like  the  lower  lip,  is  white,  except  for  a  vertical  stripe  of  red  proceeding  from 
each  eye  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  Occasionally,  however,  as  in  the  specimen 
here  figured,  there  is  also  a  red  stripe  running  down  the  middle  of  the  nose.  The 
inner  surface  of  the  ears  are  also  white,  as  are  also  the  claws.  A  large  male  panda 
measured  twenty-four  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  while 
the  length  of  the  tail  was  seventeen  inches  without  the  hair  at  the  end,  and  nine- 
teen and  one-half  inclusive  of  the  hair.  Other  specimens  measured  respectively 
twenty  and  twenty-two  inches  to  the  root  of  the  tail. 

It  is,  however,  not  only  externally  that  the  panda  is  a  remarkable  creature. 
In  its  skull  and  teeth  it  is  very  unlike  other  Carnivores.  Thus  the  skull  is  remarka- 
bly short,  with  the  profile  from  the  front  teeth  to  the  occiput  forming  a  regular 
curve,  which  approximates  to  a  semicircle.  The  lower  jaw  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
extremely-convex  and  regularly-curved  inferior  border,  and  also  for  the  great  length 
of  the  portion  which  ascends  on  the  sides  of  the  skull.  The  total  number  of  teeth 
in  the  panda  is  thirty-eight,  of  which,  on  each  sides  of  the  jaws,  f  are  incisors,  \ 
canines,  f  premolars,  and  f  molars.  The  canines,  or  tusks,  are  of  no  great  size,  but 


THE  PANDA 


625 


are  remarkably  flattened  from  side  to  side.  The  upper  molars  have  very  wide 
crowns,  which  are  nearly  square  in  outline,  and  carry  four  main  tubercles  and  an  in- 
ner ridge  ;  while  the  flesh-tooth  in  each  jaw  differs  from  that  of  all  other  members 
of  the  family  in  presenting  but  little  approximation  to  the  ordinary  carnivorous 
type  ;  being,  indeed,  more  like  that  of  the  parti-colored  bear. 

There  appears  to  be  some  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  the  name  panda,  by  which 
the  animal  is  very  generally  known  in  this  country,  unless,  indeed,  it  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Nipalese  niyalya-ponga  ;  the  latter  name,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford, 
meaning  bamboo  eater.  It  is  also  known  in  Nipal  as  the  wah.  The  panda  is  un- 
known in  the  Himalayas  to  the  westward  of  Nipal;  but  it  there  lives  at  elevations  of 


THE  PANDA. 

(After  Sclater,  Proc.  Zocl.  Soc.) 

from  seven  thousand  to  twelve  thousand  feet.     Its  eastward  range  extends  through 
the  mountains  to  the  north  of  Assam  into  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan. 

An  excellent  account  of  the  habits  of  the  panda  was  published  many  years  ago 
by  Mr.  Brian  Hodgson,  of  which  the  following  is  a  summary  :—  As  we  might  have 
supposed  from  the  structure  of  its  teeth,  the  animal  is  mainly  herbivorous.  It  is 
also  an  excellent  climber,  although  feeding  chiefly  on  the  ground,  and  having  its 
retreat  and  breeding  place  in  holes  and  clefts  of  the  rocks.  Its  chief  food  is  com- 
posed of  various  fruits,  acorns,  the  young  shoots  of  bamboos,  roots,  etc.  It  will, 
however,  also  eat  eggs,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether,  as  asserted,  it  will  touch  insects 
•or  their  larvae,  while  recent  observers  are  in  accord  as  to  its  habitual  rejection  of  all 
4o 


626  THE   CARNIVORES 

kinds  of  flesh.  Hodgson  states  that  it  will  sometimes  steal  down  to  the  villages  and 
feast  on  milk  and  butter.  These  animals  feed  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  sleep 
much  during  the  day,  although  they  are  by  no  means  exclusively  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.  On  the  ground,  their  movements  are  somewhat  awkward  and  ungainly  ; 
and  they  are  generally  sluggish  and  stupid  in  disposition,  and  allow  themselves  to 
be  captured  without  much  difficulty.  They  hiss  and  spit  like  cats  when  angered, 
and  occasionally  utter  a  low  deep  growl,  somewhat  like  that  of  a  young  bear.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Hodgson  they  drink  by  lapping  with  the  tongue,  but  from  observa- 
tions made  on  specimens  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  this  is  denied  by  Mr. 
A.  D.  Bartlett,  who  states  that  they  drink  by  putting  their  noses  to  the  ground, 
after  the  fashion  of  a  bear.  They  generally  sleep  curled  up  sideways,  with  the  head 
concealed  by  the  thick  tail,  but  will  also  frequently  repose  by  sitting  down  on  their 
haunches  with  the  head  tucked  in  between  the  fore-paws,  their  habits  being  very 
similar  to  those  of  some  of  the  raccoons. 

In  addition  to  the  cries  already  mentioned,  it  appears  from  the  account  of  an 
observer  who  watched  a  pair  of  these  animals  high  up  in  the  trees  near  Darjiling, 
that  the  panda  will  at  certain  times  —  probably  the  breeding  season  —  utter  loud  and 
somewhat  unearthly  cries,  which  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  They 
call  one  another  by  a  kind  of  chirping  cry.  The  panda  is  a  quite  harmless,  and 
apparently  an  almost  defenseless  animal,  its  sharp  and  partially  retractile  claws  being 
evidently  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  climbing,  rather  than  as  weapons  of  offense  or 
defense. 

The  young,  generally  two  in  number,  are  born  in  a  nest  formed  in  some  hollow 
tree  or  cavity  among  rocks.  They  are  produced  in  the  spring,  and  are  helpless  for 
a  long  period.  It  is  stated  that  the  cubs  of  one  litter  remain  with  the  parent,  till 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  a  second. 

In  captivity  these  animals  are  gentle  and  easily  tamed,  even  when  not  captured 
until  they  have  attained  maturity.  In  this  country  they  require  great  care  and 
attention,  for  their  extreme  susceptibility  to  cold ;  but  in  the  more  congenial  climate 
of  Calcutta  they  thrive  well  in  cages  placed  in  the  open  air. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  an  extinct  species  of  panda,  about  half  as 
large  again  as  the  living  form,  once  flourished  in  England.  This  is  proved  by  the 
occurrence  of  teeth  and  fragments  of  jaws  in  the  so-called  Red  Crag  of  the  Suffolk 
coast,  which  belongs  to  the  Pliocene  period.  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  the  genus 
was  once  widely  spread  over  the  Old  World;  while  its  occurrence  in  England  proves 
that  the  country  must  have  been  formerly  thickly  covered  with  forest,  and  have  en- 
joyed a  climate  of  a  subtropical  nature. 


The  widely-known  raccoons,  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  species,  are  the 
typical  representatives  of  the  family,  and,  like  all  the  remaining  forms,  they  are  ex- 
clusively American.  These  animals  have  a  total  of  forty  teeth,  or  two  more 


THE  RACCOONS  627 

than  the  panda,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  whole  of  the  four  typical  pairs  of  pre- 
molars  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  cheek-teeth  differ  from  those  of  the  latter  in  being 
more  like  the  ordinary  carnivorous  type  ;  while  the  skull  has  not  the  short  and 
convex  form  of  the  panda's. 

Externally,  the  raccoons  are  characterized  by  their  thickly-built  and  stout  bod- 
ies, their  heads  broad  behind  but  tapering  to  a  sharp  point  at  the  muzzle,  and  their 
medium-sized  and  distinctly-ringed  tails.  The  ears  are  small  and  rounded.  When 
walking,  the  entire  sole  of  the  foot  is  not  applied  to  the  ground,  as  it  is  when  the  ani- 
mal is  standing  at  rest ;  while  the  toes  themselves,  and  more  especially  those  of  the 
fore-feet,  can  be  spread  out  very  widely.  The  compressed  and  curved  nails  differ 
from  those  of  the  panda  in  being  entirely  nonretractile.  The  fur  is  characterized 
by  its  length,  softness,  and  thickness,  and  is  greatly  developed  on  the  tail,  but  is 
very  short  on  the  feet,  of  which  the  soles  are  naked. 

The  best-known  species  is  the  common  raccoon  (Procyon  lotor) ,  of  which  a  group 
is  represented  on  the  next  page.  The  total  length  of  this  animal  varies  from  about 


SKELETON  OF  RACCOON. 

thirty-two  to  thirty-six  inches,  of  which  some  ten  inches  are  occupied  by  the  tail. 
The  body  is  covered  with  thick  and  rather  coarse  fur,  of  a  dark-brown  color,  with 
the  tips  of  the  hairs  grayish ;  but  there  is  a  distinct  black  patch  on  either  side  of  the 
face,  including  the  eyes,  and  the  muzzle  is  naked.  The  tail  has  five  black  ring£, 
separated  by  others  of  a  whitish  color,  and  its  tip  is  black.  When  in  its  best  condi- 
tion, which  is  usually  in  the  autumn,  a  raccoon  will  weigh  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  pounds.  There  is  considerable  local  variation  in  the  color  of  this  species  ;  the 
coloration  being  most  brilliant  in  the  southern  portion  of  its  range,  where  its  bodily 
size  is  also  greater  than  in  the  north.  The  common  raccoon  is  confined  to  Northern 
and  Central  America,  extending  from  Alaska  in  the  north  to  Costa  Rica  in  the 
south,  and  occurring  over  the  whole  of  the  United  States,  where  these  animals  used 
to  be  among  the  commonest. 

The  best  of  the  recent  accounts  of  this  raccoon  is  given  by  Dr.  Hart 

Merriam,  who  tells  us  that  raccoons  are  exceedingly  common  about  the 

borders  of  the  Adirondacks,  but  avoid  the  dense  evergreen  forests  of  the  interior. 

Although,  with  the  exception  of  bats  and  flying  squirrels,  they  are  the  most  strictly 


628 


THE   CARNIVORES 


nocturnal  of  all  North- American  Mammals,  yet  they  may  occasionally  be  seen  abroad 
on  cloudy  days.  In  diet  they  are  thoroughly  carnivorous  —  feeding  upon  mice,  young 
birds,  birds'  eggs,  fresh-water  tortoises  and  their  eggs,  frogs,  fish,  crawfish,  mol- 
lusks,  insects,  nuts,  fruits,  and  corn  ;  while  they  will  sometimes  kill  and  eat  do- 
mestic poultry.  They  delight  to  sport  in  the  shallow  water  on  the  margins  of  pools 


THE   COMMON   RACCOON. 

(One-eighth  natural  size.) 

and  streams,  where  they  capture  the  crawfish  lurking  beneath  the  stones,  and  the 
fresh-water  mussels  buried  in  the  mud  and  sand.  They  also  catch  such  fish  as  hap- 
pen to  get  stranded  or  detained  in  the  small  pools  near  the  shore,  although  they  are 
unable  to  dive  in  pursuit  of  their  prey.  They  are,  however,  good  swimmers.  Al- 
though first-rate  climbers,  and  making  their  nests  in  a  hollow  high  up  in  some  large 
tree,  raccoons  cannot  be  considered  by  any  means  thoroughly  arboreal  animals. 


THE  RACCOONS  629 

Thus  they  neither  hunt  their  prey  among  the  tree  tops,  nor  gather  nuts  and  fruits 
from  the  branches,  nor  do  they  feed  upon  the  young  shoots  and  twigs.  Trees  form, 
however,  their  resting  and  their  breeding  places,  and  likewise  their  refuge  when 
pursued  by  human  or  other  foes.  With  the  falling  shades  of  night  they  invariably 
descend  to  hunt  their  prey  and  search  for  food. 

Continuing  our  account  in  Dr.  Merriam's  own  words,  we  find  that  in  the 
Adirondack  region  ' '  the  raccoon  hibernates  during  the  severest  part  of  the  winter, 
retiring  to  his  nest  rather  early,  and  appearing  again  in  February  or  March,  accord- 
ing to  the  earliness  or  lateness  of  the  season.  Disliking  to  wade  through  deep 
snow  he  does  not  come  out  much  till  the  alternate  thawing  and  freezing  of  the 
surface,  suggestive  of  coming  spring,  makes  a  hard  crust  upon  which  he  can  run 
with  ease.  He  does  not  usually  walk  many  miles  during  a  single  night,  and  con- 
sequently is  soon  tracked  to  the  tree,  in  some  hole  of  which  he  has  retired  for  the 
day.  It  is  unusual  to  find  a  raccoon  alone,  for  they  commonly  live  and  travel  in 
small  companies,  consisting  of  the  several  members  of  a  single  family.  They  do 
not  return  to  the  same  nest  every  morning,  but  often  make  little  excursions  in 
various  directions,  being  gone  several  days  at  a  time,  and  taking  refuge,  about  day- 
light, in  any  convenient  arboreal  shelter.  Though  preferring  a  hollow  limb  high 
up  in  some  giant  elm,  ash,  or  basswood,  they  will  put  up  with  almost  any  kind  of  a 
hollow  trunk.  I  have  known  them  to  spend  the  day  in  old  stubs,  in  hollow  logs, 
and  even  in  the  poor  shelter  afforded  by  the  angle  where  a  falling  tree  had  lodged 
in  a  crutch."  Probably  in  Central  America  and  the  more  southern  districts  of 
North  America,  this  raccoon  remains  active  throughout  the  winter,  as  the  climate 
would  not  necessitate  any  hibernation.  In  the  Adirondacks  the  young  are  produced 
in  the  spring  —  generally  during  the  month  of  April;  and  there  are  usually  from 
four  to  six  in  a  litter.  They  remain  with  their  parent  about  a  year.  The  nest 
which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  placed  high  up  in  a  tree,  has  but  little  care  bestowed 
upon  its  construction. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  this  raccoon  is  in  the  habit  of  moistening  its  food 
with  water  before  eating  it;  and  it  doubtless  received  its  distinctive  specific  name 
from  this  habit,  which  has  been  of  late  years  verified  by  Mr.  Bartlett's  observations 
on  specimens  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens.  The  raccoon  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  the  fur-bearing  animals  of  North  America,  and  is  consequently  much 
persecuted.  Raccoon  skins  were  formerly  used  as  a  recognized  circulating  medium 
in  the  States  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  were  usually  valued  at  twenty-five  cents 
apiece. 

According  to  Mr.  D.  Arrowsmith,  the  raccoon  may  be  easily  caught  in  steel 
traps ;  but  it  is  essential  that  these  should  be  set  under  water  near  the  margins 
of  swamps  or  streams.  The  more  sporting  method  is,  however,  to  hunt  these 
animals  at  night  with  specially-trained  dogs,  which  are  usually  a  breed  of 
fox-hounds.  It  has  often  been  stated  that  the  raccoon  leaves  a  very  faint  foot 
scent;  but  this  opinion  is  controverted  by  Mr.  Arrowsmith,  who  states  that  he  has 
known  a  hound  hunt  a  raccoon  at  midday  over  snow,  on  a  trail  which  had  been 
made  the  previous  night.  The  raccoons,  after  a  short  run,  invariably  take  to 
the  tree,  where  they  are  shot  by  the  hunter,  unless  they  conceal  themselves  in  a  hole. 


630 


THE   CARNIVORES 


The  crab-eating  raccoon  (P.  cancrivorus}  is  a  nearly-allied  South- 
Crab-    a  ing     American    species,  distinguished  by  its  superior  dimensions  and  its 
Raccoon 

much  shorter  fur,  as  well  as  by  its  proportionately  larger  teeth.     It  is 

found  typically  from  Panama  to  Columbia  and  Guiana  ;  but  Professor  Mivart  is  of 
opinion  that  the  raccoons  found  further  to  the  south,  and  extending  through  Brazil 
to  Paraguay,  are  entitled  to  rank  as  a  distinct  species,  on  account  of  their  darker 
feet.  The  name  of  black-footed  raccoon  has,  accordingly  been  proposed  for  this 
southern  form.  These  raccoons  are  very  common  in  certain  districts,  and  appear  to 
agree  closely  in  habits  with  their  northern  cousin. 


THE  CACOMIXLES 
Genus  Bassaris 

The  cacomixles,  of  which  the  skull  is  shown  on  p.  623,  are  animals  nearly  allied 
to  the  raccoons,  but  of  more  slender  build  with  a  sharper  muzzle,  longer  tail,  less 
perfectly  plantigrade  feet,  and  teeth  of  a  more  typically  carnivorous  type. 


THE    CACOMIXI.E. 
(One-fifth  natural   size.) 

The  common  cacomrxle  (Bassaris  astuta],  represented  in  the  accompanying 
illustration,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  It  is  covered  with 
long  and  soft  fur  ;  and  has  also  well-developed  and  pointed  ears,  of  which  the  outer 
surfaces  are  nearly  naked.  The  feet  have  naked  pads,  but  are  otherwise  hairy  ; 
and  their  short  claws  are  partially  retractile.  In  size  this  animal  may  be  compared 
to  a  cat,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  being  about  seventeen  and  one-half 
inches,  and  that  of  the  tail  (including  the  hair  at  the  end)  nearly  the  same.  The 
general  color  is  brownish  yellow  mixed  with  gray  on  the  upper  parts,  and  whitish 
below  ;  but  the  tips  of  the  ears,  and  two  pieces  of  spots  above  and  below  the  eyes, 
are  yellowish  white.  The  bushy  tail  which  differs  from  that  of  the  raccoons  in 


THE   CO  AXIS  631 

being  depressed  instead  of  cylindrical,  has  a  black  tip  and  seven  ^of  eight  blackish- 
brown  rings,  separated  by  white  intervals. 

This  animal  dwells  among  rocks  and  trees  ;  and  although,  on  account  of  its 
purely  nocturnal  habits,  but  seldom  seen,  is  far  from  uncommon  in  certain  localities. 
Like  the  raccoons  it  is  easily  tamed  and  makes  a  pretty  pet,  being  sometimes  kept 
for  the  purpose  of  killing  rats  and  mice.  It  is,  however,  for  its  size,  a  bold  and 
ferocious  animal,  and  is  reported  to  be  very  destructive  to  poultry.  Cacomixles 
prefer  woods  well  supplied  with  water,  and  make  their  nests  in  the  holes  of  trees. 
The  natives  are  in  the  habit  of  finding  out  whether  such  a  hole  is  tenanted  by  a 
cacomixle,  by  noting  if  the  bark  surrounding  the  aperture  has  been  removed;  this 
removal  of  the  bark  being  an  invariable  custom  of  the  animal.  From  three  to  four 
young  are  produced  at  a  birth.  B.  astuta  is  in  the  habit  of  carrying  its  tail  bent 
back  over  its  back.  The  only  other  species  is  Sumichrast's  cacomixle  (JB.  sumich- 
rasti]  from  Central  America. 

Another  raccoon-like  type  of  animal  has  been  named  Bassaricyon,  and  is  at 
present  known  to  science  only  by  a  single  skull  from  Costa  Rica,  and  a  skin  from 
Ecuador.  These  animals,  which  are  probably  extremely  rare,  have  the  same  num- 
ber of  teeth  as  the  raccoons,  but  approximate  so  closely  in  appearance  to  the  under- 
mentioned kinkajou,  that  they  are  probably  often  mistaken  for  it  by  collectors. 
Mr.  O.  Thomas  considers  that  the  resemblance  of  the  two  animals  is  a  case  of  true 
mimicry,  although  he  is  unable  to  imagine  of  what  advantage  it  can  be  for  the 
bassaricyon  to  be  mistaken  for  a  kinkajou. 


THK  COATIS 
Genns  Nasua 

The  coatis,  or,  as  they  are  often  called,  coatimundis,  are  easily  recognized  by 
the  great  length  of  their  snouts,  on  which  account  they  are  called  by  the  Germans 
Russelbaren  (proboscis-bears).  They  have  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  the  rac- 
coons, but  the  tusks,  or  canines,  are  longer  and  more  flattened ;  while,  in  conform- 
ity with  the  length  of  the  snout,  the  skull  is  relatively  longer  and  narrower. 

The  snout,  which  is  naked  at  the  tip,  is  somewhat  upturned,  and  projects  far 
beyond  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  it  is  capable  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
motion.  The  body  is  long,  and  rather  flattened,  and  the  tapering  tail  is  also 
elongated  and  of  considerable  depth.  The  toes  are  more  closely  connected  together 
than  in  the  raccoons,  and  are  provided  with  longer  and  stouter  claws.  There  are  two 
species  of  coatis.  One  of  these,  the  white-nosed  coati  {Nasua  nasica),  inhabits 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  is  characterized  by  the  white  nose  and  upper  lip, 
the  dark  brown  face  and  cheeks,  and  the  length  and  softness  of  its  fur.  In  color 
the  long  hairs  of  the  back  are  tipped  with  either  rufous,  fulvous,  or  whitish  ;  and 
the  tail  is  frequently  of  the  same  color  as  the  back,  though  it  may  have  dark  and 
light  rings  on  the  under  side  of  the  basal  half,  or,  complete  rings. 

The  second  species  is  the  red  coati  (IV.  rufa),  inhabiting  South  America  from 
Surinam  to  Paraguay.  In  this  species  the  fur  is  generally  short  and  harsh,  with 


632  THE   CARNIVORES 

the  longer  hairs  on  the  back  tipped  with  black.  The  ears  are  relatively  larger  and 
more  hairy  ;  and  the  tail  is  invariably  marked  with  from  seven  to  nine  broad  ful- 
vous or  rufous  rings  alternating  with  black  ones  ;  its  tip  being  black.  Both  species 
are  subject,  however,  to  considerable  individual  variations  of  color,  and  the  distinc- 
tion between  them  is  sometimes  difficult  to  make  out. 

These  animals  usually  go  about  in  small  troops,  comprising  from 
about  eight  to  twenty  individuals  ;  and  are  mainly  arboreal.  Their 
food  includes  fruits,  young  birds,  eggs,  lizards,  and  insects.  In  Costa  Rica  they  are 
found  in  the  mountains  at  elevations  of  from  six  thousand  to  seven  thousand  feet. 
In  Nicaragua  Mr.  Belt  observed  them  hunting  the  large  lizards  known  as  iguanas. 
When,  however,  an  iguana  was  surprised  by  a  coati,  it  immediately  fell  from  the 
bough  on  which  it  was  reposing  to  the  ground,  and  thence  escaped  to  another. 
Nothing  daunted,  the  coati  would  renew  the  pursuit  again  and  again.  Frequently 
the  coatis  would  divide  their  troop  into  two  sections,  one  of  which  made  its  way 
through  the  branches  above,  while  the  other  hunted  on  the  ground  below,  so  that 
any  prey  which  might  fall  from  the  trees  had  but  a  poor  chance  of  escape.  In 
Guatemala  coatis  are  among  the  most  common  of  all  Mammals,  and  may  be  found 
at  all  elevations  in  the  mountain  forests,  from  the  level  of  the  sea  up  to  nine  thou- 
sand feet.  They  are  very  readily  tamed,  and  are  often  kept  by  the  Spaniards  in 
South  America  chained  to  one  of  the  pillars  of  the  corridor  surrounding  the  court- 
yard of  their  houses. 

That  coatis  are  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  South  America  is  proved  by  the  oc- 
currence of  their  fossilized  remains  side  by  side  with  those  of  many  extinct  Mam- 
mals in  the  caverns  of  Lagoa  Santa,  in  Brazil.  They  are  also  represented  in 
deposits  of  still  earlier  age  in  Argentina,  where  the  species  have  been  referred  to  a 
distinct  genus  (Cynonasua). 

THE   KINKAJOU 
Genus  Cercoleptes 

The  last  representative  of  the  Raccoon  family  is  the  kinkajou,  or  jupura  (C. 
caudivolvulus) ,  which  is  the  most  arboreal  form  of  all,  and  is  distinguished  by  its 
prehensile  tail  —  a  characteristic  possessed  by  it  in  common  with  the  Indian  bin- 
turong.  The  kinkajou  is  distinguished  from  the  other  American  members  of  the 
family  by  having  but  thirty-six  teeth,  owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  pair  of  pre- 
molars  in  each  jaw.  It  is  a  long  and  rather  low-bodied  animal,  with  a  rounded  and 
broad  head,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  short,  and  the  front  of  the  nose  marked  by  a 
median  vertical  groove.  The  ears  are  small  and  rounded.  The  limbs  are  short, 
with  naked  soles  to  the  feet,  and  long,  powerful,  and  much -curved  claws.  The 
tail,  which,  as  we  have  said,  is  prehensile,  is  cylindrical,  of  moderate  thickness,  and 
of  great  relative  length,  being  fully  as  long  as  the  head  and  body  together.  The 
animal  is  further  distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  its  tongue,  which  can  be  pro- 
truded a  considerable  distance  in  front  of  the  mouth.  The  fur  is  soft,  short,  and  of 
an  almost  woolly  nature,  with  nearly  the  same  length  over  the  whole  body  and  tail, 
and  is  of  a  pale  yellowish-brown  color  throughout.  In  size  the  kinkajou  may  be 


I    /V  ( 

(J.jmit 


WHITE-NOSED    COATI. 


THE  KINKAJOU 

compared  to  a  cat.  It  is  found  in  wooded  districts  from  Central  Mexico  to  the  Rio 
Negro  in  Brazil.  In  Guatemala,  where  it  is  far  from  rare,  it  ranges  to  elevations 
of  four  thousand  and  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  It  conceals  itself  in  the 
holes  of  trees, —  in  which  it  probably  also  breeds, — issuing  forth  only  at  night  in 
search  of  food.  A  specimen  which  fell,  when  wounded,  from  a  tree  into  a  river 
below  swam  well.  It  feeds  on  small  Mammals,  birds  and  their  eggs,  honey  and 
fruits,  and  appears  to  be  specially  partial  to  oranges  and  bananas. 

The  expression  of  the  kinkajou  reminded  Bates  strongly  of  that  of  some  of  the 
lemurs  ;  and  he  was  also  struck  with  the  extreme  brightness  of  its  dark  eyes.  ' '  I 
once  saw  it, ' '  he  writes,  ' '  in  considerable  numbers  when  on  an  excursion  with  an 


THE  KINKAJOU. 
(One-fourth  natural  size.) 

Indian  companion  along  the  low  Ygapo  shores  of  the  Teffe,  daout  twenty  miles 
above  Ega  [on  the  upper  Amazon] .  We  slept  one  night  at  the  house  of  a  native 
family  living  in  the  thick  of  the  forest,  where  a  festival  was  going  on,  and  there 
being  no  room  to  hang  our  hammocks  under  shelter,  on  account  of  the  number  of 
visitors,  we  lay  down  on  a  mat  in  the  open  air,  near  a  shed  which  stood  in  the  midst 
of  a  grove  of  forest  trees  and  pupunha  palms.  Past  midnight,  when  all  became  still 
after  the  uproar  of  the  holiday-making,  as  I  was  listening  to  the  dull,  fanning  sound 
made  by  the  wings  of  impish  hosts  of  vampire-bats  crowding  round  the  cajer  trees, 
a  rustle  commenced  from  the  side  of  the  woods,  and  a  troop  of  slender,  long-tailed 
animals  were  seen  against  the  clear  moonlit  sky,  taking  flying  leaps  from  branch  to 


634  THE  CARNIVORES 

branch  through  the  grove.  Many  of  them  stopped  at  the  puptraha  trees,  and  the 
hustling,  twittering,  and  screaming,  with  the  sounds  of  falling  fruits,  showed  how 
they  were  employed.  I  thought  at  first  they  were  NycUpitheci,  but  they  proved  to 
be  jupuras,  for  the  owner  of  the  house  early  next  morning  caught  a  young  one,  and 
gave  it  to  me.  I  kept  this  as  a  pet  animal  for  several  weeks,  feeding  it  on  bananas 
and  manioc-meal  mixed  with  treacle.  It  became  tame  in  a  very  short  time,  allow- 
ing itself  to  be  caressed,  but  making  a  distinction  in  the  degree  of  confidence  it 
showed  between  myself  and  strangers.  My  pet  was  unfortunately  killed  by  a  neigh- 
bor's dog,  which  entered  the  room  where  it  was  kept." 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

CARNIVORES — continued 


THE  WEASEL  FAMILY 
Family  MUSTELID^ 

WITH  the  Weasel  family,  in  which  are  included  not  only  the  weasels  and  their 
immediate  allies,  but  likewise  the  badgers  and  otters,  we  come  to  the  last  group  of 
terrestrial  Carnivores.  The  family  is  thus  a  very  extensive  one,  and  also  one  in 
which  many  of  the  varioms  members  differ  very  widely  from  one  another  in  external 
appearances,  as  well  as  in  the  structure  of  their  teeth.  A  large  number  of  the 
species — and  among  them  the  typical  forms — are,  however,  characterized  by  their 


SKELETON    OT?  WEASEI,. 

long  and  slender  bodies  and  short  limbs;  while  the  great  majority  are  of  medium  or 
small  size,  and  none  are  very  large. 

In  the  general  characteristics  of  the  base  of  the  skull  the  members  of  the  Weasel 
family  agree  with  the  bears  and  raccoons.  They  are,  however,  distinguished  from 
these  by  having  but  a  single  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  while  they  agree 
with  the  raccoons  in  generally  having  but  two  pairs  of  these  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw. 
The  ratels  have,  however,  only  a  single  pair  of  lower  molar  teeth.  The  skull  of  any 
member  of  the  family  may  always  be  distinguished  from  that  of  any  other  Carnivore 
by  the  inner  portion  of  the  upper  molar  tooth  being  wider  in  the  antero-posterior 
direction  than  its  outer  portion,  this  characteristic  being  exhibited  in  the  figure  of 
the  palate  of  an  otter  given  later  on,  although  in  this  case  the  whole  tooth  is  rela- 
tively wider  than  usual.  The  skull  is  further  characterized  by  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  curved  ridges  of  bone  by  which  the  lower  jaw  is  held  in  place,  which 
grip  the  condyle  of  the  latter  so  tightly  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  or  impossible  to 
detach  it  from  the  skull  proper.  As  in  the  two  preceding  families,  the  feet  are  in 
all  cases  provided  with  five  toes. 

From  the  structure  of  the  skull,  as  well  as  from  certain  features  in  the  anatomy 
of  the  soft  parts,  it  has  been  generally  considered  that  the  weasels  are  most  nearly 

(635) 


636  THE  CARNIVORES 

allied  to  the  bears  and  raccoons ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  it  is  found  best  to- 
continue  to  place  them  in  this  position,  as  it  somewhat  simplifies  classification.  The 
evidence  furnished  by  the  numerous  forms  of  extinct  Carnivores,  which  have  been 
discovered  of  late  years  in  the  middle  and  lower  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe  and  North 
America,  points,  however,  very  strongly  to  the  conclusion  that  the  nearest  allies  of 
the  weasels  are  in  reality  the  civets,  and  that  the  former  group  is  the  direct  descen- 
dant of  the  latter.  If  this  view  be  true,  —  and  the  evidence  in  its  favor  is  very 
strong  indeed, —  it  follows  that  the  structural  resemblance  of  the  weasels  to  the  bears 
and  raccoons  is  an  instance  of  what  is  termed  parallel  development,  and  indicates  no- 
near  genetic  connection  between  the  two  groups. 

The  family  is  a  very  widely  distributed  one,  having  representatives  on  all  the 
great  continents,  with  the  exception  of  Australia.  It  attains,  however,  its  maximum 
development  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere ;  and  it  may  be 
noted  that  none  of  its  members  inhabit  Madagascar.  In  regard  to  coloration  there 
is  an  enormous  amount  of  variation.  Several  of  the  northern  forms  have  a  dark 
summer  and  a  light  winter  dress,  and  thereby  differ  from  all  other  Carnivores  except 
the  Arctic  fox.  Then  a  large  number  of  the  martens  and  weasels  and  all  the  otters- 
are  clothed  with  fur  of  a  nearly  uniform  dark  tint,  while  one  of  the  martens  and 
some  of  the  badgers  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme  brilliance.  Moreover,  the 
American  skunks  and  the  Cape  polecat  {Ictonyx)  are  remarkable  for  their  contrast- 
ing bands  of  black  or  dark  brown  and  white,  and  thus  form  some  of  the  most  con- 
spicuously colored  of  all  Mammals.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  in  the  parti-colored 
examples  there  is  a  great  tendency  for  the  under  parts  of  the  body  to  be  darker  than 
the  upper  ;  whereas,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  the 
great  majority  of  Mammals.  Again,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  different  colors  to 
arrange  themselves  in  longitudinal  lines  or  patches,  or  so  as  to  make  the  whole  of 
the  upper  surface  of  the  body  light,  and  its  under  surface  dark  ;  and  in  no  case  are 
there  either  spots  or  transverse  bands  of  color,  while  equally  noteworthy  is  the  en- 
tire absence  of  alternating  dark  and  light  rings  of  color  on  the  tail.  Many  of  the 
members  of  this  family  yield  furs  of  great  commercial  value. 

The  various  members  of  the  family  are  generally  divided  into  three  main  groups, 
distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  characteristic  of  their  teeth  and  claws.  These 
groups  are  the  weasels,  the  badgers,  and  the  otters,  which  we  proceed  to  consider  in 
the  order  named. 

THE  TAYRA  AND  ORISON 
Genus  Galictis 

The  first  representatives  of  the  weasels  are  the  peculiar  South  and  Tropical 
American  species,  which  are  respectively  known  as  the  tayra  and  grison.  The 
principal  distinctive  features  of  the  group  to  which  these  belong  are  briefly  as 
follows : 

In  the  whole  group  the  toes  are  short  and  only  partially  webbed,  with  short, 
sharp,  and  curved  claws,  which  may  be  partially  retractile.  The  single  upper  molar 


THE    TAYRA   AND   GRISON 


637 


tooth  on  each  side  is  characterized  by  its  narrowness  from  front  to  back,  and  its 
moderate  dimensions.  With  the  exception  of  the  wolverene,  all  the  members  of  the 
group  are  distinguished  by  their  long  and  weasel-like  bodies  and  short  legs,  while 
all  are  terrestrial  and  arboreal  in  their  habits.  Exclusive  of  the  members  of  the 
present  genus  and  one  South-African  species,  the  group  is  mainly  confined  to  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  only  a  single  representative  oc- 
•curring  in  Peninsular  India,  Burma,  and  the  Malayan  region,  and  one  in  South 
America. 

The  tayra  and  grison  are  characterized  by  having  a  total  of  34  teeth,  of  which 
f  are  incisors,  |  canines,  f  premolars,  and  ^  molars.  Their  skulls  may  be  readily 
distinguished  from  those  of  the  martens  and  weasels  by  the  tubercle  on  the  inner 


THE  TAYRA. 
(One-sixth  natural  size.) 

side  of  the  upper  flesh-tooth  being  placed  near  the  middle  of  the  tooth,  instead  of 
close  up  to  its  front  edge.  They  walk  to  a  great  extent  on  the  soles  of  their  feet, 
which  are  completely  naked,  so  that  their  feet  are  almost,  but  not  quite,  plantigrade. 
The  claws  cannot  be  retracted.  The  head  is  characterized  by  its  breadth  and  flat- 
ness, and  is  furnished  with  very  small  and  rounded  ears.  The  tail  varies  in  length 
from  about  one-half  to  three-fourths  the  length  of  the  head  and  body. 

The  tayra  (Galidis  barbara)  is  the  largest  species,  and  may  be  com- 
pared in  size  to  the  common  otter,  its  total  length  being  a  little  over  a 
yard,  of  which  rather  less  than  half  is  occupied  by  the  tail.  The  body  and  limbs  are 
usually  of  a  uniform  dark  brown  color,  becoming  almost  black  in  some  individuals, 
while  in  others  it  is  lighter.  There  is  always  a  lighter  spot  on  the  chest.  The  head 
and  neck  are  generally  gray,  but  in  two  immature  individuals  in  the  British  Museum 


Tayra 


638  THE   CARNIVORES 

they  are  nearly  white,  with  the  exception  of  the  muzzle,  which  is  dark.  Occasion- 
ally, individuals  are  met  with  in  which  the  whole  of  the  fur,  except  that  on  the  muz- 
zle, ears,  and  feet,  is  entirely  white ;  one  such  example  being  shown  in  the  upper 
figure  of  our  illustration.  The  nose  has  a  vertical  groove  at  its  extremity,  the  teeth 
are  relatively  large  and  protruding,  and  the  aspect  of  the  animal  is  ugly  and  for- 
bidding. 

The  range  of  the  tayra  is  generally  stated  to  extend  from  Mexico  in  the  north 
to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  in  the  south,  but  it  also  includes  some  of  the  more  southerly 
portions  of  the  Argentine  pampas.  In  British  Honduras  tayras  were  observed  by 
Moore  hunting  in  companies  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty,  and  although  some  writers 
have  doubted  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  it  is  fully  confirmed  by  Mr.  Hudson 
in  Argentina.  Rengger  states  that  the  tayra  lives  both  in  open  grass-clad  country, 
and  likewise  in  forest.  Writing  of  this  and  the  next  species,  Mr.  Hudson  says  that, 
on  the  pampas  of  Argentina,  "there  are  two  quaint-looking  weasels,  intensely  black 
in  color,  and  gray  on  the  back  and  flat  crown.  One  is  a  large  bold  animal  (G.  bar- 
bara)  that  hunts  in  companies  ;  and  when  these  long-bodied  creatures  s'lt  up  erect, 
glaring  with  beady  eyes,  grinning  and  chattering  at  the  passer-by,  they  look  like 
little  friars  in  black  robes  and  gray  cowls  ;  but  the  expression  on  their  round  faces 
is  malignant  and  bloodthirsty  beyond  anything  in  nature,  and  it  would,  perhaps,  be 
more  decent  to  liken  them  to  devils  rather  than  to  humans." 

Although  largely  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  the  tayra  will  frequently  hunt  till 
midday,  when  it  seeks  its  lair  and  reposes  till  evening.  This  lair  is  generally  either 
the  deserted  burrow  of  an  armadillo,  or  some  hole  in  a  tree.  The  food  of  the  animal 
consists  of  such  Mammals  as  it  is  able  to  kill,  such  as  agutis  and  other  Rodents,  but 
it  also  eats  birds  and  their  eggs.  In  inhabited  districts  the  tayra  frequently  raids 
on  poultry  .houses,  among  the  inmates  of  which  it  commits  much  havoc.  Honey  it 
also  readily  eats.  The  nest,  which  is  sometimes  made  in  the  cavities  of  rocks, 
instead  of  in  a  hollow  tree  or  deserted  burrow,  is  constructed  with  much  care.  In 
one  nest,  examined  by  Hensel,  two  young  were  found,  which  were  then  quite 
blind,  and  had  much  the  appearance  of  young  foxes. 

This  (G.  mttata)  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the  tayra,  and  may  be 
compared  in  size  to  a  marten  or  an  Indian  mungoose.  It  is  also 
readily  distinguished  by  its  relatively-shorter  tail,  of  which  the  length  does  not 
exceed  half  that  of  the  head  and  body,  and  likewise  by  its  coloration.  The  latter  is 
of  that  peculiar  type  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  in  which  the  under  parts  are 
much  darker  than  the  upper.  The  snout,  the  under  surface  of  the  neck,  and  the 
under  parts  of  the  body  are  very  dark  brown,  whereas  the  whole  of  the  upper  sur- 
face, from  the  forehead  nearly  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  is  of  a  uniform  bluish-gray  tint, 
the  individual  hairs  being  ringed  with  black  and  white.  From  the  forehead  to  the 
shoulder  the  gray  and  brown  areas  are  divided  by  a  lighter  band  with  a  yellowish 
tinge,  while  the  tip  of  the  tail  and  the  ears  are  distinctly  yellow.  There  is  no 
groove  on  the  nose.  The  grison  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of  South  America, 
as  well  as  in  Central  America  and  Mexico  ;  and  there  is  also  Allemand's  grison  (G. 
allemandi] ,  which  is  of  larger  size,  but  has  the  same  general  coloration,  although 
presenting  some  approximation  to  the  tayra. 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS  639 

The  general  habits  of  the  grison  appear  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  tayra. 
It  is  described  as  being  the  Carnivore  most  commonly  encountered  on  the  coasts  of 
South  America ;  but  in  Brazil  it  is  stated  to  be  less  frequent  than  its  cousin.  By 
preference  it  appears  to  select  the  open  country,  although  it  may  also  be  found  in 
forests.  It  frequents  plantations,  and  commits  great  depredations  upon  domestic 
poultry.  Hollow  trees,  clefts  in  rocks,  and  deserted  burrows  are  its  favorite  re- 
treats; but  it  is  said  that,  when  hunted  with  dogs,  the  grison  will  never  attempt  to 
climb,  and  invariably  takes  shelter  under  rocks,  or  beneath  the  roots  of  trees. 
Fossil  remains  of  various  species  of  this  genus  have  been  found  in  the  caverns  of 
Lagoa  Santa,  in  Brazil ;  while,  what  is  more  noteworthy,  others  have  been  obtained 
from  the  superficial  deposits  of  the  United  States,  thus  indicating  that  the  genus 
formerly  extended  far  to  the  northward  of  its  present  limits  in  Mexico. 

THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS 
Genus  Mustela 

The  martens  and  their  near  allies  the  polecats,  stoats,  and  weasels,  constitute 
the  typical  group  of  this  subdivision.  By  many  writers  the  large  martens  are  sepa- 
rated as  a  genus  from  the  smaller  polecats,  stoats,  and  weasels,  the  three  latter  being 
grouped  together  under  the  title  of  Putorius,  but  in  this  we  are  not  disposed  to  con- 
cur. It  is  true  that  the  martens  have  one  more  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw 
than  their  smaller  relatives ;  but  we  cannot  in  any  case  attach  much  importance 
to  such  a  difference,  and  its  triviality  is  proved  by  extinct  species,  which  exhibit 
a  considerable  amount  of  diversity  in  this  respect. 

Regarding,  then,  all  the  animals  above  mentioned  as  constituting  but  a  single 
genus,  we  have  to  indicate  the  features  by  which  the  group  is  distinguished. 

In  the  first  place,  the  number  of  teeth  may  either  be  the  same  as  in  the  tayra, 
or  there  may  be  an  additional  premolar  tooth  on  each  side  of  both  the  upper  and  the 
lower  jaw,  thus  raising  the  number  of  teeth  to  forty.  The  upper  flesh-tooth,  as 
already  mentioned,  differs  from  that  of  the  tayra  by  having  the  lobe  on  its  inner  side 
placed  close  up  to  its  front  edge.  With  regard  to  external  characteristics,  the  mar- 
tens and  weasels  are  distinguished  from  the  members  of  the  preceding  genus  by 
their  habit  of  walking  almost  entirely  on  their  toes  (digitigrade),  and  also  by  their 
short  compressed  claws  being  capable  of  partial  retraction.  Their  tails  are  either 
long  or  of  medium  length,  and  more  or  less  bushy.  It  may  be  added  that  the  lower 
flesh-tooth  of  the  martens  and  weasels  is  characterized  by  the  small  size  or  total  ab- 
sence of  the  cusp  on  the  inner  side  of  the  second  lobe  of  the  blade  ;  and  as  the  heel 
at  the  hinder  end  is  also  rather  small  and  furnished  with  a  cutting  edge,  the  whole 
tooth  consists  of  three  main  cusps,  of  which  the  two  end  ones  are  similar.  Such  a 
tooth  is,  therefore,  totally  unlike  the  lower  flesh-tooth  of  a  civet. 
Pine-Mart  ^^e  we^'^nown  European  pine-marten,  or  yellow-breasted  marten 

(M.  males'),  may  be  regarded  as  the  typical  representative  of  the 
martens,  all  of  which  possess  the  following  features  in  common.  First  of  all,  they 
have  four  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw ;  while  the  flesh-tooth  of  the  lower 


'640 


THE   CARNIVORES 


jaw  has  a  distinct  cusp  on  the  inner  side  of  the  second  lobe  of  the  blade.  More- 
over, they  are  of  comparatively-large  size,  and  may  be  compared  in  this  respect  to 
the  domestic  cat.  In  all  of  them  the  body  is  much  elongated,  although  to  a  less 
degree  than  is  the  case  with  the  polecats  and  weasels.  The  martens  are  found 
only  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  range  far  to  the  northward;  one  species, 
however,  occurring  as  far  south  as  India  and  the  Malayan  region. 

The  pine-marten  has  a  total  length  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  inches,  of  which 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  are  occupied  by  the  head  and  body,  and  from  nine  to 
twelve  inches  by  the  tail,  inclusive  of  the  hair  at  its  extremity.  As  in  the  other 
members  of  this  group,  the  muzzle  is  sharply  pointed,  with  the  nose  extending  a 


THE   PINE-MARTEN. 

(One-fourth  natural  size.) 

little  beyond  the  lips ;  and  the  ears  are  thickly  covered  with  hairs  on  both  sides. 
Beneath  the  glossy  outer-fur  there  is  a  thick  coat  of  under-fur ;  and  the  soles  of  the 
feet  have  a  thick  coat  of  fur  between  the  bare  pads. 

The  pine-marten  is  characterized  by  the  rich  brown  color  of  the  fur,  and  the 
reddish-gray  tint  and  yellow  tips  of  the  under-fur;  the  light-colored  fur  on  the  throat 
and  chest  varying  in  tint  from  yellowish  white  to  a  bright  orange.  The  range  of 
this  species  includes  a  large  portion  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia;  and  in  former 
years  the  animal  was  common  in  the  British  Isles,  where  it  is  now  restricted  to  the 
wilder  districts.  From  the  specific  designation  of  this  marten,  it  would  naturally  be 
supposed  that  it  exhibits  an  especial  predilection  for  pine  forests.  This,  however, 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND   WEASELS  641 

does  not  appear  to  be  the  case,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  name  <was  given  merely 
from  the  circumstance  that  pine  forests  are  abundant  in  many  of  the  districts  which 
it  inhabits. 

Like  the   other  members-  of  the  group,  it  is  chiefly  aboreal  in  its 

habits,  and  thereby  differs  markedly  from  the  weasels,  which  are  more 
terrestrial.  "  Creeping  from  branch  to  branch  in  silent  and  stealthy  pursuit  of  birds, 
squirrels,  and  other  small  animals,"  writes  Bell,  "  their  sharp  and  long  claws  afford 
them  a  firm  and  secure  hold  of  the  bark,  while  the  long  and  somewhat  bushy  tail 
must  considerably  aid  them  in  maintaining  their  balance  on  the  boughs  ;  the  ears, 
too,  are  large  and  open,  a  circumstance  which  is  of  great  advantage  to  them  in  dis- 
covering and  pursuing  their  prey,  amidst  the  dense  foliage  in  which  they  love  to 
conceal  themselves."  Martens  will,  however,  frequently  descend  to  the  ground, 
when  they  will  destroy  mice,  rats,  and  moles,  as  well  as  rabbits  and  hares,  and,  it  is 
said,  even  lambs.  They  are  also  deadly  enemies  to  domestic  poultry  of  all  kinds  ; 
while  in  the  neigborhood  of  the  seacoast  they  are  also  reported  to  feed  on  mussles. 
When  domesticated,  it  is  said  on  good  authority  that  they  will  eat  fruit. 

Although  it  was  long  considered  that  the  beech-marten  was  also  found  in  the 
British  Islands,  it  is  now  ascertained  that  the  present  species  is  the  only  member 
of  the  group  that  has  ever  occurred  here.  Regarding  its  present  distribution  here, 
the  late  Mr.  Alston,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  clearing  up  of  this  confusion, 
writing  in  1879,  states  that  in  the  wilder  districts  of  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  the  north 
of  England,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  the  marten  still  holds  its  own  ;  while  specimens  are 
occasionally  captured  in  districts  where  it  is  now  practically  extinct.  Thus  one  was 
shot  in  Norfolk  in  the  year  1878,  while  another  was  killed  in  Hertfordshire  in  1872. 
In  Ireland  the  animal  was,  when  Mr.  Alston  wrote,  occasionally  seen  even  in  County 
Dublin. 
B  h  M  t  The  beech  or  white-breasted  marten  (M'.foina),  formerly  supposed 

to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  British  Islands,  is  generally  of  a  grayish- 
brown  color,  although  the  tint  may  vary  from  a  whitish  brown  to  deep  blackish 
brown,  with  the  tail  and  limbs  generally  darker  than  the  body.  The  light  area  on 
the  throat  and  chest,  which  may  vary  considerably  in  extent  in  different  individuals, 
is  invariably  white  ;  while  the  color  of  the  under-fur  varies  from  ashy  to  pure  white. 
The  skull  is  also  proportionately  wider  than  in  the  last  species,  and  there  are  also 
certain  characteristics  in  the  teeth  by  means  of  which  the  one  species  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  about  eighteen 
inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair  at  the  end,  thirteen  inches. 
D'  t  'b  t'  This  species  is  a  more  southern  form  than  the  last,  being  widely 

distributed  in  Europe,  but  not  reaching  either  the  British  Islands  or 
Scandinavia  ;  while  to  the  eastward  it  extends  into  Asia  as  far  as  Turkestan  and  the 
Eastern  Himalayas.  In  the  latter  districts  examples  have  been  procured  from 
Afghanistan  in  the  west  to  Sikhim  in  the  east,  and  also  from  Kumaun  and  Ladakh; 
further  eastward  it  appears  to  be  unknown.  Throughout  the  Himalayas  it  is  gener- 
ally found  at  considerable  elevations,  although  descending  as  low  as  five  thousand 
feet  in  the  Gilgit  district.  It  inhabits  the  whole  of  Central  Europe  and  Italy,  the 
warmer  parts  of  European  Russia  as  far  as  the  Urals,  as  well  as  the  Crimea ;  the 
41 


642 


THE   CARNIVORES 


western  and  northern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor.      It 
appears,  however,  to  be  unknown  in  Persia. 

Over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  this  marten  is  a  commoner  animal 
than  the  preceding,  which  it  also  exceeds  in  the  greater  boldness  of 
its  disposition.  Although  it  is  a  frequenter  of  woods  and  trees,  it  is  also  found  not 
uncommonly  among  rocks  and  stones,  and  hence  receives  its  German  name  of 
steinmarder.  In  barren  districts  like  I^adakh  this  marten  must,  of  course,  nearly 
always  dwell  among  rocks.  From  its  bold  disposition  it  is  frequently  found  in  the 
neighborhood  of  human  habitations,  where  it  inflicts  much  damage  on  poultry. 

In  its  general  mode  of  life  the  species  closely  resembles  M.  martes.  The  nest 
is  carefully  formed  of  hay  and  straw,  and  situated  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  in  the  cran- 
nies between  rocks,  or  in  an  old  barn  or  granary.  The  young,  generally  from  four 


\ 


THE    BEECH-MARTEN. 
( One-sixth  natural  size. ) 

to  five  in  number,  are  born  about  the  month  of  April,  and  are  blind  for  the  first 
fortnight  of  their  existence.  Its  wanderings  at  night  during  the  summer  are  ex- 
tensive ;  and  no  dovecot  —  however  lofty  it  may  be  —  is  safe  when  there  is  a  mar- 
ten anywhere  in  the  neighborhood.  The  food  of  this  species  is  much  the  same  as 
that  of  the  last,  although  in  inhabited  districts  including  more  domesticated  ani- 
mals. It  feeds  on  mice,  rats,  rabbits,  and  all  kinds  of  birds  ;  and,  when  dwelling  in 
woods,  hunts  and  kills  squirrels,  lizards,  and  frogs.  It  likewise  eats  fruits  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  such  as  cherries  and  plums ;  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Continent  is  con- 
sidered to  do  so  much  harm  to  orchards  that  the  stems  of  the  trees  are  washed  with 
tobacco  juice  or  petroleum  in  order  to  prevent  the  marten  from  ascending  them. 
L,ike  all  its  kindred,  the  beech-marten  is,  for  its  size,  an  exceedingly  bloodthirsty 
creature,  and  will  often  kill  more  than  it  can  devour. 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND   WEASELS  643 

Although  generally  silent,  in  the  pairing  season,  which  takes  cplace  toward  the 
end  of  February  (or  about  three  weeks  later  than  that  of  the  pine-marten),  these 
animals  utter  a  kind  of  mewing  sound  not  unlike  that  of  a  cat,  and  a  pair  of  them 
in  a  tree  may  be  heard  for  a  considerable  distance. 

In  general  the  fur  of  this  species  is  less  valued  than  that  of  the  pine-marten ; 
but  some  skins  from  Afghanistan  and  Turkestan  have  beautiful  fur,  with  long, 
glossy,  nearly  black  piles,  and  very  soft  white  or  pale  ashy  under-fur.  These 
Turkestan  martens  were  at  one  time  regarded  a?  belonging  to  a  distinct  species. 
The  inferiority  of  the  fur  of  the  ordinary  beech-marten,  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  sable,  is  due  not  only  to  its  color  and  actual  length,  but  likewise  to  the  relative 
length  of  the  long  piles  as  compared  with  that  of  the  under-fur,  which  is  scarcely 
concealed  by  them.  The  more  northern  skins  are  always  superior  to  those  from 
Southern  Europe ;  and  a  large  number  are  exported  to  England  and  sold  as 
an  inferior  kind  of  sable.  As  already  mentioned,  it  was  considered  by  the  late 
Professor  Rolleston  that  the  domesticated  animal  employed  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
for  the  purposes  for  which  we  now  use  the  cat,  and  called  by  them  the  Ailouros, 
was  this  marten,  which  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  white-breasted  marten.  Fossil  re- 
mains of  martens  occur  in  the  cavern  deposits  of  the  Continent,  but  only  those  of 
the  pine-marten  have  as  yet  been  found  in  England. 

The  sable  (M.  zibellina)  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  pine-marten  that 
some  writers  have  considered  that  it  should  be  regarded  merely  as  a 
variety  distinguished  by  the  greater  length  and  fineness  of  the  fur.  Brehm  states, 
however,  that  it  has  a  much  more  distinctly  cone-shaped  head,  larger  ears,  longer 
and  stouter  limbs,  and  proportionately-larger  feet.  In  the  most  highly-esteemed 
specimens  the  fur  should  be  thick,  soft,  and  nearly  uniformly  colored.  Such  skins 
are  blackish  above,  having  a  mixture  of  black  and  gray  on  the  snout,  gray  on  the 
cheeks,  chestnut  brown  on  the  neck  and  flanks,  and  orange  yellow,  or  sometimes 
reddish  orange  on  the  throat.  The  margins  of  the  ears  are  either  grayish  white  or 
light  brown  in  color.  In  a  number  of  cases  there  is  a  larger  or  smaller  admixture 
of  white  hairs  among  the  dark  fur  of  the  back,  while  the  muzzle,  cheeks,  breast, 
and  under  parts  are  white.  In  other  specimens  the  fur  on  the  back  is  yellowish 
brown,  while  that  of  the  under  parts  is  nearly  white,  and  only  the  legs  black. 
Good  skins  should  exhibit  a  kind  of  "  watering,"  owing  to  the  reddish  tint  of  the 
woolly  under-fur  showing  through  the  long  outer  hairs.  An  average  sable  will 
measure  about  twenty  inches  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the  length  of 
the  tail  being  seven  inches.  The  skins  are  valued  only  when  they  have  their  winter 
fur,  the  summer  coat  being  much  shorter.  In  spring,  although  the  winter  fur  may 
still  be  retained,  the  skins  are  quite  useless,  as  the  hair  will  drop  off  even  after  the 
skins  have  been  dressed. 

The  range  of  the  sable  originally  extended  from  the  Ural  mountains 
to  Behring  Sea,  and  from  the  mountains  on  the  southern  borders  of 
Siberia  to  the  68th  parallel  of  north  latitude.  It  is,  however,  now  much  curtailed, 
owing  to  the  incessant  persecution  to  which  the  animal  has  been  so  long  subject; 
and  the  chief  haunts  are  now  in  the  mountain  forests  of  Northern  Asia,  more  espe- 
cially Eastern  Siberia  and  Kamchatka. 


644 


THE   CARNIVORES 


Habits 


According  to  reports  furnished  to  Dr.  Guillemard  by  a  native 
hunter,  it  appears  that  sables  are  for  the  most  part  of  nocturnal  habits, 
and,  though  they  occasionally  feed  by  day,  generally  spend  that  period  of  the 
twenty-four  hours  in  holes  at  the  roots  or  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  They  dislike  the 
presence  of  man,  and  are  rarely  to  be  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  villages ; 
their  favorite  resort  being  the  depths  of  the  forest  least  frequented  by  the  natives. 
It  is  considered  that  the  most  inaccessible  and  least  known  parts  of  the  country  are 
the  best  hunting  grounds.  They  live  on  hares,  birds  of  all  kinds,  and,  in  short, 
almost  every  living  thing  they  can  kill,  but  they  are  also  said  to  eat  berries,  and 
even  fish.  There  are,  indeed,  but  few  animals,  apparently,  which  do  not  live  on 
fish  in  Kamchatka.  They  have  only  one  litter  during  the  year,  generally  in  the 
month  of  April,  and  bring  forth  four  or  five  young  at  a  birth  in  a  nest  in  the  holes 


THE  SABI.E. 
(One-fourth  natural  size.) 

of  trees.  The  same  writer  tells  us  that  whereas  formerly  a  large  number  of  sables 
were  caught  in  traps  in  Kamchatka,  they  are  now  more  generally  hunted  there 
with  dogs  ;  these  dogs  being  specially  trained  for  the  purpose,  and  either  running 
down  their  quarry  on  the  deep  snow,  driving  them  into  trees,  or  smelling  them  out 
when  lying  asleep  in  holes.  The  great  object  in  such  hunts  is  to  "  tree  "  the  sable, 
when  the  tree  is  surrounded  with  nets,  and  the  animal  either  shaken  from  the 
boughs  or  knocked  off  them  by  means  of  poles.  If  the  sable  does  not  fall  into  the 
nets,  it  is  again  pursued  by  the  expectant  dogs,  by  whom  it  is  either  run  down,  or 
once  more  "treed."  When  the  tree  is  too  high  to  allow  of  the  sable  being  dislodged 
by  the  usual  methods,  it  is  either  felled,  or  the  animal  is  shot ;  but  recourse  to  guns 
is  if  possible  avoided,  as  the  shot  does  damage  to  the  skins.  If  the  distance  they 
have  to  travel  be  a  long  one,  the  Kamchatkan  hunters  start  on  their  winter  expe- 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND   WEASELS  645 

ditions  after  the  sable  toward  the  end  of  September;  but,  if  the^istrict  is  nearer, 
they  wait  until  the  first  fall  of  snow  or  about  six  weeks  afterward.  If  a  single 
hunter  takes  twenty  sable  skins  in  a  season  he  considers  himself  fortunate  ;  but  Dr. 
Guillemard  mentions  that  in  a  little-known  district  one  party  bagged  upward  of 
one  hundred  and  forty  skins.  The  total  number  annually  taken  in  Kamchatka 
must  be  very  large;  the  number  exported  in  the  year  1882  from  Petropaulovski 
(which  receives  the  marjority)  being  over  two  thousand.  The  price  of  a  single 
sable  skin  in  St.  Petersburg  ranges  from  nine  dollars  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-two 
dollars,  according  to  its  quality  and  condition.  The  Kamchatkan  peasant  receives 
an  average  of  twelve  dollars  for  each  skin;  and  this  he  has  to  take  out  in  kind. 

This  species  (Af.  americana)  is  so  nearly  related  to  the  pine-marten 

and  the  sable  that  there  may  be  a  question  whether  it  should  be  re- 
Marten 

garded  as  anything  more  than  a  variety.     The  long  hair  is  very  like 

that  of  the  pine-marten,  to  which  it  is  most  nearly  allied  ;  its  general  color  being 
more  or  less  uniformly  brown,  the  breast-spot  yellow,  and  the  head  and  ears  gray  or 
whitish. 

It  is  found  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  district,  Labrador,  Alaska,  and  other  parts  of 
North  America,  descending  on  the  eastern  side  as  far  south  as  the  Adirondack 
mountains,  near  New  York. 

In  habits  it  appears  to  be  similar  to  the  pine-marten.  In  the  Adirondacks  it 
inhabits  the  evergreen  forests,  and  is  chiefly,  although  not  exclusively,  nocturnal. 
Its  food  consists  of  partridges,  rabbits,  and  other  small  Rodents,  birds'  eggs,  young 
birds,  frogs  and  toads,  and  large  insects.  It  is  said  to  display  a  distinct  preference 
for  forests  of  conifers,  and  is  thoroughly  arboreal,  never  venturing  into  the  neigh- 
borhood of  human  dwellings.  Although  generally  gentle  looking  in  appearance  it 
is  related  that  when  attacking  animals  larger  than  itself  v  such  as  hares,  it  becomes 
as  fierce  in  demeanor,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  as  a  tiger.  When  one  is  seen  among 
the  tree  tops,  the  hunter  has  but  to  whistle  and  thus  attract  its  attention,  when  it 
will  afford  a  ready  shot. 

The  fur  is  of  great  commercial  value;  the  best  skins  selling  at  about  eighteen 
dollars  each.  Of  recent  years  the  annual  exports  to  England  have  exceeded  100,000. 
Curiously  enough,  at  certain  periods  this  species  becomes  exceedingly  scarce ;  the 
periods  of  scarcity  recurring  with  great  regularity  at  intervals  of  about  ten  years. 
How  the  animals  disappear  is,  however,  unknown,  since  there  is  no  region  into 
which  they  can  migrate  without  the  knowledge  of  the  hunter,  and  none  are  found 
dead.  The  best  season  for  obtaining  the  skins  is  in  November  ;  the  animals  being 
generally  caught  in  wooden  traps,  which  are  set  in  lines  for  miles  across  the 
country.  In  spite  of  the  incessant  persecution  to  which  it  is  subject,  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  this  species  has  appreciably  diminished  in  number  in  the  wilder  regions  of 
its  habitat. 

The  largest  of  all  the  martens  is  the  so-called  fisher  marten  (M. 

pennanti),  an  animal  rejoicing  in  a  number  of  names  —  both  popular 

and  scientific  —  being  variously  designated  as  the  "pekan,"  "Pennant's  marten," 

"black  fox,"   and  "black  cat."     The  two  latter  titles  are  due  to  the  large  size, 

stout  build,  and  dark  color  of  the  animal,  which  in  point  of  form  may  be  more  aptly 


646  THE   CARNIVORES 

compared  to  a  fox  than  to  a  weasel.  It  measures  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches 
from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Its  general  color  is  blackish  brown, 
becoming  gray  on  the  head  and  neck  ;  while  the  throat  is  distinguished  by  the  ab- 
sence of  the  light-colored  patch  distinctive  of  all  the  other  species.  It  ranges  over 
the  greater  part  of  North  America,  as  far  northward  as  Alaska  and  the  Great  Slave 
Lake,  while  to  the  southward  it  is  found  in  the  upper  part  of  Texas  and  about  lati- 
tude 35°.  Continual  hunting  has,  however,  exterminated  the  animal  from  the  more 
settled  districts  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

Dr.  Hart  Merriam  observes  that  ' '  the  name  of  fisher  is  somewhat  of 
a  misnomer,  for  these  animals  commonly  frequent  deep  swamps  and 
wooded  mountain  sides,  away  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  water,  and  are  not 
known  to  catch  fish  for  themselves  as  do  the  mink  and  otter.  However,  they  are 
fond  of  fish,  and  never  neglect  to  devour  those  that  chance  to  fall  in  their  way. 
They  prey  chiefly  upon  hares,  squirrels,  mice,  grouse,  small  birds,  and  frogs,  and 
are  said  to  eat  snakes.  They  also  catch  and  feed  upon  their  own  congener,  the 
marten,  and  make  a  practice  of  devouring  all  that  they  discover  in  dead-falls  and 
steel  traps. ' '  It  also  appears  that  porcupines  compose  a  considerable  proportion  of 
their  food  in  some  districts;  specimens  being  sometimes  killed  with  numbers  of 
porcupine  quills  in  their  skin  and  flesh.  Curiously  enough,  these  needle-like  quills, 
which  often  exceed  two  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  seem  to  cause  it  but  little  or 
no  inconvenience.  Instances  are  recorded  where  the  fisher  marten  has  attacked  and 
routed  such  a  comparatively-large  animal  as  the  raccoon. 

In  its  chiefly  nocturnal  and  largely  arboreal  habits  the  fisher  marten  resembles 
most  of  the  other  members  of  the  group;  its  agility  in  the  forests  is,  however,  very 
remarkable  and  when  much  frightened,  or  in  pursuit  of  prey,  it  has  been  known  to 
leap  from  tree  to  tree.  The  nest  is  usually  built  in  the  hole  of  a  tree  at  a  great 
height  above  the  ground;  the  young  being  generally  from  two  to  four  in  number, 
and  produced  at  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May. 

The  fisher  marten  is  trapped  for  its  skins  in  the  northern  parts  of  America  from 
October  till  May,  those  captured  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  being  in  the  best 
condition.  The  fur  is  not  nearly  so  valuable  as  that  of  the  American  marten;  the 
usual  price  being  about  a  dollar  and  a  half  per  skin.  In  the  European  markets  the 
fur  is  generally  known  as  the  Virginian  polecat. 

Readily  distinguished  from  all  the  other  species  by  its  more  brilliant 
coloration,  and  the  greater  relative  length  of  the  tail,  which  is  fully 
equal  to  two-thirds  that  of  the  head  and  body,  the  Indian  marten  (M.  flavigida)  is 
the  handsomest  member  of  the  group.  The  soles  of  the  feet  are,  moreover,  at  least 
partially  naked,  although  this  characteristic  is  less  marked  in  Himalayan  specimens 
than  in  those  from  more  easterly  regions. 

The  fur  is  generally  short,  although  longer  in  the  Himalayan  than  in  other 
examples,  and  has  a  thick,  woolly  under-fur  during  the  winter.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  this  animal,  one  of  which  is  more  brightly  colored  than  the  other.  In 
the  former,  or  common  Indian  type,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  neck,  the  rump, 
the  tail,  and  the  limbs,  are  either  glossy  blackish  brown  or  black;  while  the  middle 
of  the  back  is  of  a  paler  brown,  sometimes  with  a  whitish  tinge.  The  chin  and 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS  647 

upper  part  of  the  throat  are  white,  while  the  lower  throat  and  chest  are  either  of  a 
brilliant  orange,  brownish  yellow,  or  pure  yellow  tint.  In  the  second  variety,  with 
the  exception  of  the  white  chin  and  throat  and  the  pale  yellow  chest,  the  whole  of 
the  fur  is  dark  brown.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  varies  from  twenty  to 
twenty-two  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  inclusive  of  the  hair  at  the  tip,  from  seven- 
teen to  twenty  inches.  According  to  Mr.  Blanford,  the  Indian  marten  is  found 
throughout  the  Himalayas,  from  the  regions  to  the  westward  of  Kashmir  to  Eastern 
Assam,  and  thence  through  the  hilly  districts  of  Burma  to  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
Sumatra.  In  Peninsular  India  it  occurs  on  the  Nilgiri  and  Travancore  hills; 
while  to  the  eastward  its  range  extends  as  far  as  Southern  China  and  Amurland.  It 
is  always  found  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  sea  level,  ranging  in  the  Hima- 
layas up  to  seven  thousand  or  eight  thousand  feet;  and  its  occurrence  in  ranges  so 
remote  from  one  another  as  the  Himalayas  and  Nilgiri  would  seem  to  indicate  a 
former  colder  condition  of  climate  in  order  to  have  enabled  the  animal  to  have 
traversed  the  intervening  hot  districts. 

This  marten  is  only  found  where  the  hills  are  thickly  clothed  with 
forest,  and  is  by  no  means  exclusively  nocturnal.  Although  appar- 
ently far  from  uncommon  in  the  Himalayas,  it  is,  according  to  the  writer's  personal 
experience,  but  seldom  seen.  He  had,  however,  once  the  good  fortune  to  see  a  pair 
of  these  handsome  animals  descend  from  the  trees,  and  gambol  in  a  forest  glade  at  a 
short  distance  from  his  position.  Other  observers  state  that  it  may  sometimes  be 
seen  in  parties  of  five  or  six,  hunting  for  prey  either  among  brushwood  or  on  the 
branches  of  trees.  The  late  Professer  L,.  Adams  states  that,  when  on  the  move  it  is 
continually  uttering  a  kind  of  low  chuckle,  prolonged  into  a  harsh  cry  when  it  be- 
comes excited.  Its  food,  which  includes  large  insects,  appears  to  be  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  martens,  but  it  is  reported  to  kill  young  deer.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  a  fossil  marten,  probably  nearly  allied  to  this  species,  occurs  in  the 
Pliocene  strata  of  the  Siwalik  hills  of  Northern  India,  and  is  thus  the  oldest  repre- 
sentative of  the  group  yet  known. 

With  the  well-known  European  polecat  {M.  putorius)  we  come  to 
the  first  representative  of  the  second  great  group  of  the  genus  Mustela, 
or  that  which  includes  the  polecats,  weasels,  stoats,  and  minks. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  chief  characteristics  by  which  these  animals  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  martens  are  the  absence  of  the  first  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  the  sharper  cusps  on  the  crowns  of  all  the  cheek-teeth,  and  the  absence 
of  a  cusp  on  the  inner  side  of  the  blade  of  the  flesh-tooth  in  the  lower  jaw.  The 
members  of  this  group  are,  moreover,  of  smaller  size  than  the  martens,  and  have,  as 
a  rule,  longer  bodies  and  proportionately  shorter  legs;  and  whereas  the  martens  give 
but  little  smell,  the  animals  remaining  for  consideration  are  of  ill  reputation  in  this  re- 
spect—  as  testified  by  the  old  name  of  foumart  (foul  marten)  applied  to  the  polecat. 

The  common  polecat  is  the  best  known  representative  of  a  small  group  of  five 
species,  distinguished  from  the  stoats  and  weasels  by  their  larger  size  and  more 
powerful  build.  In  length  the  head  and  body  usually  measure  about  seventeen 
inches,  while  that  of  the  tail  is  six  inches.  The  nose  is  rather  sharp,  the  small  ears 
are  rounded,  the  neck  is  relatively  long,  and  the  tail  is  bushy.  In  color  the  long 


648  THE   CARNIVORES 

hair  of  the  body  and  limbs  is  brownish  black  or  black,  darkest  on  the  head,  tail, 
feet,  and  under  parts;  while  the  ears  are  white,  and  there  are  some  brown  and  white 
markings  on  the  face  and  mouth.  The  woolly  under-fur  is  a  pale  yellow,  or  ful- 
vous, and  by  showing  through  the  long  hair  communicates  a  general  brown  tinge, 
mingled  with  yellow,  to  the  whole  pelage;  the  tint  varying  considerably  in  different 
individuals.  The  fur  is  very  long  and  loose  on  most  parts  of  the  body,  and  is  com- 
mercially known  as  "fitch,"  from  the  name  Fitchet,  or  Fitcher,  applied  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  to  this  animal.  The  range  of  the  polecat  includes  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  extending  as  far  northward  as  the  southerly  districts  of  Sweden  and 
the  White  Sea,  but  not  including  the  Mediterranean  countries.  In  Western  and 
Northern  Asia  it  is  replaced  by  the  closely- allied  Siberian  polecat  (M.  eversmanni ) , 
which  appears  to  be  distinguished  mainly  by  the  head  and  back  being  nearly  white, 
and  by  certain  differences  in  the  form  of  the  skull.  A  third  nearly-allied  kind  is  the 
Tibetan  polecat  (M.  larvata),  inhabiting  Ladakh  and  Tibet,  which  differs  only  from 
the  last  by  certain  features  in  the  base  of  the  skull. 


SKELETON  OF  THE  POLECAT. 

The  Sarmatian  polecat  (P.  sarmaticus}  is,  however,  a  very  distinct 
Polecat 


species,  of  rather  smaller  size  than  the  common  kind,  and  well  distin- 


guished by  the  fur  of  the  under  parts  being  of  a  glossy  black,  while 
that  of  the  upper  parts  is  a  mixture  of  brown  and  yellowish  white.  This  species, 
often  known  as  the  mottled  polecat,  presents,  therefore,  another  instance  of  that  pe- 
culiar distribution  of  dark  and  light  colors  which  we  have  already  alluded  to  as  char- 
acteristic of  several  members  of  the  family.  It  is  found  in  Southeastern  Europe, 
northward  from  Poland,  whence  it  extends  into  Western  Asia,  where  it  is  common 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Kandahar. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  American,  or  black-footed  polecat  {M.  nigripes), 
a°p"i  (-°t6     which  is  generally  of  a  brownish-white  color,  with  the  feet,  the  tip  of 

the  tail,  and  a  broad  stripe  across  the  forehead,  black.  It  is  larger 
than  the  common  species ;  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  measuring  nineteen 
inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair  at  the  end,  five  and  one-half  inches.  It 
inhabits  the  central  plateau  of  the  United  States,  ranging  as  far  south  as  Texas. 

The  habits  of  all  these  five  species  of  polecat  appear  to  be  very  similar, 

and  the  whole  of  them  are  characterized  by  their  extremely  fetid  odor. 
From  the  barren  nature  of  the  country  which  it  inhabits,  the  Tibetan  polecat  proba- 
bly, however,  dwells  among  rocks  and  stones;  while  the  Sarmatian  species  gener- 
ally resides  in  the  deserted  burrows  of  other  animals. 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS 


649 


The  common  polecat,  whose  habits  will  in  the  main  serve  to  illustrate  those  of 
the  other  species,  is  chiefly  a  nocturnal  animal,  lying  concealed  during  the  day  in 
woods,  in  fox  or  rabbit  holes,  woodstacks,  or  among  rocks,  and  issuing  forth  at  even- 
ing for  its  devastations.  In  winter  it  frequently  seeks  shelter  in  old  farm  buildings 
or  outhouses.  It  is  far  less  arboreal  in  its  habits  than  the  martens,  and  is  also  less 
active  in  its  ways.  The  polecat  is  a  deadly  enemy  to  hares,  rabbits,  and  partridges, 
and  equally  destructive  to  all  kinds  of  domestic  poultry,  from  the  pigeon  to  the  tur- 
key; while  in  addition  to  the  smaller  Mammals  and  birds,  it  will  consume  eggs,  liz- 
ards, snakes,  and  frogs.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  it  also  carries  away  its 
food  to  its  lair;  this  would  be  obviously  impossible  with  such  large  birds  as  geese 


THE  POLECAT. 
(One-third   natural  size.) 

and  turkeys,  which  are,  perhaps,  merely  killed  for  that  insatiable  thirst  for  blood, 
which  is  its  characteristic.  Indeed,  wherever  a  polecat  gains  access  to  a  poultry 
house,  the  owner  will  be  pretty  sure  to  find  the  majority  of  the  occupants  lying  dead 
in  the  morning.  The  polecat  is,  moreover,  a  no  less  deadly  enemy  to  the  game  pre- 
server; the  authors  of  Bell's  British  Quadrupeds  remarking  that  "  the  destruction 
which  it  occasions  among  the  eggs  and  young  of  pheasants  and  partridges,  young  hares 
and  rabbits,  is  incalculable;  and,  in  the  latter  case  particularly,  it  follows  these  animals 
into  their  burrows  with  such  facility  that  a  single  family  of  polecats  would  shortly 
produce  a  sensible  diminution  in  numbers  among  the  denizens  of  a  whole  warren. ' ' 
Fortunately,  however,  of  late  years  its  numbers  have  been  vastly  diminished, 
and  it  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  regions  with  thick  woods  affording  it  comparatively 


650 


THE   CARNIVORES 


inaccessible  retreats.  In  the  Alps  it  wanders  in  summer  far  above  the  limit  of  trees, 
although  retreating  to  lower  elevations  in  winter.  The  nest  of  the  polecat  is  made 
in  a  deserted  rabbit  hole,  in  the  crevices  of  rocks,  or  among  heaps  of  stones  over- 
grown with  brushwood  or  weeds;  and  here  the  young  are  born  in  the  months  of 
April  and  May,  or,  more  rarely,  the  beginning  of  June.  The  number  in  a  litter  may 
vary  from  three  to  eight,  although  it  is  more  usual  to  find  four,  five  or  six.  When 
captured  early,  the  young  may  be  easily  trained  for  the  purpose  of  rabbit  catching. 
Fossil  remains  of  the  polecat,  like  those  of  the  weasel  and  the  stoat,  have  been  ob- 
tained from  the  cavern  deposits  of  England  and  the  Continent,  in  association  with 
the  bones  of  extinct  Mammals. 


THE  FERRET. 
(One-third  natural  size.) 

After  much  discussion  and  difference  of  opinion,  zoologists  are 
agreed  that  the  ferret  is  merely  a  variety  of  the  polecat,  somewhat 
modified  by  the  effects  of  long-continued  captivity.  It  is  usually  smaller  and  more 
slender  than  the  polecat,  and  is  generally  of  a  yellowish- white  color,  with  pink  eyes, 
but  there  is  also  a  brown  variety  known  as  the  "  polecat  ferret."  Ferrets  are  bred 
chiefly  for  rabbit  and  rat  hunting,  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Although 
they  learn  to  know  their  masters  to  a  certain  extent,  they  are  untrustworthy  animals, 
and  should  be  handled  with  caution.  The  ferret  has  no  strong  local  attachments,  and, 
therefore,  requires  to  be  strictly  secured.  It  is  also  very  susceptible  to  cold.  As  is 
the  case  with  many  domesticated  animals,  ferrets  are  more  prolific  than  their  wild 
allies,  the  number  in  a  litter  usually  varying  from  five  to  ten.  The  young  are  born 
in  the  spring ;  but  it  is  said  that  there  may  sometimes  be  two  litters  in  the  year. 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS  651 

In  rabbit  catching  the  ferret  is  usually  sent  into  the  hole  either  muzzled  or  at- 
tached to  a  coil  of  string,  by  which  it  can  be  withdrawn.  If  allowed  to  enter  a 
rabbit  hole  unmuzzled,  or  without  a  string,  ferrets  are  very  likely  to  remain  in  such 
good  quarters,  and  to  slaughter  the  occupants  one  after  another.  The  usual  plan  is 
to  stop  all  the  entrances  to  the  burrows  by  means  of  small  bag-like  nets,  in  which 
the  rabbits  are  caught  when  they  bolt ;  but  sometimes  they  are  allowed  to  bolt 
freely,  and  are  either  shot  or  coursed  with  dogs.  In  ferreting  it  is  essential  that 
those  who  are  present  should  be  perfectly  silent,  as  otherwise  the  rabbits  will  prefer 
to  be  eaten  alive  by  the  ferret  in  their  holes  rather  than  attempt  to  escape.  It  is 
also  important  that  no  one  should  stand  immediately  in  front  of  the  entrance  to  the 
hole.  When  a  ferret  enters  a  burrow  in  which  there  are  several  rabbits,  a  pro- 
digious scuffling  and  scurrying  immediately  takes  place  in  the  interior ;  and  after  a 
few  minutes,  if  not  frightened  by  sounds  above,  the  occupants  soon  begin  to  bolt  in 
rapid  succession  at  the  various  exits.  Like  the  other  members  of  its  tribe,  a  ferret 
almost  invariably  seizes  a  rabbit  immediately  behind  the  ear. 

The  common  weasel  of  Europe  (M.  vulgaris)  is  the  first  of  several 
species,  distinguished  from  the  polecats  by  their  smaller  size,  longer 
bodies,  and  the  much  slighter  development  of  the  ridges  and  crests  on  their  skulls. 
The  difference  in  the  proportionate  length  of  the  weasel  and  the  polecat  will  be 
made  evident  by  comparing  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  of  the  former  given  on  p.  635 
with  that  of  the  latter  on  p.  648.  Moreover,  whereas  none  of  the  martens  or  pole- 
cats have  a  winter  coat  markedly  different  in  color  from  that  which  they  wear  in 
summer,  the  weasels  and  stoats  in  northern  regions  generally  or  invariably  change 
their  summer  dress  of  brown  for  a  white  winter  garb. 

The  common  weasel,  which  ranges  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  Northern  and 
Central  Asia,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  northern  part  of  America,  usually  varies 
from  six  to  eight  inches  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail ; 
the  tail  itself,  with  the  hair  at  the  end,  varying  from  two  to  two  and  one-half 
inches.  In  color  the  upper  parts  are  usually  some  shade  of  mahogany  brown  in  the 
summer  dress,  while  the  throat  and  under  parts  are  white,  without  any  tinge  of 
yellow.  The  outer  sides  of  the  limbs  are  colored  like  the  back,  but  it  appears  that 
the  feet  may  be  either  of  the  same  tint  as  the  back  or  as  the  under  parts.  There  is 
considerable  individual  variation  in  the  shade  of  the  brown,  as  there  is  with  regard 
to  the  limits  of  demarkation  between  the  brown  and  the  white  areas.  The  tail  is 
cylindrical  and  pointed,  with  its  tip  of  nearly  or  exactly  the  same  tint  as  the  back. 
The  female  weasel  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  male,  and  appears  to  be  the 
animal  locally  known  as  the  cane. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  the  whole  extent  of  its  range  the  weasel  assumes  a 
white  dress  in  winter,  although  it  appears  that  this  change  of  dress  is  less  regular 
than  in  its  cousin  the  stoat,  and  requires  a  greater  intensity  of  cold  for  its  produc- 
tion. This  change  occurs  but  rarely  in  the  British  Islands.  Even  in  the  winter 
dress,  the  tip  of  the  tail,  although  paler  than  ordinary,  retains  the  reddish  brown 
color.  In  North  America  the  weasel  turns  white  in  the  northern  parts  of  New 
England  and  the  Adirondack  mountains  near  New  York,  but  in  the  latitude  of 
Massachusetts  it  retains  the  dark  color  throughout  the  year. 


652 


THE  CARNIVORES 


Habits 


The  weasel,  in  suitable  localities,  may  be  found  almost  every- 
where,—  in  hedgerows,  woods,  among  stones,  in  water  courses,  and 
along  the  edges  of  swamps.  Its  general  food  consists  of  small  creatures,  such  as 
mice,  rats,  small  birds,  moles,  shrews,  insects,  etc. ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  it 
will  occasionally  make  inroads  on  poultry,  and  sometimes  attack  rabbits  and  sleeping 
partridges.  The  accusations  of  killing  rabbits  and  hares  habitually,  which  are  so 
frequently  leveled  against  the  weasel,  should,  however,  in  most  cases  be  transferred 
to  the  stoat.  Indeed,  from  the  war  incessantly  waged  by  the  weasel  against  rats, 
mice,  and  moles  of  all  kinds,  it  ought  to  be  protected  by  the  farmer,  if  not  also  by  the 
gamekeeper,  rather  than  ruthlessly  destroyed  whenever  encountered.  In  spite,  how- 
ever, of  these  services,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  weasel  does  sometimes  take  to 


THE  WEASEI<. 
(One-third  natural  size.) 

rabbit  hunting  in  good  earnest;  and  several  will  combine  together  in  companies  the 
better  to  effect  their  object.  Thus,  the  late  Richard  Jeff  cries  mentions  that  he  has 
seen  five  and  heard  of  eight  weasels  together.  ' '  The  five  I  saw, ' '  writes  this  observer, 
' '  were  working  a  sandy  bank  drilled  with  holes,  from  which  the  rabbits  in  wild  alarm 
were  darting  in  all  directions.  The  weasels  raced  from  hole  to  hole,  and  along  the 
sides  of  the  bank  exactly  like  a  pack  of  hounds,  and  seemed  intensely  excited. 
Their  manner  of  hunting  resembles  the  motions  of  ants;  these  insects  run  a  little  way 
very  swiftly,  then  stop,  turn  to  the  right  or  left,  make  a  short  detour,  and  afterward 
on  again  in  a  straight  line.  So  the  pack  of  weasels  darted  forward,  stopped,  went 
from  side  to  side,  and  then  on  a  yard  or  two,  and  repeated  the  process.  To  see  their 
reddish  heads  thrust  for  a  moment  from  the  holes,  then  withdraw  to  reappear  at 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS  653 

another,  would  have  been  amusing  had  it  not  been  for  the  reflection,  that  their  frisky 
tricks  would  assuredly  end  in  death."  In  another  passage  the  same  author  graphic- 
ally describes  the  chase  of  an  unfortunate  rabbit  by  a  weasel  —  the  timid  fear  and 
almost  complete  paralysis  of  the  pursued  through  sheer  terror,  and  the  bold  confi- 
dence of  the  bloodthirsty  pursuer. 

In  all  cases  the  weasel  is  a  bold  and  inquisitive  animal,  exhibiting  but  little  fear 
of  man,  and  poking  out  its  nose  from  some  hole  or  cranny  to  survey  his  proceed- 
ings with  the  greatest  indifference  and  self-possession.  In  spite,  however,  of  this 
curiosity,  the  weasel  is  ever  on  the  alert  to  withdraw  its  head  at  the  slightest 
symptom  of  attack.  When  on  the  ground,  weasels  generally  proceed  in  a  series  of 
small  leaps,  stopping  at  intervals  to  take  a  careful  survey  of  their  surroundings,  and 
not  unfrequently  raising  themselves  on  their  haunches  in  order  to  obtain  a  better 
view.  From  its  elongated,  almost  snake-like  body  the  weasel  can  follow  most  of 
the  small  Mammals  on  which  it  preys  to  their  holes  or  hiding  places.  As  Bell  ob- 
serves :  "It  follows  the  mole  and  the  field  mouse  to  their  runs;  it  threads  the 
mazes  formed  in  the  wheat  by  the  colonies  of  mice  which  infest  it,  and  its  long, 
flexible  body,  its  extraordinary  length  of  neck,  the  closeness  of  its  fur,  and  its  ex- 
treme agility  and  quickness  of  movement,  combine  to  adapt  it  to  such  habits,  in 
which  it  is  also  much  aided  by  its  power  of  hunting  by  scent."  The  weasel  is  like- 
wise an  expert  climber,  seizing  hen  birds  while  sitting  in  their  nests,  and  thus  gain- 
ing both  parent  and  offspring,  or  eggs,  at  a  single  stroke.  Although  probably  more 
prone  to  wander  by  night  than  by  day,  it  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  nocturnal 
creature,  and  may,  indeed,  as  in  the  instance  above  recorded,  be  frequently  observed 
hunting  by  day.  Professor  Bell  states  that  the  weasel  brings  forth  four  or  more 
frequently  five  young,  and  is  said  to  have  two  or  three  litters  in  a  year.  The  nest 
is  composed  of  dry  leaves  and  herbage,  and  is  warm  and  dry,  being  usually  placed 
in  a  hole  in  a  bank,  in  a  dry  ditch,  or  in  a  hollow  tree.  As  is  well  known,  the 
female  weasel  will  defend  her  helpless  young  with  great  fury  and  desperation,  risk- 
ing her  own  life  freely  rather  than  leave  them.  Occasionally,  too,  the  male  will 
join  in  endeavoring  to  protect  or  carry  off  the  young  from  danger. 
oto  t  The  stoat  or,  as  it  is  generally  called  when  in  winter  dress,  the 

ermine  (M.  erminea),  is  closely  allied  to  the  weasel,  from  which  it  is 
chiefly  distinguished  by  its  superior  size,  and  the  black  tip  to  the  tail,  which  retains 
its  color  when  the  rest  of  the  fur  turns  white.  On  account  of  its  superior  size  the 
stoat  is  frequently  known  as  the  greater  weasel. 

In  summer  the  color  of  the  fur  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  stoat  is  dull  mahogany 
brown,  while  the  under  parts  are  of  a  pale  sulphur  yellow,  and  are  thus  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pure  white  of  the  weasel.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  is 
usually  from  nine  to  ten  inches,  but  it  may  occasionally  fall  as  low  as  eight  inches, 
or  reach  to  eleven;  the  length  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair,  varying  from  about  three 
to  five  inches. 
Distribution  ^e  distribution  of  the  stoat  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  weasel; 

the  animal  being  widely  spread  over  the  northern  regions  of  both  Hemi- 
spheres; it  is,  however,  not  improbable  that  the  stoat  extends  into  portions  of  the 
Western  Himalayas,  where  its  cousin  is  unknown.  In  all  the  more  northern  parts 


654 


THE   CARNIVORES 


of  its  habitat  the  stoat  invariably  assumes  the  well-known  white  winter  dress  which 
constitutes  the  valuable  ermine  of  commerce.  In  the  British  Islands  this  change 
always  takes  place  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland;  while  in  the  northern  English 
counties,  like  Northumberland  and  Durham,  it  is  frequent  but  by  no  means  universal. 
Proceeding  further  south,  the  change  of  color  becomes  more  and  more  rare,  taking 
place  only  occasionally  in  counties  like  Cambridgeshire  and  Lincolnshire,  while  in 
Cornwall  and  Hampshire  it  is  almost  unknown.  In  North  America  the  change 
takes  place  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of  the  United  States  and  all  the  regions 
to  the  northward;  specimens  captured  during  the  winter  in  Massachusetts,  New 
York,  and  Pennsylvania  being  almost  invariably  white.  Some  of  those  from  Vir- 
ginia turn  partially  white,  while  in  South  Carolina  there  is  no  change  at  all. 


THE;  STOAT  OR  ERMINE  IN  WINTER  DRESS. 
(One-third  natural  size.) 

The  nature  of  the  change  from  the  dark  summer  to  the  white  winter 
dress  in  the  stoat  and  other  animals  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion. 
It  was  originally  considered  that  the  animal  sheds  its  coat  in  the  autumn  and 
spring  ;  the  dark  summer  coat  being  gradually  replaced  by  the  advent  of  the  white 
hairs  of  the  winter  one.  Doubts  then  arose  whether  the  change  in  color  was  always 
coincident  with  the  development  of  the  winter  and  summer  coat,  and  whether  the 
hairs  themselves  might  not  actually  change  color.  Dr.  Elliott  Coues  succeeded, 
however,  in  proving  that  the  change  might  take  place  in  either  way,  some  speci- 
mens taken  in  spring  showing  the  long,  woolly,  white,  winter  coat  on  some  parts  of 
the  body,  while  on  other  parts  they  had  the  short,  coarse,  brown  hair  of  summer; 
and  he  observes  that  ' '  we  may  safely  conclude  that  if  the  requisite  temperature  be 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND  WEASELS  655 

experienced,  at  the  periods  of  renewal  of  the  coat,  the  new  hairs  will  come  out  of  the 
opposite  color ;  if  not,  they  will  appear  of  the  same  color,  and  afterward  change  ; 
that  is,  the  change  may  or  may  not  be  coincident  with  the  shedding." 

Dr.  Coues  attributed  the  reason  of  the  color-change  entirely  to  the  effects  of 
temperature  ;  but  strong  objection  is  taken  to  this  view  by  Dr.  Hart  Merriam,  who 
observes  that  it  occurs  in  captive  specimens  kept  continually  in  warm  rooms.  Dr. 
Merriam  relies,  however,  chiefly  upon  the  circumstance  observed  by  himself  and 
others  that  among  the  stoats  of  the  Adirondack  mountains  the  winter  change  never 
takes  place  till  after  the  first  fall  of  snow,  which  generally  occurs  toward  the  end 
of  October  or  the  beginning  of  November.  Although  the  temperature  of  the  air 
may  be  much  lower  before  than  subsequent  to  this  first  snowfall,  yet  it  is  true 
' '  that  ermine  caught  up  to  the  very  day  of  the  first  appearance  of  snow  bear  no  evi- 
dence of  the  impending  change.  Within  forty-eight  hours,  however,  after  the 
occurrence  of  the  snowstorm  the  coat  of  the  ermine  has  already  commenced  to 
assume  a  pied  and  mottled  appearance,  and  the  change  now  commenced  progresses 
to  its  termination  with  great  rapidity.  In  early  spring,  the  period  for  the  reversal 
of  this  process,  the  changing  back  from  the  white  coat  of  winter  to  the  brown  sum- 
mer coat  is  determined  by  the  same  cause  —  the  presence  or  absence  of  snow. ' ' 
These  arguments  appear  conclusive  that  the  change  is  really  due  to  the  necessity  of 
the  color  of  the  animal  being  adapted  to  its  external  surroundings ;  the  change  in 
captivity  being  due  to  the  influence  of  hereditary  habits,  which  cannot  be  over- 
come in  the  short  period  during  which  the  animals  are  under  observation. 

In  habits  the  stoat  is  in  general  very  similar  to  the  weasel,  although 
from  its  larger  size  and  greater  strength  it  more  commonly  attacks 
larger  animals,  such  as  hares,  rabbits,  and  poultry,  than  its  smaller  relatives.  In 
America  it  is  very  fond  of  the  ruffed  grouse,  and  will  often  overcome  the  large 
northern  hare;  while  its  destruction  of  poultry  is  proved  by  a  statement  of  Audubon 
to  the  effect  that  one  has  been  known  in  a  single  night  to  slay  upwards  of  forty 
well-grown  fowls.  When  food  is  abundant  it  is  stated  that  the  stoat  only  sucks  the 
blood  or  eats  the  brains  of  its  victims,  leaving  the  flesh  untouched.  The  late  Rich- 
ard Jefferies  states  that  these  animals  usually  hunt  in  couples,  although  occasionally 
three  may  be  seen  together;  and  that  their  range  of  destruction  seems  only  to  be 
limited  by  their  strength. 

The  stoat  hunts  its  prey  both  by  day  and  by  night,  and  is  fully  as  good  a 
climber  as  the  weasel.  Although  it  cannot  in  any  way  be  considered  an  aquatic 
animal,  there  is  good  evidence  to  show  that  it  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and  will, 
when  occasion  arises,  take  readily  to  the  water.  Its  favorite  haunts  appear  to  be 
stony  places  and  thickets,  which  secure  it  a  safe  refuge  from  its  foes;  and  it  is  also 
very  partial  to  patches  of  impenetrable  gorse,  while  it  will  sometimes  take  up  its 
abode  in  a  deserted  rabbit  burrow.  In  spite  of  its  destructiveness  to  poultry  and 
game  of  all  kinds  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  from  the  number  of  rats,  mice,  and 
voles  it  consumes,  the  stoat  is  a  benefactor  to  the  farmer;  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that,  whenever  unusual  numbers  of  any  of  the  Rodents  above  mentioned  have 
appeared  in  any  district,  they  have  almost  invariably  been  followed  by  a  large 
assemblage  of  stoats  and  weasels  who  wage  war  upon  them.  It  is  almost  superfluous 


656  THE   CARNIVORES 

to  add   that   the   stoat,  when   angered,  emits    a   most    noisome   and    penetrating 
smell. 

The  young  in  England  are  generally  produced  during  the  months  of  April  and 
May,  in  a  nest  constructed  in  a  hole  in  some  dry  bank.  Professor  Bell  states  that 
the  usual  number  of  young  in  a  litter  is  five  ;  Dr.  Coues  states  that  the  number  may 
vary  from  a  pair  to  as  many  as  a  dozen,  although  five  or  six  may  be  taken  as  the 
average.  In  America  the  stoat  has  occasionally  been  employed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  ferret  for  rabbit  catching,  and  appears  to  take  to  the  work  readily.  In  most 
parts  of  England  stoats  seem  to  be  far  less  common  than  weasels,  although  the  re- 
verse is  stated  to  be  the  case  in  Scotland. 

The  fur  of  such  individuals  as  assume  in  Britain  the  white  winter  dress  is 
always  far  inferior  in  quality  to  that  of  skins  obtained  from  more  northerly  regions; 
the  inferiority  consisting  in  the  shorter  and  thinner  hairs,  and  the  less  pure  and 
bright  tint  of  the  whole  pelage.  The  importation  of  ermine  skins  into  England 
was  formerly  very  large,  more  than  105,000  having  been  landed  in  the  year  1833; 
but  at  a  later  period,  owing  to  depreciation  in  value,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
found  that  ermine  skins  were  not  worth  the  trouble  of  collection.  At  the  present 
day  the  ermine  is  much  more  abundant  in  British  North  America  and  Alaska 
than  it  is  in  the  United  States ;  the  largest  number  of  skins  being  obtained  from 
Alaska. 

In  addition  to  the  weasel  and  stoat,  there  are  a  number  of  more  or 
less  closely-allied  species  inhabiting  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  while  a 
few  descend  below  the  Equator.  In  North  America,  inhabiting  the  region  of  the 
Upper  Missouri,  we  have  the  long-tailed  stoat  (M.  longicauda],  distinguished  from 
the  ordinary  stoat  by  its  longer  tail.  The  Brazilian,  or  bridled  weasel  (M.frenata}, 
is  a  more  southerly  species,  ranging  from  Texas  to  Brazil,  and  distinguished  by  the 
head  being  darker  than  the  body  and  blotched  with  white,  and  also  by  the  retention 
of  the  dark  color  throughout  the  year.  A  weasel  from  Patagonia  may  be  only  a 
variety  of  this  species. 

Asia  also  possesses  a  number  of  representatives  of  the  group,  such  as  the  Hima- 
layan weasel  {M.  hemachelana) ,  in  which  the  under  parts  are  brown  and  the  tip  of 
the  tail  dark;  the  striped  weasel  (M.  strigidorsus} ,  of  Sikhim,  in  which  there  is  a 
pale  stripe  down  the  back;  the  yellow-bellied  weasel  (M.  cathia),  from  the  Central 
and  Eastern  Himalayas;  the  pale  weasel  (M.  alpind),  ranging  from  the  Altai 
to  Gilgit;  as  well  as  several  others,  some  of  which  are  confined  to  Tibet. 

Weasels  were  also  well  represented  in  past  epochs  of  the  earth's  his- 
18  tory,  the  remains  of  numerous  species  having  been  described  from  the 
Micocene  or  Middle  Tertiaries  of  Europe.  Of  those  referred  to  the  existing  genus 
Mustela,  some  differ  from  living  weasels,  and  thereby  agree  with  the  larger  martens, 
in  having  four  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  both  jaws  ;  while  others  have  four  pairs 
of  these  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  only  three  in  the  lower  jaw;  and  others  again, 
have  the  reverse  of  this  arrangement.  Another  extinct  weasel-like  animal  from  the 
same  deposits,  for  which  the  name  Plesictis  has  been  proposed,  is  one  of  the  forms 
already  alluded  to  as  apparently  connecting  the  weasels  so  intimately  with  the 
civets. 


THE  MARTENS,  POLECATS,  AND   WEASELS 


657 


Mink 


The  animal  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration  forms 
one  of  a  group  of  three  species  of  comparatively-large  size,  whose 
nearest  allies  are  the  polecats.  The  European  representative  of  this  group 
(M.  lutreola],  is  generally  known  on  the  Continent  as  the  nertz,  or  sumpf-otter 
(marsh  otter) ,  and  has  no  recognized  English  title,  although  the  name  of  European 
mink  has  been  suggested  for  it,  and  is  adopted  in  this  work.  The  second  species  is 
the  true  mink  (M.  visori)  of  North  America ;  while  the  third  is  the  Siberian  mink 
(M.  sibirica),  which  is  stated  to  connect  the  other  two  with  the  polecats. 

These  three  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  genus,  not  only 
by  their  semiaquatic  habits,  but  by  certain  structural  peculiarities.  While  agree- 
ing with  the  polecats  in  the  number  of  their  teeth,  the  minks  differ  from  them,  as 


THE  EUROPEAN  MINK. 
(One-third  natural  size.) 

well  as  from  the  weasels,  by  the  narrower  muzzle  to  their  skulls,  being  thus  more 
like  the  martens.  The  premolar  teeth  are  relatively  larger  than  in  their  nearest 
allies  ;  while  a  more  important  point  of  distinction  is  afforded  by  the  partial  web- 
bing of  the  toes,  which  are  also  peculiar  in  possessing  no  long  hair  between  their 
naked  pads. 

The  European  and  North- American  minks  are  such  closely-allied  animals  that 
they  cannot  be  even  distinguished  from  one  another  externally ;  and  in  our 
own  opinion  it  would  be  better  to  regard  them  as  mere  local  varieties  of  a  single 
species.  The  European  mink  has,  however,  very  generally  a  white  upper  lip, 
which  is  but  rarely  exhibited  in  its  American  relative.  When  the  skulls  of  the  two 
forms  are  compared  together  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  American  form  the  upper 

molar  tooth  is  invariably  decidedly  larger  than    in  the   European  ;    and    it  is  on 
42 


658  THE   CARNIVORES 

account  of  this  difference  that  the  two  are  regarded  as  specifically  distinct  from  one 
another. 

Ivike  the  martens,  the  minks  have  a  uniformly-long  and  somewhat  bushy  tail, 
differing  markedly  from  that  of  the  weasels  ;  its  whole  length  being  approximately 
equal  to  half  that  of  the  head  and  body.  The  ears  are  smaller  than  in  any  of  the 
allied  forms,  and  scarcely  appear  above  the  general  level  of  the  fur.  The  pelage 
consists  of  a  dense,  soft,  and  matted  under-fur,  mixed  with  long,  stiff,  and  glossy 
hairs  ;  the  gloss  being  most  marked  in  the  fur  of  the  upper  parts,  while  the  hairs  of 
the  tail  are  more  bristly  than  elsewhere.  In  color  the  mink,  according  to  Dr. 
Coues,  varies  from  a  light  dull  yellowish  brown  to  a  rich  black  chocolate  brown  ; 
the  ordinary  tint  being  a  rich  dark  brown,  scarcely,  if  at  all,  paler  below  than  above. 
The  tail  is  always  decidedly  blackish.  Our  illustration  exhibits  the  white  upper  lip 
usually  distinctive  of  the  European  mink.  In  both  the  eastern  and  western  forms 
the  chin  is  always  white,  although  the  extent  of  the  white  area  is  subject  to  indi- 
vidual variation.  In  addition  to  the  white  on  the  chin,  there  may  also  be  small 
irregular  patches  of  the  same  color  on  the  under  parts,  while  as  a  rare  abnormality, 
the  tail  may  also  be  tipped  with  white. 

As  a  rule,  the  American  mink  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  European  ;  and  in 
both  the  male  is  always  larger  than  the  female.  The  American  form  may  vary  in 
length  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches;  while  the  length  of  the  tail,  inclusive  of  the  hair,  ranges  from  about  eight 
to  nine  inches.  The  European  mink  is  an  inhabitant  of  Eastern  Europe,  occurring 
at  the  present  day  in  Poland,  Finland,  and  the  greater  part  of  Russia,  although  un- 
known to  the  eastward  of  the  Ural  mountains.  The  American  species  ranges  over 
the  greater  part  of  North  America,  although  not  found  in  the  extreme  north  of  that 
continent. 

In  its  general  habits  the  mink,  in  both  hemispheres,  is  thoroughly 
amphibious,  and  is  therefore  only  found  in  districts  where  water  is 
abundant.  Indeed,  these  animals  may  in  this  respect  be  regarded  as  presenting 
precisely  the  same  relationship  to  the  polecat  as  is  held  by  the  water  vole  to  the 
land  vole.  The  mink,  writes  Dr.  Hart  Merriam,  "not  only  swims  and  dives  with 
facility,  but  can  remain  long  under  water,  and  pursues  and  captures  fish  by  follow- 
ing them  under  logs  or  other  places  from  where  there  is  no  free  escape.  It  has  thus 
been  known  to  catch  as  swift  and  agile  a  fish  as  the  brook  trout,  and  Audubon  says 
that  he  has  seen  a  mink  catch  a  trout  of  upward  of  a  foot  in  length.  It  is  remark- 
ably strong  for  so  small  an  animal,  and  a  single  one  has  been  known  to  drag  a  mal- 
lard duck  more  than  a  mile,  in  order  to  get  to  its  hole,  where  its  mate  joined  in  the 
feast."  Generally,  the  food  of  the  mink  consists  of  various  aquatic  creatures,  such 
as  frogs,  crawfish,  and  mollusks  ;  but  it  will  also  eat  various  small  aquatic  Mam- 
mals, such  as  voles,  as  well  as  mice  and  rats,  while  in  America  it  is  reported  to  prey 
at  times  upon  the  comparatively -large  musquash.  Marsh-frequenting  birds  also  fall 
victims  to  the  mink,  and  their  eggs  are  probably  also  consumed.  Other  wild  birds 
are,  however,  comparatively  safe  from  the  attacks  of  this  animal,  as  its  climbing 
powers  are  of  the  feeblest.  Poultry  are  not  unfrequently  attacked  ;  but  in  these 
and  other  attacks  the  mink  does  not  exhibit  that  wholesale  destructiveness  charac- 


659 

r"' 

teristic  of  the  stoat.  In  hunting,  the  mink  has  often  been  observed  to  pursue  its 
prey  entirely  by  scent ;  and  it  may  be  observed  on  its  hunting  expeditions  both  by 
night  and  by  day. 

As  a  rule,  minks  appear  to  be  comparatively  solitary  animals,  but  Dr.  Merriam 
mentions  having  once  seen  three  in  company.  The  abode  of  the  mink  is  usually  a 
hole  in  the  bank  of  a  stream  or  lake;  and  a  well-trodden  path  always  leads  from  the 
entrance  of  the  burrow  down  to  the  water.  From  such  abiding  places  it  appears  that 
the  animal  will  not  only  make  daily  excursions  for  the  sake  of  procuring  food,  but 
also  wander  into  neighboring  districts,  from  which  it  .sometimes  does  not  return  till 
after  the  lapse  of  a  week  or  two. 

The  nests  of  the  mink  are  situated  either  in  the  above-mentioned  holes,  or  in 
hollow  logs,  and  are  generally  well  lined  with  feathers  and  other  soft  substances. 
The  usual  number  of  young  in  a  litter  is  from  four  to  six  ;  and  in  the  Adirondack 
region  of  New  York  these  are  born  early  in  May,  and  remain  with  the  female  until 
the  following  autumn.  In  America  minks  have  been  extensively  bred  in  a  semi- 
domesticated  state,  for  the  purpose  of  being  used  as  ferrets;  and  in  this  condition  it 
appears  that  the  number  of  young  in  a  litter  may  vary  from  three  to  as  many  as  ten. 
The  scent  characteristic  of  all  the  members  of  the  weasel  group  is  extraordinarily 
developed  in  the  mink,  Dr.  Coues  observing  that  in  America  no  animal,  with  the 
exception  of  the  skunk,  possesses  such  a  powerful,  penetrating,  and  lasting  effluvium. 

All  who  have  hunted  the  mink  bear  witness  to  its  extraordinary  tenacity  of 
life,  the  writer  last  quoted  stating  that  he  has  known  several  instances  of  these  ani- 
mals being  found  alive  after  having  lain  for  fully  four-and-twenty  hours  with  their 
bodies  crushed  flat  beneath  a  heavy  log.  The  countenance  of  the  mink  is  described 
as  at  all  times  far  from  prepossessing  ;  but  when  caught  alive  in  a  steel  trap  these 
animals  are  said  to  have  an  expression  almost  diabolical. 

Some  years  ago  the  fur  of  the  mink  was  but  little  esteemed,  and  the 
Fur 

price  was  at  one  time  said  to  be  so  low  as  not  to  pay  the  cost  of  trans- 
port. Recently  mink  fur  has,  however,  been  more  appreciated,  and  the  animal  has 
consequently  been  more  vigorously  trapped,  with  the  result  that  in  some  districts 
there  has  been  a  considerable  reduction  in  its  numbers.  In  1865  the  value  of  a 
good  mink  skin  was  reported  to  have  reached  five  dollars  ;  and  at  that  date  upwards 
of  6,000  of  these  skins  were  annually  exported  from  Nova  Scotia  alone.  It  is  stated 
that  while  for  two  decades  the  total  number  of  European  mink  skins  averaged 
55,000,  the  exports  of  American  mink  reached  160,000  ;  but  in  the  year  1888  the 
number  of  American  was  upward  of  370,000.  At  the  latter  date  the  value  of  Rus- 
sian mink  varied  from  about  twenty-five  cents  to  one  dollar  per  skin,  while  Ameri- 
.can  skins  fetched  from  one  to  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents.  Much  higher  prices 
were,  however,  current  a  few  years  previously.  American  mink  always  obtains 
higher  prices  than  Russian,  the  best  skins  coming  from  Alaska  and  New  England. 
The  Siberian  mink  is  a  little-known  species  inhabiting  the  dis- 
tricts to  the  eastward  of  the  Yenesei  river,  but  unknown  in  Siberia. 
It  is  more  like  a  polecat  in  general  appearance,  having  similar  dark  and  light  mark- 
ings on  the  head  and  face.  The  color  is  a  clear,  rich  tawny,  or  fulvous  brown,  as 
dark  below  as  above. 


660  THE   CARNIVORES 

THE  SOUTH-AFRICAN  WEASEL 
Genus  Pcecilogale 

The  pretty,  little,  South-African  weasel  {Pcecilogale  albimicha)  is  worthy  of  a 
separate  heading,  not  ,only  on  account  of  its  remarkable  coloration,  but  also  as 
being,  with  the  exception  of  one  species  belonging  to  the  typical  genus  Mustela,  the 
sole  representative  of  the  weasels  in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara.  This  species  is 
distinguished  from  all  the  other  weasels  by  having  the  ground  color  of  the  fur  black, 
with  the  upper  part  of  the. head  and  neck  white,  and  four  pale  brownish-white 
stripes  running  along  the  back  ;  the  tapering  tail  being  white.  This  peculiar  col- 
oration is  almost  precisely  similar  to  that  of  the  so-called  Cape  polecat,  to  be  men- 
tioned later  on  ;  and  it  may  be  that  we  have  here  another  instance  of  true  mimicry 
among  Mammals.  In  addition  to  its  coloration,  the  species  is  also  distinguished  by 
having  but  two  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  while  very  generally  there  is 
but  a  single  pair  of  molar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw ;  and  it  is  on  these  differences 
in  the  number  of  teeth  that  zoologists  chiefly  rely  in  referring  this  weasel  to  a 
distinct  genus. 

THE  GLUTTON,  OR  WOLVERENE 
Genus  Gulo 

The  glutton  {Gulo  luscus},  which  is  the  only  representative  of  the  genus  to 
which  it  belongs,  is  a  very  different  looking  animal  to  any  of  the  foregoing,  from 
which  it  is  likewise  distinguished  by  its  superior  dimensions.  In  spite,  however,  of 
these  differences,  naturalists  are  in  accord  in  regarding  the  glutton  (or,  as  it  is 
called  in  America,  wolverene)  as  a  member  of  the  typical  or  weasel-like  section  of 
the  family. 

The  glutton,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern  regions  of  both  the  West- 
ern and  Eastern  Hemispheres,  has  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  in  the  martens;  but 
these  are  unusually  large  and  powerful,  and  distantly  recall  those  of  the  hyaenas. 
The  whole  animal  is  heavily  and  rather  clumsily  built,  and  walks  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  soles  of  the  feet  applied  to  the  ground.  The  limbs  are  thick  and  rather 
short;  the  feet  are  provided  with  long,  curved,  and  compressed  claws,  and  have  their 
soles  thickly  haired.  The  back  is  much  arched,  and  both  the  head  and  tail  are  car- 
ried low.  Dr.  Coues  compares  the  whole  appearance  of  the  animal  to  that  of  a  bear 
cub,  with  a  superadded  tail.  The  head  is  broad  and  rounded,  with  a  rather  short 
and  pointed  muzzle,  small  and  widely-separated  eyes,  and  small  rounded  ears,  pro- 
jecting but  little  above  the  general  level  of  the  fur.  The  tail  is  comparatively  short, 
thick,  and  bushy,  with  hairs  varying  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  length;  and  it  has 
somewhat  the  appearance  of  having  been  truncated  at  the  end.  The  fur  of  the  body 
and  limbs  is  rather  coarse,  long,  and  thick;  and  there  is  also  a  thick,  woolly  under- 
fur.  The  general  color  is  dusky  or  blackish  brown;  but  there  is  a  distinct  band  of 
chestnut,  or  some  lighter  tint,  commencing  behind  the  shoulders,  then  running  along 


THE  GLUTTON,  OR  WOLVERENE 


66 1 


the  flanks,  and  meeting  its  fellow  at  the  root  of  the  tail.  The  front  and  sides  of  the 
head  are  light  gray,  while  upon  the  throat  and  chest  there  may  be  one  or  more  light 
spots.  The  limbs  and  under  parts,  together  with  most  of  the  tail,  are  very  dark. 
The  claws  are  nearly  white.  There  is  considerable  individual  variation  in  the  size 
of  the  glutton,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  in  seven  examples  measured  by  Dr. 
Coues  varying  from  twenty-six  and  one-half  to  thirty-six  inches;  and  that  of  the 


\ 


THE  GLUTTON,  OR  WOLVERENE. 
(One-sixth  natural  size.) 

tail,  with  the  hairs  at  the  end,  from  twelve  and  one-half  to  fifteen  inches.  About 
twenty-nine  inches  may,  however,  be  set  down  as  the  length  of  the  head  and  body 
in  average-sized  specimens. 

In  Europe  the  glutton  appears  to  have  been  long  regarded  as  a  kind  of  fabulous 
creature;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  it  is  known  by  the  same  name  —  vielfrass  —  in  al- 
most all  the  continental  countries.  What  may  be  the  meaning  of  this  name  is 


662  THE   CARNIVORES 

uncertain;  some  writers  considering  that  it  is  compounded  of  two  Swedish  words  sig- 
nifying rock  cat,  while  others  refuse  to  admit  its  Scandinavian  origin.  By  the 
French  Canadians  the  animal  is  termed  Carcajou,  and  by  the  English  residents  of 
British  North  America,  Quickhatch;  the  latter,  and  probably  also  the  former,  being 
derived  from  some  almost  unpronounceable  native  name. 

The  glutton  is  a  forest-haunting  animal,   and  in  America  is  to  be 

found  in  all  suitable  districts  to  the  north  of  the  United  States  as  far  as 
the  Arctic  coast,  traces  of  its  presence  having  been  observed  on  Melville  island,  in 
about  latitude  75°.  Its  southern  limits  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent  may  be 
set  down  as  about  latitude  42°  or  43°,  or  roughly  speaking,  that  of  Lake  Erie  ;  but 
on  the  western  side  it  descends  lower,  having  been  definitely  recorded  from  Salt 
Lake,  while  in  the  mountains  it  may  extend  as  far  as  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 
The  animal  is,  however,  now  virtually  exterminated  throughout  the  United  States. 
In  Europe  the  glutton  is  found  at  the  present  day  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Lapland,  the 
north  of  Russia,  namely,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  White  Sea,  in  the  Government 
of  Perm,  and  the  whole  of  Siberia,  and  Kamchatka.  In  the  time  of  Eichwald  it  was 
still  to  be  found  in  Lithuania,  but  is  now  extinct  there.  Solitary  specimens  have, 
indeed,  been  killed  in  Saxony  and  Brunswick;  but  these  must  be  regarded  merely 
as  stragglers,  and  not  as  indicating  that  the  range  of  the  species  extended  so  far 
south  within  historic  times.  At  an  earlier  period  of  the  earth's  history  the  glutton 
ranged,  however,  to  the  British  Isles,  its  fossilized  remains  having  been  discovered  in 
the  caverns  of  Derbyshire,  Glamorganshire,  and  the  Vale  of  Clwyd,  while  they  also 
occur  in  the  older  "  forest  bed  "  of  the  Norfolk  coast.  Evidence  of  the  former  exist- 
ence of  the  glutton  on  the  continent  has  also  been  obtained  in  the  caves  of  the  Dor- 
dogne  in  the  south  of  France. 

In  habits  the  glutton  is  almost  exclusively  nocturnal,  there  being 

but  few  instances  of  its  having  been  seen  abroad  during  the  day;  and 
in  two  of  these  cases  the  animal  was  seen  to  sit  up  and  shade  its  eyes  with  its  paws, 
as  if  suffering  from  the  unaccustomed  light.  The  glutton  does  not  hibernate,  and 
there  is  no  marked  difference  in  the  color  of  the  winter  and  summer  coat.  In  spite 
of  its  clumsy  looking  appearance  the  animal  when  disturbed  can  make  off  at  a  very 
rapid  pace,  and  hunters  who  have  occasionally  seen  a  glutton  in  the  shades  of 
evening  speak  of  the  hopelessness  of  pursuing  it.  It  likewise  ascends  rough-bark 
trees  with  facility,  although  it  is  said  that  its  climbing  powers  are  only  exerted 
when  it  scents  food.  It  the  pursuit  of  prey  the  glutton  will  readily  swim  rivers. 
As  a  rule  it  is  silent,  although  when  attacked  it  will  give  vent  to  angry  growls. 

Gluttons  are  found  either  solitary  or  in  pairs,  but  generally  solitary.  During 
the  day  they  live  concealed  in  subterranean  holes,  ( which  are  usually  their  breeding 
places,  and  which  are  frequently  the  deserted  lairs  of  bears.  In  North  America  the 
young  are  born  in  June  or  July,  the  number,  of  individuals  in  a  litter  being,  ac- 
cording to  Coues,  generally  four  or  five,  but  it  is  stated  that  there  are  sometimes 
only  a  pair.  The  young  remain  with  their  mother  till  the  following  winter,  when 
they  have  to  shift  for  themselves.  The  Cree  Indians  state  that  the  mother  is  ex- 
ceedingly fierce  when  defending  her  offspring,  and  at  such  times  will  not  hesitate  to 
attack  human  beings. 


THE  SKUNKS  663 

In  regard  to  food,  it  appears  that  the  glutton  will  devour  any  animal  that  it 
can  catch  and  overmaster,  and  that  it  is  by  no  means  averse  to  carrion.  The  activ- 
ity of  the  animal  is  such  that  it  can  at  times,  according  to  Dr.  Coues,  capture  such 
nimble  prey  as  hares  and  grouse,  while  disabled  or  weakly  deer  are  always  success- 
fully attacked.  The  stories  of  its  attacking  healthy  full-grown  reindeer  are,  how- 
ever, improbable.  Foxes,  rabbits,  marmots,  etc.,  are  dug  out  from  their  burrows 
and  eaten. 

Although  much  exaggerated  by  the  older  writers,  the  voracity  of  the  glutton 
is  extreme.  It  is  stated  by  North- American  hunters  that  a  freshly-killed  animal 
may  be  safely  left  out  in  the  woods  for  the  first  night,  as  the  glutton  will  not 
touch  it;  but  the  second  night  the  animal  will  return  and  gorge  itself  on  the  flesh, 
burying  such  portions  as  it  is  unable  to  consume.  So  pertinacious,  indeed,  are 
these  animals  in  quest  of  slaughtered  carcasses,  that  they  have  even  been  known  to 
gnaw  through  a  thick  log  of  wood  and  to  dig  a  hole  several  feet  deep  in  frozen 
ground,  in  order  to  gain  access  to  the  body  of  a  deer  concealed  by  hunters. 

Gluttons  are  in  the  habit  of  robbing  the  traps  set  for  other  animals,  and  when 
one  of  them  has  discovered  a  line  of  marten  traps  the  trapper  may  as  well  relinquish 
his  trade  until  he  has  destroyed  the  marauder.  Every  trap  along  the  line  will  be 
pulled  to  pieces  and  the  bait  or  captured  marten  removed;  and  after  the  hunger  of 
the  glutton  is  satisfied  the  remainder  of  the  booty  will  be  buried.  Another  curious 
propensity  of  the  glutton  is  its  habit  of  stealing  and  hiding  articles  which  can  be  of 
no  possible  use  to  it;  and  one  instance  is  recorded  where  these  animals  removed  and 
concealed  the  whole  paraphernalia  of  an  unoccupied  hunter's  lodge,  including  such 
articles  as  guns,  axes,  knives,  cooking  vessels,  and  blankets. 

Dr.  Coues  states  that  the  glutton  ' '  may  be  captured  in  wooden 
traps  similar  to  those  used  for  martens,  but  of  course  made  on  a  much 
larger  scale,  as  the  animal's  strength  is  enormous,  even  for  its  size.  The  traps  are 
sometimes  built  with  two  doors;  but  so  great  is  the  cunning  and  sagacity  of  the 
beast,  that  the  contrivance  for  its  destruction  must  be  very  perfect.  The  traps 
should  be  covered  up  with  pine  brush,  and  made  to  resemble  a  cache  as  much  as 
possible,  as  the  wolverene  is  then  likely  to  break  in  and  get  caught.  The  bait, 
ordinarily  the  conspicuous  feature  of  a  trap,  must  in  this  instance  be  concealed,  or 
the  animal  will  either  break  in  from  behind  or,  failing  in  this,  will  pass  on  his  way. 
It  is  sometimes  also  taken  in  steel  traps,  or  by  means  of  a  set  gun,  but  both  these 
methods  are  uncertain. ' ' 

THE  SKUNKS 
Genera  Mephitis  and  Conepatus 

The  handsome  but  ill-savored  skunks  introduce  us  to  the  second  great  group  of 
the  present  family,  which  includes  the  skunks,  badgers,  and  their  allies,  and  is 
characterized  as  follows.  The  feet  are  long,  with  straight  toes,  and  the  claws  are 
blunt,  but  slightly  curved  and  compressed,  and  quite  incapable  of  retraction;  those 
of  the  fore-feet  being  remarkable  for  their  large  size.  The  form  of  the  molar  tooth 


664  THE   CARNIVORES 

of  the  upper  jaw  is  somewhat  variable.     Most  of  the  members  of  this  group  are 
terrestrial  and  fossorial  in  their  habits. 

The  skunks,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  are  an  exclusively  American 
group,  of  which  all  but  one  are  referred  to  the  genus  Mephitis;  our  example  on 
p.  666  being  the  exception,  and  forming  the  genus  Conepatus. 

The  typical  forms  have  thirty-four  teeth,  of  which  f  are  incisors,  \  canines, 
f  premolars,  and  |  molars;  and  the  whole  of  them  are  easily  recognized  by  their 
large  bushy  tails,  usually  carried  over  the  back,  and  their  general  black  color 
variegated  with  white  stripes  on  the  back;  this  coloration  being  another  instance 
of  the  tendency  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body  to  be  lighter  than  the  lower  among 
many  members  of  the  family. 

The  common  skunk  {Mephitis  mephitica)  is  an  inhabitant  of  North- 
ern and  Central  America,  ranging  from  Hudson's  Bay  in  the  north 
to  Guatemala  in  the  south,  and  it  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  rather  small  cat,  the 
length  of  the  head  and  body  always  exceeding  a  foot,  although  there  is  considerable 
local  variation  in  this  respect.  It  is  a  stoutly-built  animal,  with  a  small  head, 
short  and  rounded  ears,  a  moderately-elongated  body,  and  legs  of  medium  length ; 
the  mode  of  walking  being  partially  plantigrade.  The  long  and  bushy  tail  is 
thickly  clothed  with  very  long  and  fine  hair,  and  is,  as  already  mentioned,  gener- 
ally carried  curled  over  the  back  when  the  animal  is  walking.  Its  length,  inclusive 
of  the  hair,  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  head  and  body.  The  general  color  of 
the  moderately-long  hair  of  the  body  is  black  or  blackish;  and,  although  there  is  a 
great  amount  of  individual  variation,  the  white  markings  usually  take  the  form  of  a 
streak  on  the  forehead,  a  spot  on  the  neck,  and  two  stripes  running  down  the  back. 
The  tail  is  black,  more  or  less  mixed  with  white,  or  merely  tipped  with  the  same. 
In  some  cases  the  white  stripes  do  not  extend  beyond  the  neck,  so  that  the  back  is 
entirely  black. 

The  nearly-allied  long-tailed  skunk  (M.  macrura)  from  Mexico  dif- 

~.  fers  by  its  longer  and  more  bushy  tail,  of  which  the  whole  length  is 

not  less  than  that  of  the  head  and  body. 

More  distinct  is  the  lesser  skunk  ( M.  putorius) ,  ranging  from  the 
southern  United  States  to  Yucatan  and  Guatemala.  This  species  never 
exceeds  a  foot  in  length  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  the  whole  tail  being 
distinctly  shorter  than  the  head  and  body.  It  has  four  interrupted  white  stripes  on 
the  body,  together  with  some  spots,  and  the  tail  is  tipped  with  white.  There  are 
also  certain  differences  in  the  characteristics  of  the  skull. 

In  South  America  the  group  is  represented  by  a  very  distinct  species 

_,  ,  known  as  the  white-backed  skunk  (  Conepatus  mapurito} ,  which  is  the 
one  figured  in  our  illustration.  This  skunk  differs  from  all  the  others 
by  its  heavier  build  and  more  pig-like  head  and  snout,  in  which  the  nostrils  are  di- 
rected downward  and  forward,  instead  of  laterally.  There  are,  moreover,  impor- 
tant differences  in  the  form  of  the  skull  and  teeth,  the  latter  being  usually  only 
thirty-two  in  number,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  first  pair  of  premolar  teeth  in  the 
lower  jaw.  Then,  again,  the  ears  are  extremely  small,  and  the  tail  is  shorter  and 
less  bushy  than  in  the  other  skunks.  In  size  this  species  is  the  largest  of  the  group, 


THE  SKUNKS  665 

some  specimens  attaining  a  length  of  about  twenty-four  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
although  the  more  usual  dimension  is  about  eighteen  inches.  The  color  is  even  more 
variable  than  in  the  common  skunk,  but  in  general  the  two  white  stripes  on  the  back 
are  very  wide,  and  may  either  completely  unite,  or,  as  in  our  illustration,  be  sepa- 
rated merely  by  a  narrow  dark  band,  the  tail  being  either  pure  white  or  black  and 
white.  The  coloration  of  this  species  shows,  therefore,  very  markedly  the  general 
light  color  of  the  upper,  as  compared  with  the  lower  surface  of  the  body. 

The  range  of  this  species  extends  northward  from  Patagonia  and  Chili  through 
Central  America  to  Texas. 

Subject  to  certain  modifications,  engendered  by  their  surroundings, 
the  habits  of  all  the  species  of  skunks  are  very  similar,  and  they  will 
accordingly  be  treated  of  collectively. 

Skunks  are  good  climbers,  but  appear  to  prefer  clearings  and  open  glades  rather 
than  dense  forests,  and  they  may  be  frequently  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  human 
dwellings;  although  in  Patagonia  and  the  Argentine  pampas  they  inhabit  perfectly 
open  country.  In  common  with  other  members  of  the  family  they  are  largely  noctur- 
nal, but  may  be  met  with  walking  abroad  in  the  evening  in  North  America,  while 
Darwin  states  that  in  Patagonia  the  white-backed  species,  ' '  conscious  of  its  power, 
roams  by  day  about  the  open  plains,  and  fears  neither  dog  nor  man." 

This  indifference  to  the  presence  of  other  creatures  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most 
striking  characteristics  of  the  group,  and  is,  as  suggested  in  the  passage  cited,  doubt- 
less due  to  the  immunity  of  attack  which  these  creatures  possess,  owing  to  their 
nauseous  secretion.  Thus  Mr.  Belt  states  that  in  Nicaragua  "  the  skunk  goes  lei- 
surely along  at  night,  holding  up  his  white  tail  as  a  danger  signal  for  none  to  come 
within  range  of  his  nauseous  artillery. ' '  And  Dr.  Merriam  relates  that  so  indiffer- 
ent is  the  common  skunk  to  the  presence  of  man,  that  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  these  creatures  are  not  unfrequently  run  over  in  the  evening  on  the  roads  by 
passing  vehicles.  The  peculiar  and  conspicuous  coloration  of  the  skunks  is  gener- 
ally regarded  by  naturalists  as  belonging  to  the  class  of  so-called  ' '  warning  colors. ' ' 
"Such  warning  colors  would  seem,"  observes  Mr.  Poulton,  "to  benefit  the  would-be 
enemies  rather  than  the  conspicuous  forms  themselves.  .  .  .  But  the  conspicuous 
animal  is  greatly  benefited  by  its  warning  colors.  If  it  resembled  its  surroundings, 
like  the  members  of  the  other  class,  it  would  be  liable  to  a  great  deal  of  acci- 
dental or  experimental  tasting,  and  there  would  be  nothing  about  it  to  impress  the 
memory  of  an  enemy,  and  thus  to  prevent  the  continual  destruction  of  individuals. 
The  object  of  warning  colors  is  to  assist  the  education  of  enemies,  enabling  them  to 
easily  learn  and  remember  the  animals  which  are  to  be  avoided." 

In  the  Adirondack  region  the  chief  food  of  the  common  skunk  consists  of  mice, 
salamanders,  frogs,  and  the  eggs  of  birds  that  nest  on  or  near  the  ground,  while 
such  hens'  nests  as  are  met  with  are  sure  to  be  robbed,  and  an  occasional  raid  is  made 
on  the  poultry  yard.  A  large  number  of  beetles,  grasshoppers,  and  other  insects  are 
likewise  consumed  by  these  animals. 

Owing  to  its  fearless  and  unsuspicious  nature,  the  North-American  skunk  may 
be  taken  in  almost  any  kind  of  trap  ;  and  these  animals  are  often  a  considerable  an- 
noyance to  the  trapper  owing  to  their  habit  of  frequently  entering  the  snares  set  for 


666 


THE   CARNIVORES 


more  valuable  quarry.  The  skunk,  observes  Dr.  Merriam,  is  slow  in  movement 
and  deliberate  in  action,  and  does  not  often  hurry  himself  in  whatever  he  does. 
His  ordinary  gait  is  a  measured  walk,  but  when  pressed  for  time  he  breaks  into  a 
slow,  shuffling  gallop.  It  is  hard  to  intimidate  a  skunk,  but  when  once  really 
frightened  he  manages  to  get  over  the  ground  at  a  very  fair  pace. 

The  same  writer  further  observes  that  in  the  Adirondack  region  skunks  remain 
active  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  hibernate  only  during  the  severest 
part  of  the  winter.  ' '  They  differ  from  most  of  our  hibernating  Mammals  in  that 


THE  WHITE-BACKED  SKUNK. 
(One-fourth  natural  size.) 

the  inactive  period  is,  apparently,  dependent  solely  upon  the  temperature.  That 
the  amount  of  snow  has  no  influence  upon  their  movements  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  they  are  frequently  out,  in  numbers,  when  its  average  depth  exceeds  five  feet 
on  the  level.  Neither  can  it  be  a  difference  in.  food  supply  that  affects  them,  for  at 
this  season  they  subsist  almost  entirely  upon  mice  and  shrews,  and  I  have  repeatedly 
noticed  these  little  beasts  scampering  about  on  the  crisp  snow  when  the  thermometer 
indicated  a  temperature  below  20°  F."  In  the  more  southern  districts  of  North 
America,  skunks  doubtless  remain  active  throughout  the  year,  and  the  same  is 
probably  the  case  with  those  inhabiting  Central  and  South  America. 


THE   SKUNKS  667 

The  nests  of  these  animals  are  formed  either  in  holes  in  the  Aground,  in  hollow 
trunks  of  trees,  or  among  rocks  ;  and  in  the  North-American  species  the  number  in 
a  litter  is  usually  from  six  to  ten.  The  young  are  born  in  the  spring,  and  generally 
remain  with  their  parents  as  inhabitants  of  the  same  hole  till  the  following  spring, 
when  they  have  to  make  way  for  a  fresh  family.  Dr.  Merriam  states  that  if  a  trap 
be  set  at  the  entrance  of  one  of  these  holes  the  whole  family  may  commonly  be  cap- 
tured, at  the  rate  of  one  per  night.  Surprising  as  it  may  at  first  sight  appear,  the 
common  skunk,  especially  when  captured  young,  is  said  to  make  a  pretty  and 
agreeable  pet,  gentle  in  manners,  and  cleanly  in  habits  ;  while  the  beauty  of  its  fur 
makes  its  personal  appearance  highly  attractive.  Moreover,  the  flesh  of  these  ani- 
mals is  said  to  be  white,  delicate,  and  highly  palatable. 

The  secretion  that  has  given  the  skunk  such  an  ill  name  is  contained  in  a 
pair  of  glands  situated  beneath  the  tail>  and  can  be  ejected  at  the  will  of  the  animal; 
such  ejection  taking  place  only  when  the  creature  is  attacked  or  irritated.  So  forci- 
bly can  the  fluid  (which  is  of  an  amber  color)  be  ejected,  that  it  will  carry  from  a 
distance  of  thirteen  feet  to  a  little  over  sixteen  feet.  It  appears  that  there  is  a 
marked  difference  in  the  intensity  of  the  odor  of  the  secretion  in  different  individuals 
of  the  common  skunk,  which  is  probably  in  part  due  to  the  age  of  the  animal,  and 
in  part  to  the  length  of  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  preceding  discharge  took 
place.  When  freshly  ejected,  the  fumes  from  the  secretion  are  pungent  and  acrid 
in  the  extreme,  and  are  probably  capable  of  producing  extensive  swelling  of  the 
respiratory  passages.  Dr.  Merriam  states  that  ' '  when  inhaled  without  the  admix- 
ture of  a  large  amount  of  atmospheric  air  the  unhappy  victim  loses  consciousness 
.and  breathes  stertoriously,  the  temperature  falls,  and  the  pulse  slackens,  and  if  the 
inhalation  were  prolonged  the  results  would  doubtless  prove  fatal. ' '  It  has  been 
stated  that  the  secretion  is  not  only  used  as  a  means  of  defense  but  also  as  a  means 
of  attracting  these  animals  toward  one  another.  This,  however,  is  strenuously  de- 
nied by  Dr.  Merriam. 

Of  the  lasting  and  pernicious  effects  of  even  a  drop  of  skunk  secretion,  no  more 
striking  instance  exists  than  one  recently  published  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson,  who 
writes  of  the  South-American  species.  This  observer  relates,  as  a  not  uncommon 
event  on  the  Argentine  pampas,  that  a  settler  starts  one  evening  to  ride  to  a  dance 
at  a  neighbor's  house.  "It  is  a  dark  windy  evening,  but  there  is  a  convenient 
bridle  path  through  the  dense  thicket  of  giant  thistles,  and  striking  it  he  puts  his 
horse  into  a  swinging  gallop.  Unhappily  the  path  is  already  occupied  by  a  skunk, 
invisible  in  the  darkness,  that,  in  obedience  to  the  promptings  of  its  insane  instinct, 
refuses  to  get  out  of  it,  until  the  flying  hoofs  hit  it  and  sent  it  like  a  well-kicked 
football  into  the  thistles.  But  the  fore-feet  of  the  horse,  up  as  high  as  his  knees 
perhaps,  have  been  sprinkled,  and  the  rider,  after  coming  out  into  the  open,  dis- 
mounts and  walks  away  twenty  yards  from  his  animal,  and  literally  smells  himself 
all  over,  and  with  a  feeling  of  profound  relief  pronounces  himself  clean.  Not  the 
minutest  drop  of  the  diabolical  spray  has  touched  his  'dancing  shoes.  Springing 
into  the  saddle  he  proceeds  to  his  journey's  end,  and  is  warmly  welcomed  by  his 
host.  In  a  little  while  people  begin  exchanging  whispers  and  significant  glances  ; 
.  .  ladies  cough  and  put  their  handkerchiefs  to  their  noses,  and  presently 


668  THE   CARNIVORES 

begin  to  feel  faint  and  retire  from  the  room.  Our  hero  begins  to  notice  that  there  is 
something  wrong,  and  presently  discovers  its  cause ;  he,  unhappily,  has  been  the 
last  person  to  remark  that  familiar  but  most  abominable  odor,  rising  like  a  deadly 
exhalation  from  the  floor,  conquering  all  other  odors,  and  every  moment  becoming 
more  powerful.  A  drop  has  touched  his  shoe  after  all." 

Fossil  remains  of  skunks  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the  species 
still  inhabiting  the  country  are  met  with  in  the  caverns  of  L,agoa  Santa 
in  Brazil,  where  they  are  accompanied  by  those  of  a  number  of  other  animals  of 
totally  extinct  types. 

THE  CAPE  POLECAT 
Genus  Ictonyx 

As  will  be  apparent  from  a  glance  at  our  illustration,  the  South- African  animal, 
commonly  known  as  the  Cape  polecat  {Ictonyx  zorilla),  is  so  like  a  small  skunk  in 
coloration  and  general  appearance  that  it  might  well  be  taken  for  a  member  of  the 
same  group.  Although  the  number  of  the  teeth  in  the  present  animal  is  the  same  as 
in  the  skunks,  the  teeth  themselves  are  relatively  smaller  than  in  the  latter,  with 
smaller  cusps,  and  are  thus  more  like  those  of  the  polecat,  between  which  and  the 
skunks  the  Cape  polecat  appears  to  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link.  A  skull  of  the 
present  animal  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  that  of  a  skunk  by  the  upper 
molar  tooth  being  smaller,  instead  of  larger,  than  the  flesh-tooth. 

In  size  the  Cape  polecat  agrees  approximately  with  the  true  polecat,  and  has  a 
somewhat  similarly-shaped  body,  and  proportionately-short  limbs.  The  head  is 
broad,  and  the  muzzle  long  and  sharp,  while  the  ears  are  very  small  and  rounded. 
The  tail  is  comparatively  long  and  bushy,  and  about  three-quarters  the  length  of 
the  head  and  body ;  and  the  whole  of  the  fur  is  relatively  long  and  thick.  The 
ground  color  of  the  fur  is  a  glossy  black,  marked  with  a  variable  number  of  white 
stripes  and  spots.  Frequently,  as  in  our  illustration,  there  is  a  white  spot  between 
the  eyes,  and  another  over  each  of  the  latter;  but  sometimes  all  the  three  are  united. 
The  hinder  part  of  the  head  is  frequently  white,  and  from  this  white  area  there 
are  given  off  pure  white  stripes  (separated  by  three  narrow  black  ones),  which 
unite  near  the  tail ;  the  upper  part  of  the  latter  being  alsq  mostly  white.  In 
other  cases,  however,  the  whole  of  the  hinder  parts  of  the  head,  the  neck,  and  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  back  are  white. 

The  Cape  polecat  ranges  from  the  Cape  to  Senegal;  but  in  Sennaar 

and  Egypt  it  is  replaced  by  another  nearly-allied  species  (I.frenatd). 
It  is  probably  the  latter  which,  according  to  Brehm,  ranges  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  into  Asia  Minor,  and  the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople. 

These  animals  frequent  rocky  districts,  hiding  either  in  the  clefts  of 

rocks,  or  among  bushes  and  trees,  and  are  purely  nocturnal.  They 
feed  on  mice  and  other  small  Mammals,  birds  and  their  eggs,  and  lizards  and  frogs; 
and  in  inhabited  districts  they  destroy  poultry.  In  their  general  habits  they  are 
unlike  the  martens  and  polecats,  being  unable  to  climb,  and  only  taking  to  the 


THE  FERRET-BADGERS 


669 


water  under  compunction,  although,  when  the  necessity  arises,  they  can  swim  well. 
Their  great  protection  against  their  foes  is  their  intolerable  odor,  which  is  described 
as  being  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  offensive  as  that  of  the  skunks.  In  many  houses  of 
the  Dutch  boers  of  South  America  tame  individuals  of  the  Cape  polecat  may  be 
found,  which  are  kept  for  the  purpose  of  catching  rats  and  mice. 


THE  CAPE  POLECAT. 
(One-sixth  natural   size.) 


THE  FERRET-BADGERS 
Genus  Hclidis 

The  ferret-badgers  form  a  small  group  of  four  species  from  Eastern  Asia,  which 
in  some  respects  serve  to  connect  the  preceding  forms  with  the  true  badgers,  having 


670  THE   CARNIVORES 

relatively-longer  bodies,  shorter  limbs,  and  longer  tails  than  the  latter.  They  are 
all  of  comparatively-small  size,  and  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of 
the  badger-like  group,  by  having  the  under  surface  of  the  body  lighter  colored  than 
the  back.  One  species  is  further  remarkable  for  the  brilliant  orange  tint  of  the 
under  parts  and  portions  of  the  head. 

All  these  animals  have  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  the  martens;  the  upper 
molar  and  flesh-tooth  being  remarkable  for  their  broad  and  squared  crowns.  The 
head  is  elongated,  and  terminates  in  a  prolonged  and  naked  muzzle,  with  obliquely- 
truncated  nostrils;  and  the  ears  are  small  but  distinct.  The  claws  are  very  narrow, 
and  about  twice  as  long  in  the  fore  as  in  the  hind-feet;  the  soles  of  the  feet  being 
naked.  The  tail,  which  is  more  or  less  bushy,  may  be  either  rather  more  or  rather 
less  than  half  the  length  of  the  head  and  body. 

Of  the  four  species,  the  brown  ferret-badger  (Helictis  orientalis],  in  which  the 
length  of  the  head  and  body  is  sixteen  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  with  the  hair, 
nine  inches,  inhabits  the  Nipal  Himalayas  and  Java,  and  is  characterized  by  its 
brown  or  yellowish-brown  color,  and  its  relatively-long  tail.  The  Burmese  ferret- 
badger  (H.  per  sonata],  which  differs  in  the  grayish  tint  of  the  upper  parts,  inhabits 
Ix>wer  Burma  and  Manipur,  and  probably  some  neighboring  districts.  The  two 
remaining  species,  viz. ,  H.  moschata  and  H.  sabaurantiaca,  are  from  China.  The 
latter  is  characterized  by  its  relatively-short  tail,  and  the  brilliant  orange  color  of 
the  snout  and  the  sides  and  the  under  parts  of  the  head  and  throat;  the  ears,  a  stripe 
down  the  neck,  and  the  under  parts  and  feet  being  yellow.  The  upper  part  of  the 
head  and  face  is  chocolate  brown,  forming  a  most  marked  contrast  with  the  orange; 
while  the  back  and  tail  are  olive  color. 

The  ferret-badgers  are  purely  nocturnal,  and  differ  from  the  other 
members  of  the  present  group  in  being  able  to  climb  with  facility. 
The  Indian  species  are  almost  omnivorous  in  their  food,  eating  both  small  Mammals 
and  birds  as  well  as  fruits  and  insects.     All  the  species  live  in  forests  as  a  rule. 


THE  RATELS 
Genus  Mellivora 

The  ratels  or,  as  they  are  frequently  called,  honey  badgers,  are  distinguished 
from  all  the  members  of  the  family  hitherto  noticed  by  their  more  badger-like  shape, 
very  short  tails,  and  the  absence  of  any  external  ears.  They  are  aptly  compared  in 
gait  and  appearance  by  Mr.  Blanford  to  small  bears.  There  are  but.  two  living  spe- 
cies, of  which  one  is  confined  to  India,  and  the  other  to  Africa. 

In  addition  to  their  short  tails  and  the  absence  of  external  ears,  the  ratels  are 
characterized  by  their  stoutly-built  bodies,  and  short  powerful  limbs,  of  which  the 
front  pair  are  provided  with  enormous  claws.  They  walk  with  the  greater  part  of 
the  naked  soles  of  the  feet  applied  to  the  ground.  As  regards  coloration,  they  show 
in  a  most  marked  degree  the  peculiarity  to  which  we  have  already  referred  as  char- 
acterizing many  members  of  the  family;  that  is  to  say,  the  under  parts  are  dark,  and 
the  upper  parts  lighter.  In  the  present  instance,  the  whole _of  the  muzzle,  together 


THE  RATELS 


671 


with  the  under  parts  of  the  head,  body,  and  tail,  and  the  entire  limbs,  are  black; 
while  the  upper  portion  of  the  head,  body,  and  fore  half  of  the  tail  are  whitish  gray. 
The  skulls  of  the  ratels  may  be  distinguished  by  the  small  number  of  the  large 
and  powerful  teeth.  The  total  number  is  only  thirty-two,  there  being  but  three 
pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  no  tubercular  molar  in  the  lower  jaw 
behind  the  flesh-tooth.  The  upper  teeth,  as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  palate 
of  a  fossil  species,  are  characterized  by  the  molar  (m)  being  very  narrow  from 
front  to  back,  and  of  the  characteristic  musteline  dumb-bell  shape;  and  also  by 


THE  CAPE  RATEI,. 
(One-sixth  natural  size.) 

the  flesh-tooth,  or  fourth  premolar  (p.^),  being  larger  than  the  molar,  with  the 
tubercle  on  the  inner  side  placed  near  the  front  edge.  Moreover,  in  the  lower  jaw, 
the  flesh-tooth  has  a  very  minute  heel  at  its  hinder  end.  The  ratels  may  be  com- 
pared in  size  to  a  badger,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  of  the  Indian  species 
varying  from  about  twenty-six  to  thirty-two  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail,  inclusive 
of  the  hair,  from  six  to  six  and  one-half  inches. 

The  Indian  ratel   (Mellivora  indica)  is  found  from  the  Himalayas 
to  Cape  Comorin,  but  is  unknown  in  Ceylon  or  to  the  eastward  of  the 
Bay  of   Bengal.      The  African  species  (M.   ratel}  occurs  throughout  Africa,  but 


Distribution 


6/2 


THE   CARNIVORES 


Habits 


more  especially  in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the  continent.     Mr.  Blanford 
has  some  doubts  as  to  whether  the  African  and  Indian  ratels  are  really  entitled  to 

be  regarded  as  distinct  species  ;  but  the  former,  as  shown 
in  our  illustration  on  p.  671,  is  distinguished  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  well-marked  white  line  dividing  the  dark  area 
of  the  under  parts  from  the  gray  of  the  back. 

Both  species  are  strictly  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  and  reside  during  the  day  in  burrows, 
which  are  probably  excavated  by  themselves.     The  Indian 
8       species   is  most  commonly   met  with  in  hilly   regions,   or 
along  the  high-scarped  banks  of  the  great  rivers,  which 
fr>cf    afford  good  situations  in  which  to  construct  its  burrows. 
Ratels  generally  go  about  in  pairs,  and  feed  on  rats,  birds, 
j0,      frogs,  insects,  and  honey;  while  in  cultivated  districts  they 
commit  frequent  raids  on  poultry.     The  accusation  of  dig- 
ging up  corpses  from  graveyards,  which  has  earned  for  the 
Indian  species  the  name  of  "  Gravedigger  "  among  Anglo- 
Indians,  is,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  probably  unfounded. 
The  African  species  exhibits  a  very  strongly-marked  taste 
for  honey,  together  with  the  larvae  of  bees  in  the  combs  ; 
digging  out  the  latter  from  hollow  trees  by  the  aid  of  its 
powerful  front  claws.     The  account  given  by  Sparrmann  of 
premoiar  or  flesh-tooth;  c  ca-    the  ratei«s  mo(je  of  operations  when  about  to  attack  a  bees' 

nine  tooth,  or  tusk  (broken  ). 

nest  is  not,  however,  to  be  wholly  relied  upon,  since  it  is 
largely  drawn  from  native  sources  of  information. 

In  captivity  ratels  are  easily  tamed,  and  frequently  exhibit  a  peculiar  habit  of 
turning  complete  somersaults  each  time  they  walk  up  and  down  the  cages  in  which 
they  are  confined. 

From  the  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills  of  Northeastern  India,  belong- 
ing to  the  Pliocene  period,  and  likewise  from  formations  of  correspond- 
ing age  in  the  Punjab,  there  have  been  obtained  the  remains  of  ratels  closely  allied 
to  the  living  species;  so  that  it  may  be  concluded  that  India  was  the  original  home 
of  these  animals,  and  that  thence  they  migrated  into  Africa. 


THE  RIGHT   HALF    OF  THE 
PALATE    OF    THE    FOS- 
SIL INDIAN  RATEL. 
m.  molar  tooth;  p.  4,  fourth 


Fossil  Ratels 


THE  AMERICAN  BADGER 


Genus   Taxidea 

The  American  badger  (  Taxidea  americana}  brings  us  to  the  first  of  four  genera 
which  may  be  collectively  called  badgers,  and  the  whole  of  which  are  confined  to  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  They  all  have  the  same  number  of  teeth  as  in  the  martens, 
that  is  to  say,  38,  of  which  f  are  incisors,  y  canines,  f  premolars,  and  ^  molars  on 
each  side  of  the  jaws.  All  of  them  have  stoutly-built  bodies,  and  short  limbs  adapted 
for  digging;  while,  with  one  exception,  the  tail  is  very  short.  They  are  further 


THE  AMERICAN  BADGER  673 

characterized  by  the  unusually  large  size  of  the  molar  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw, 
and  likewise  by  the  elongation  of  the  posterior  heel  of  the  flesh-tooth  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

In  the  American  badger  the  skull  is  very  wide  posteriorly,  the  body  depressed, 
and  the  tail  very  short.  The  skull  may  be  at  once  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
true  badgers  by  the  proportionately  larger  size  of  the  upper  flesh-tooth,  and  the 
smaller  upper  molar,  which  is  triangular  in  form,  with  the  apex  directed  outward. 
The  fore-claws  are  enormous,  the  eyes  are  very  small,  and  the  muzzle  is  hairy  right 
up  to  the  obliquely  truncated  nostrils.  The  low,  rounded,  and  broad  ears  are  re- 
markable for  the  large  size  of  their  apertures.  In  length  the  animal,  from  the  snout 
to  the  root  of  the  tail,  measures  about  twenty-four  inches,  and  the  tail  six  inches. 
The  general  color  of  the  coarse  fur  of  the  body  is  a  blackish  grizzle,  mingled  with 
either  white,  gray,  or  tawny,  or  the  whole  of  these  together,  on  the  upper  parts,  while 
below  it  is  uniformly  whitish,  sometimes  shaded  with  gray  or  tawny.  The  head  is 
darker  than  the  body,  with  a  white  stripe  down  the  middle,  and  the  limbs  are  black- 
ish brown. 

The  ordinary  form  of  the  American  badger  extends  from  British 
North  America,  from  at  least  latitude  58°,  over  the  greater  portion  of 
the  United  States.     Near  the  Mexican  border,  as  in  Eastern  and  Central  Mexico 
itself,  it  is,  however,  replaced  by  a  variety  distinguished  by  a  white  stripe,  some- 
times interrupted,  running  down  the  back  from  the  nose  to  the  tail. 

In  habits  the  American  badger  appears  to  closely  resemble  the  corn- 
Habits  ^  ,    . 

mon  European  species,  being  strictly  nocturnal,  and  living  in  burrows 

constructed  by  itself.  In  the  colder  portion  of  its  habitat  it  hibernates.  Although 
but  very  seldom  seen,  Dr.  Coues  states  that  these  animals  live  in  countless  numbers 
in  the  region  of  the  upper  Missouri  river  and  its  tributaries;  tracts  of  sandy  soil  be- 
ing so  full  of  their  burrows  as  to  render  traveling  on  horseback  dangerous.  These 
badger  holes  can  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  prairie  marmot  by  their  larger 
size  and  the  absence  of  a  circular  mound  of  earth  at  their  entrance;  though  many 
such  holes  are  merely  burrows  of  the  prairie  marmot,  which  have  been  enlarged  by 
the  badger  in  order  to  capture  the  original  excavator.  This  abundance  of  the  Amer- 
ican badger  is  doubtless  largely  due  to  its  immunity  from  foes  and  the  plentiful  sup- 
ply of  food. 

In  addition  to  the  various  species  of  Rodents,  which  form  its  principal  food,  the 
American  badger  will  also  eat  smaller  animals, — even  insects  and  snails, —  while  it 
is  also  partial  to  birds'  eggs  and  to  bees'  nests  with  their  honey  and  larvae.  In  dis- 
position it  is  shy  and  retiring,  always  seeking  to  avoid  rather  than  to  court  danger. 
If  brought  to  bay,  it  will  fight  with  all  the  fierceness  and  stubbornness  characteris- 
tic of  its  European  cousin,  and  it  also  exhibits  the  same  tenacity  of  life.  In  some 
parts  of  the  Western  States  badger  baiting  used  to  be  as  favorite  a  sport  as  it  once 
was  in  England,  but  it  is  now  discontinued. 

But  little  appears  to  have  been  ascertained  as  to  the  breeding  habits  of  the  Amer- 
ican badger,  but  it  seems  that  three  or  four  is  the  usual  number  in  a  litter.    In  Brit- 
ish North  America  the  period  of  hibernation  lasts  from  October  till  April,  and  the 
animals  are  said  to  come  forth  after  their  long  fast  in  good  condition. 
43 


674  THE   CARNIVORES 

American  badger  fur  is  of  some  value,  and  is  at  times  largely  used 
for  robes,  muffs,  tippets,  and  trimmings;  while  a  considerable  quantity 
of  the  long  hairs  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  shaving  and  other  brushes,  al- 
though in  many  cases  the  hairs  are  too  soft  for  this  purpose.  In  1873  the  prices  of 
American  badger  skins  varied  from  twenty-five  cents  to  one  dollar  and  seventy-five 
cents  each  in  London;  while  three  years  later  the  price  per  skin  for  the  best  sam- 
ples in  New  York  was  one  dollar.  At  the  present  time,  according  to  Mr.  Poland, 
the  price  in  London  varies  from  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  to  five  dollars. 

THE  COMMON  BADGER 
Genus  Meles 

The  common  badger  (Meles  taxus]  is  the  best-known  member  of  a  group  of 
five  closely-allied  species  distributed  over  a  considerable  portion  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  although  unknown  in  the  Indian  and  Malayan  regions.  All  these  animals  are 
readily  distinguished  from  the  American  badger  by  the  characteristics  of  the  skull 


SKELETON  OF  THE  COMMON  BADGER. 

and  teeth.  The  skull  itself  is  characterized  by  the  great  height  of  the  bony  ridge 
running  along  the  middle  of  the  brain  case,  and  affording  attachment  for  the  power- 
ful muscles  which  render  the  badger's  bite  so  severe.  Then,  again,  the  upper 
molar  tooth,  instead  of  being  triangular  and  of  nearly  the  same  size  as  the  flesh- 
tooth,  is  oblong  in  form,  and  very  much  larger  than  the  latter,  recalling  in  this  re- 
spect the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  bears;  a  further  analogy  with  that  group  being 
presented  by  the  small  size  of  the  first  three  premolar  teeth.  Another  feature  in 
which  the  true  badgers  differ  from  the  American  badger  is  to  be  found  in  the  great 
development  of  the  posterior  heel  of  the  lower  flesh-tooth,  which  exceeds  in  length  the 
whole  of  the  remainder  of  the  tooth,  this  expanded  heel  having  to  bite  against  the  en- 
larged upper  molar  tooth.  The  skull  of  the  badger  is  also  peculiar  on  account  of  the 
close  interlocking  of  the  lower  jaw  with  the  skull  proper,  the  articulation  being  so  per- 
fect that  it  is  impracticable  to  detach  the  one  from  the  other  without  fracture.  Need- 
less to  say,  it  is,  therefore,  impossible  for  one  of  these  animals  to  dislocate  its  lower  jaw. 
In  general  bodily  conformation  the  Old- World  badgers  very  closely  resemble 
their  transatlantic  ally;  and  their  hairs  are  similarly  banded  with  different  colors, 
producing  the  well-known  grizzled  hue  of  the  fur  so  characteristic  of  all  these 


THE   COMMON  BADGER  675 

animals.  The  skin  of  the  common  badger  is  remarkably  large  and" loose,  enabling 
the  animal,  when  seized  by  almost  any  part,  to  turn  and  bite  its  aggressor;  and  the 
fur  is  long  and  loose.  With  the  exception  of  a  black  stripe  on  each  side,  starting 
between  the  nose  and  the  eye  and  running  backward  to  include  the  ear  (of  which 
the  tip  is  white),  the  head  of  the  badger  is  white.  The  lower  jaw,  throat,  and  all 
the  under  parts,  as  well  as  the  limbs  are  black;  while  the  upper  parts  are  reddish 
gray,  and  the  flanks  and  tail  light  gray.  The  length  of  a  full-grown  badger  from 


THE   COMMON   BADGER. 

(One-seventh   natural   size.) 

the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  will  vary  from  about  twenty-five  to  twenty-nine 
inches,  that  of  the  tail  being  about  seven  and  one-half  inches;  and  the  weight  has 
been  estimated  at  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds, 

Distribution          The  common  badger,  or,  as  it  used  to  be  called  in  England,  the 

brock,  is  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of 

the  north  of  Scandinavia  and  the  island  of  Sardinia;    and  it  is  also  widely  spread 

over  Northern  Asia,  where  it  ranges  in  Siberia  as  far  as  the  river  Lena.     It  is 


676  THE   CARNIVORES 

probably  also  this  species  which  inhabits  Syria;  but  it  is  at  present  uncertain  where 
the  range  of  the  common  badger  in  Western  Asia  terminates,  and  where  that  of  the 
smaller  and  paler  colored  Persian  badger  (M.  canescens)  of  Eastern  Persia  com- 
mences. In  China  and  other  parts  of  continental  Asia  the  group  is  represented  by 
the  white-tailed  badger  (M.  leucurus)  and  the  Chinese  badger  (M.  chinensis} ;  while 
a  fifth  species  (M.  anacuma)  inhabits  Japan. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  especially  in  many  parts  of  Germany 
(where  it  is  known  as  dachs],  the  badger  is  very  common,  and  does 
much  damage  to  the  vineyards.  In  the  British  Islands,  as  we  may  judge  both  from 
the  frequency  with  which  its  remains  are  met  with  in  the  cavern  and  other  superficial 
deposits,  as  well  as  from  the  number  of  places  in  England,  such  as  Brockenhurst  and 
Brockley,  which  derive  their  names  from  this  animal,  the  badger  must  once  have  been 
very  commonly  distributed.  At  the  present  day,  writes  Mr.  J.  E.  Harting,  "  many 
people  seem  to  be  under  the  impression  that  the  badger,  if  not  actually  extinct  in 
the  British  Islands,  is  at  all  events  a  very  scarce  animal.  This  is  far  from  being  the 
case.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  badger  is  still  not  at  all  uncommon,  and  in 
certain  districts  which  might  be  named  it  is  even  on  the  increase,  owing  to  the  pro- 
tection afforded  it.  The  reason  for  its  supposed  scarcity  arises  from  two  causes, 
firstly,  the  nature  of  its  haunts,  which  are  generally  in  the  deep  recesses  of  large 
woods,  fox-covers,  and  quarries;  and,  secondly,  the  nature  of  its  habits,  which  are 
shy  and  retiring,  and  chiefly  nocturnal." 

The  favorite  haunts  of  the  badger  are  the  deepest  and  thickest  woods,  or  coppice- 
clad  cliffs  and  quarries;  and  in  such  situations  it  digs  a  large  and  roomy  bur- 
row. Here  it  sleeps  during  the  day,  issuing  forth  at  evening  in  search  of  food,  and 
sometimes  joining  with  its  fellows  in  this  quest;  Mr.  Harting  having  observed  three 
badgers  together  in  Gloucestershire,  while  the  late  Mr.  C.  St.  John  on  one  occasion 
saw  no  less  than  seven  in  company  on  the  shore  of  L,och  Ness.  In  the  colder  por- 
tions of  its  habitat  the  badger  hibernates  during  the  winter,  the  length  of  the 
hibernation  depending  upon  the  latitude  and  the  degree  of  severity  of  the  season. 
In  England  the  hibernation  appears  to  be  always  interrupted.  Mr.  Ellis,  of  L,ough- 
borough,  who  has  a  number  of  badgers  on  his  estate,  recently  wrote  that  he  has 
known  one  of  the  burrows  covered  with  snow  for  a  fortnight  or  more,  during  which 
time  the  animals  remain  below,  and  only  ventured  out  \vhen  a  thaw  came.  In 
Sweden  it  is  stated  that  badgers  generally  retire  about  the  middle  of  November,  and 
do  not  reappear  till  the  middle  of  the  following  March,  unless  there  should  be  a 
protracted  thaw,  during  which  they  will  sally  forth  in  search  of  food.  In  order  to 
afford  additional  security,  the  mouth  of  the  burrow  is  blocked  from  the  inside  by  its 
occupant.  The  burrow  is  always  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  is  lined  with  fern 
and  other  vegetable  substances;  and  Mr.  Ellis  states  that  "as  the  winter  ap- 
proaches, the  old  bedding  is  replaced  by  dry  fern  and  grass  raked  together  by  the 
badger's  powerful  claws.  This  is  often  left  to  wither  in  little  heaps  till  dry  enough 
for  the  purpose.  Partially  concealed,  I  have  watched  a  badger  gathering  fern,  and 
using  a  force  in  its  collection  quite  surprising. ' ' 

The  peculiar  conformation  of  the  upper  molar  teeth  of  the  badger  at  once  pro- 
claims that  the  diet  of  the  animal  is  by  no  means  exclusively  carnivorous;  and  Pro- 


THE   COMMON  BADGER  677 

fessor  T.  Bell  states  that  its  food  ' '  consists  indifferently  of  various  foots,  earthnuts, 
beech  mast,  fruits,  the  eggs  of  birds,  some  of  the  smaller  Mammals,  frogs,  and  in- 
sects." It  is  also  ascertained  that  the  badger  is  in  the  habit  of  digging  up  wasps' 
nests  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  upon  the  larvae  in  the  combs;  and  it  has  an  equal 
partiality  for  the  contents  of  the  nests  of  wild  bees. 

It  has  been  very  generally  asserted  that  badgers  and  foxes  do  not  get  on  well 
together,  and  that  the  former  kill  the  cubs  of  the  latter.  Mr.  Ellis  states,  however, 
that,  on  his  estate  at  least,  "  the  badgers  and  the  foxes  are  not  unfriendly,  and  last 
spring  a  litter  of  cubs  was  brought  forth  very  near  the  badgers  ;  but  their  mother 
removed  them  after  they  had  grown  familiar,  as  she  probably  thought  they  were 
showing  themselves  more  than  was  prudent. ' '  Mr.  Harting  also  mentions  more  than 
one  instance  where  these  two  animals  have  lived  amicably  together  in  the  same  bur- 
row ;  in  one  of  these  cases  a  fox  having  annually  given  birth  to  cubs  in  the  badg- 
er's den. 

Within  the  deep  recesses  of  its  burrow,  which  often  terminates  in  a  fork-like 
manner,  are  born  the  young  of  the  badger ;  the  number  in  a  litter  being  usually 
three  or  four.  The  young  are  produced  during  the  summer  ;  and  are  at  first  blind, 
not  acquiring  the  power  of  sight  till  the  tenth  day.  It  is  a  curious,  but  apparently 
well-ascertained  circumstance,  that  the  female  badger,  like  the  roedeer,  has  the 
power  of  extending  the  time  of  gestation  considerably  beyond  the  usual  period. 

Quoting  once  more  from  Mr.  Ellis,  that  gentleman,  writing  in  the  autumn  of 
1877,  states  that  on  his  estate  "in  June  the  first  young  badger  appeared  at  the 
mouth  of  the  earth,  and  was  soon  followed  by  three  others,  and  then  by  their 
mother.  After  this,  they  continued  to  show  themselves  every  evening,  and  soon 
learned  to  take  the  food  prepared  for  them.  The  young  are  now  almost  full  grown, 
and,  forgetting  their  natural  timidity,  will  feed  so  near  that  I  have  placed  my  hand 
on  the  back  of  one  of  them.  The  old  ones  are  more  wary,  but  often  feed  with 
their  family,  although  at  a  more  cautious  distance.  Their  hearing  and  sense  of 
smell  are  most  acute,  and  it  is  curious  to  see  them  watch,  with  lifted  head  and  ears 
erect,  then,  if  all  is  quiet,  search  the  ground  for  a  raisin  or  a  date.  But  the  least 
strange  sight  or  sound  alarms  them,  and  they  rush  headlong  to  earth  with  amazing 
speed."  When  taken  young,  badgers  may  be  easily  and  perfectly  tamed. 

The  difficulty  of  ' '  drawing  a  badger ' '  when  in  a  tub  is  well  known, 
and  tries  the  pluck  of  the  best  bred  terriers  to  the  utmost.  It  appears, 
however,  that  in  Germany  dachshunds  usually  bolt  the  badger  from  its  burrow, 
unless  they  are  foiled  by  the  creature  digging  deeper  down,  and  burying  himself  be- 
neath the  upturned  soil.  Other  methods  employed  in  Germany  are  either  digging 
the  animal  out  by  following  the  course  of  the  burrow,  or  by  boring  directly  down 
upon  it  by  means  of  a  kind  of  gigantic  corkscrew.  Digging  out  is  also  sometimes 
resorted  to  in  England,  but  the  more  common  plan  is  to  tie  an  empty  sack,  with  a 
running  noose  round  the  mouth,  in  the  entrance  of  the  badger's  burrow  while  the 
occupant  is  abroad,  and  then  drive  him  in  with  dogs. 

The  fur  and  hairs  of  the  common  badger  are  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  those  of  its  American  cousin  ;  but  the  hairs,  being  stiffer,  are 
better  adapted  for  brushes. 


6;8 


THE   CARNIVORES 


It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  fossil  remains  of  the  common 
badger  are  met  with  in  the  cavern  and  other  superficial  deposits  of 
England;  and  it  may  be  added  that  they  also  occur  in  those  of  the  Continent. 
Beyond  these,  however,  no  fossil  badgers  have  hitherto  been  met  with,  except  in 
strata  of  the  Pliocene  period  in  Persia.  When  our  comparatively  full  acquaintance 
with  the  extinct  Tertiary  Mammals  of  Europe  and  Northern  India  is  taken  into 
account,  this  remarkable  absence  of  the  remains  of  badgers  is  strongly  suggestive 
that  Persia  or  the  adjacent  regions  must  have  been  the  original  ancestral  home  of 
these  animals,  from  whence  they  migrated  westward. 


THE   MALAYAN    BADGER. 

(One-fourth  natural  size.) 


THE  MALAYAN  BADGER 
Genus  Mydaus 

As  being  the  sole  representative  of  the  badgers  inhabiting  the  islands  of  the 
Malayan  region,  the  curious  looking  animal  depicted  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tion may  be  appropriately  designated  the  Malayan  badger.  It  is  known  to  the 
natives  of  Java  as  the  Teledu,  while  by  the  Germans  it  is  termed,  on  account  of  its 
evil  odor,  Stinkdachs  ;  its  technical  name  being  Mydaus  meliceps. 

The  Malayan  badger  forms  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  true  badgers 
and  the  under-mentioned  sand-badgers,  having  a  tail  shorter  than  in  the  former, 
while  its  cheek-teeth  are  much  more  like  those  of  the  latter.  It  is  a  comparatively 
small  animal,  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  being  about  fifteen  inches,  and  that 


THE  SAND-BADGER  679 

of  the  stumpy  tail  only  some  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  With  the  ^exception  of  the 
back  of  the  head,  the  top  of  the  neck,  a  stripe  down  the  back,  and  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  which  are  whitish,  the  general  color  of  the  long  and  thick  fur  is  dark  brown, 
but  lighter  below  than  above.  There  is  a  kind  of  crest  of  long  hair  on  the  back  of 
the  head  and  neck.  The  muzzle  is  long  and  pointed,  and  almost  entirely  naked  in 
front  of  the  eyes,  with  the  flesh-colored  nostrils  obliquely  truncated  and  mobile. 
The  Malayan  badger  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  mountains  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and 
Borneo,  ranging  in  the  former  island  from  an  elevation  of  about  five  hundred  to  up- 
ward of  seven  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  Borneo  it  is  found  at 
elevations  of  not  more  than  eighty  or  one  hundred  feet,  and  in  Sumatra  does  not 
ascend  above  one  thousand  feet.  It  is  a  nocturnal  and  burrowing  animal,  not  un- 
common in  some  districts. 

Horsfield,  the  original  describer  of  this  animal,  says  that  when  killed  carefully 
and  the  scent  glands  immediately  removed,  the  flesh  of  the  Malayan  badger  is  quite 
free  from  odor,  and  far  from  unpalatable.  The  secretion  of  the  glands  is,  however, 
fetid  in  the  extreme,  and  has  been  compared  to  that  of  the  skunks.  As  in  the  latter, 
it  can  be  ejected  by  the  animal  to  a  considerable  distance.  We  have  but  little  in- 
formation as  to  the  habits  of  this  animal  in  a  wild  state;  but  it  is  stated  to  be  gentle 
and  easily  tamed  when  in  captivity. 

THE  SAND-BADGER 
Genus  Ardonyx 

With  the  sand-badger  or,  as  it  is  often  termed,  the  hog-badger  (Ardonyx 
collaris} ,  we  come  to  our  last  representative  of  the  badgers,  and  at  the  same  time  of 
the  present  section  of  the  Weasel  family.  The  ordinary  sand-badger  is  an  Indian 
species,  ranging  from  the  Eastern  Himalayas  through  Assam  and  the  neighboring 
regions  to  Tenasserim  and  Lower  Burma.  There  is,  however,  also  a  smaller  species 
(A.  taxoides),  inhabiting  Assam  and  Arakan,  and  possibly  China;  while  there  is 
probably  a  third  in  Eastern  Tibet. 

The  sand-badgers  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  group 
by  their  proportionately-longer  tails;  that  of  the  Indian  species  being  from  a  quarter 
to  a  third  the  length  of  the  head  and  body.  'The  long  and  naked  snout  is  very  like 
that  of  the  Malayan  badger;  the  eyes  are  small  and  the  ears  also  small  and  rounded. 
The  body  is  rather  flattened  from  side  to  side;  and  only  a  portion  of  the  naked  soles 
of  the  feet  are  applied  to  the  ground  in  walking,  so  that  these  animals  may  be  de- 
scribed as  digitigrade  rather  than  plantigrade  when  in  motion.  The  pelage  consists 
of  a  full  soft  under-fur,  mingled  with  long  stiff  hairs.  In  color  the  Indian  sand- 
badger  is  dirty  gray  both  above  and  below,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  blackish  tinge 
on  the  back,  most  of  the  individual  hairs  being  dirty  white  throughout  their  length, 
but  the  lo"cror  ones  on  the  back  and  sides  having  black  tips.  The  head  is  white, 
with  some  variable  black  bands,  while  the  lower  parts  and  limbs  are  dusky,  the 
limbs  being  sometimes  black.  Here,  then,  we  have  another  instance  of  the  ten- 
dency in  the  present  family  for  the  under  parts  to  be  lighter  than  the  upper  regions. 


68o  THE   CARNIVORES 

In  length  the  Indian  sand-badger  measures  about  thirty  inches  from  the  snout  to 
the  root  of  the  tail;  the  length  of  the  latter,  inclusive  of  the  hair  at  the  tip  being 
about  eleven  inches. 

The  most  marked  peculiarities  of  these  animals  are,  however,  to  be  found  in 
the  structure  of  their  skulls.  Thus  the  skull  differs  from  that  of  any  other  Mam- 
mal, except  some  of  the  edentates  and  dolphins,  in  having  the  bony  palate 
prolonged  as  far  back  as  the  level  of  the  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  condyle  of 
the  lower  jaw.  The  teeth  are  numerically  the  same  as  in  the  true  badgers,  but  the 
upper  molar  tooth,  instead  of  forming  a  regular  oblong,  has  its  hindmost,  outer 
angle  excavated,  so  that  the  inner  border  of  the  tooth  is  much  longer  than  the  outer 
one.  The  first  pretnolar  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw  is  very  minute,  and  is  often  soon 
shed. 

Writing  of  the  habits  of  the  Indian  sand-badger,  from  notes  sup- 
plied by  Colonel  Tickell,  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  it  "frequents  un- 
dulating stony  ground  or  small  hills  among  jungle,  and  lives  in  fissures  of  the  rocks 
or  holes  dug  by  itself.  It  is  thoroughly  nocturnal.  In  captivity  it  is  dull  and 
uninteresting,  feeding  voraciously  on  meats,  fish,  reptiles,  or  fruits,  and  it  is  par- 
ticularly fond  of  earthworms.  One  individual  used  to  pass  the  day  sleeping  in  a 
hole  that  it  had  dug,  and  was  very  savage  if  disturbed.  When  angry  it  made  a 
loud  grunting  noise  and  bit  fiercely.  It  was  dull  of  sight,  and  its  only  acute  sense 
appeared  to  be  that  of  smell.  It  was  in  the  habit  of  raising  its  snout  in  the  air  in 
order  to  scent  any  one  who  approached,  much  as  a  pig  does.  This  animal  had  no 
disagreeable  odor. ' ' 

THE  OTTERS 
Genus  Lutra 

The  otters,  which,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  sea-otter,  are  included  in  a 
single  genus,  constitute  the  third  and  last  main  group  into  which  the  members  of 
the  Weasel  family  are  divided.  They  are  characterized  generally  by  their  short  and 
rounded  feet, —  although  the  hind-feet  of  the  sea-otter  are  an  exception  in  this 
respect, —  their  webbed  toes,  and  their  small,  curved,  and  blunt  claws.  They  all 
have  very  broad  and  flattened  heads,  furnished  with  small  external  ears,  and  joined 
to  the  long  flattened  body  by  a  thick  neck,  which  passes  imperceptibly  from  the 
head  in  front  into  the  trunk  behind.  The  tail  is  moderately  long,  while  the  limbs  are 
extremly  short.  The  fur  is  soft,  thick,  and  of  a  uniformly  brownish  color  over  the 
whole  body,  except  on  the  under  parts,  where  it  is  generally  of  a  more  grayish  hue. 
The  teeth  of  the  otters  are  characterized  by  the  nearly  square  form  of  the  molar  in 
the  upper  jaw,  which,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  has  its  inner  portion 
much  expanded.  All  the  species  of  these  animals  are  thoroughly  aquatic  in  their 
habits. 

The  typical  otters,  which  include  all  the  species  except  the  sea-otter,  are  char- 
acterized by  their  hind-feet  being  of  normal  form,  and  by  the  number  and  structure 
of  their  teeth.  As  a  rule,  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  36,  of  which,  on  each  side  of 


THE   OTTERS 


68 1 


the  jaws,  f  are  incisors,  T  canines,  f  premolars,   and  ^  molars.     Thjg  first  premolar 


PALATE  OF  THE  d,AWI,ESS  OTTER. 

The  uppermost  tooth  on  each  side  is  the  molar,  im- 
mediately below  which  is  the  flesh-tooth. 


tooth  in  the  upper  jaw  is,  however,  always  very  small,  and  in  some  species  (as  in  the 
case  of  the  palate  here  figured)  may  be  totally  wanting,  thus  reducing  the  number  of 
the  teeth  to  34.  The  general  characteristics 
of  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  will  be  appar- 
ent from  the  figure,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  hinder  teeth  are  furnished  with  a  num- 
ber of  sharp  cusps,  admirably  adapted  to  as- 
sist in  retaining  the  slippery  prey  of  these 
animals.  In  addition  to  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  the  teeth,  the  skull  of  an  otter 
may  always  be  recognized  at  a  glance  by  its 
extreme  constriction  immediately  behind  the 
sockets  of  the  eyes,  and  the  equally  marked 
expansion  of  the  flattened  brain  case;  the 
portion  of  the  skull  forming  the  face  being 
also  very  short  in  proportion  to  the  remain- 
der. The  tail  is  thick  at  the  base,  and  somewhat  flattened  from  above  downward. 
In  most  cases  there  are  short  claws  on  all  the  feet,  but  in  a  few  species  they  may  be 
either  rudimentary  or  absent. 

In  all  parts  of  their  organization  otters  are  admirably  adapted  for  their  particu- 
lar mode  of  life;  their  elongated  forms,  with  but  slight  constriction  at  the  neck,  be- 
ing perfectly  suited  to  glide  through  the  water  with  the  greatest  ease  and  speed; 
their  thick,  dense  fur  forming  a  perfect  protection  against  chill,  and  their  teeth,  as 
we  have  mentioned,  being  specially  modified  in  order  both  to  hold  such  slippery  prey 
as  fishes,  and  at  the  same  time  to  pierce  with  facility  their  hard  scales.  Probably, 
in  consequence  of  their  precisely  similar  habits  and  mode  of  life,  all  the  otters  are  so 
like  one  another  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  number  of 
species,  and  scarcely  any  group  has  proved  more  puzzling  in  this  respect  to  the  sys- 
tematic zoologist.  It  appears,  however,  that  there  are  about  ten  species  of  true  ot- 
ters, of  which  one  is  European  and  Oriental,  three  are  exclusively  Oriental,  two  are 
African,  and  four  American.  The  largest  of  all  is  the  Brazilian  otter,  while  the  two 
smallest  species  are  the  feline  otter  of  South  America  and  the  Indian  clawless  otter. 
The  geographical  distribution  of  the  genus  is-  wider  than  that  of  any  other  single 
Mammalian  genus,  with  the  exception  of  certain  bats;  otters  having  been  obtained 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  except  the  Antarctic  and  Arctic  regions,  Australasia,  and 
Madagascar.  We  shall  allude  to  the  various  species  of  the  genus  according  to  their 
geographical  distribution. 

The  European  otter  (/,.  vulgaris),  is  taken  first,  as  being  not  only 
the  type  of  the  genus,  but  likewise  the  best  known;  and  many  of  our 
remarks  on  its  habits  will  also  apply  equally  well  to  the  others. 

In  size  this  species  occupies  a  kind  of  central  position  in  the  group,  the  average 
length  from  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  being  about  twenty-six  to  twenty-eight 
inches,  and  that  of  the  tail  fifteen  to  sixteen  inches,  while  the  weight  is  from  six- 
teen to  eighteen,  up  to  as  much  as  twenty-four  pounds.  The  fur  consists  of  a  soft 


European 
Otter 


682  THE   CARNIVORES 

under-fur,  in  which  the  hairs  are  whitish  gray,  with  brown  tips,  and  of  longer  stiff 
hairs,  which  are  grayish  at  the  base,  and  rich  brown  at  their  tips  on  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body  and  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  limbs;  the  cheeks,  throat,  the  under  parts 
of  the  body,  and  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs  being  brownish  gray.  The  upper 
margin  of  the  naked  nose  terminates  behind  in  an  angle,  while,  as  in  the  other 
species,  the  muzzle  is  provided  with  long  ' '  whiskers. ' '  In  the  Indian  variety,  which  was 
formerly  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  the  fur  of  the  back  is  generally  grizzled,  while 
the  size  of  the  animal  is  slightly  less  than  in  the  ordinary  European  form.  The  claws 
on  all  the  feet  are  well  developed,  and  there  are  four  premolar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw. 

The  common  otter  is  found  all  over  Europe  in  suitable  localities,  and 

also  extends  over  a  large  portion  of  Asia  northward  of  the  Himalayas. 

It  is  likewise  represented  by  the  ordinary  form  in  the  Northwestern  Himalayas,  and 

by  the  above-mentioned  smaller  and  grayer  variety  in  India  and  Ceylon,  as  well  as 

in  some  of  the  districts  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

Writing  of  the  habits  of  the  common  otter,  Bell  observes  that  "it 
swims  and  dives  with  great  readiness,  and  with  peculiar  ease  and  ele- 
gance of  movements;  and  although  its  action  on  land  is  far  from  being  awkward  and 


SKELETON  OF  THE  COMMON  OTTER. 

difficult,  yet  it  is  certainly  in  the  water  that  the  beautiful  adaptation  of  its  structure 
to  its  habits  is  most  strikingly  exhibited.  It  swims  in  nearly  a  horizontal  position, 
and  dives  instantaneously  after  the  fish  that  may  glide  beneath  it,  or  pursues  it  un- 
der water,  changing  its  course  as  the  fish  darts  in  various  directions  to  escape  from 
it,  and,  when  the  prey  is  secured,  brings  it  on  shore  to  its  retreat  to  feed.  As  the 
otter  lives  exclusively  on  fish,  when  it  can  procure  them,  it  frequents  lakes,  rivers, 
smaller  streams,  or  ponds,  and  not  unfrequently  descends  to  the  sea;  and  the  havoc 
which  it  makes  among  the  finny  inhabitants  is  almost  incredible.  In  feeding,  it 
holds  the  fish  between  its  fore-paws,  eating  first  the  head,  and  then  downward  to  the 
vent,  leaving  the  tail."  The  fish  actually  eaten  by  the  otter  form,  however,  but  a 
small  proportion  of  those  captured;  this  animal  being  one  of  those  which  appears  to 
delight  in  killing  for  killing's  sake.  In  India  the  common  otter  is  occasionally 
found  in  the  large  tanks  so  common  throughout  the  country,  and  it  is  stated  by  Mr. 
Blanford  to  be  common  in  the  great  backwaters  off  the  Western  Coast,  and  in  the 
Chilka  lake  of  Orissa. 

Otters  are  generally  found  either  in  pairs  or  in  family  parties  of  five  or  six  indi- 
viduals, the  latter  comprising  the  parents  and  their  partially  or  full-grown  progeny. 


or 
LJ 
h- 

h- 

o 


LJ 
Q_ 
O 


LoJ 


THE   OTTERS  683 

Their  habitations  are  usually  made  in  or  near  the  banks  of  the  waters  they  frequent, 
the  hollows  beneath  the  roots  of  trees  growing  on  a  river's  margin  being  especial 
favorites,  while  in  hilly  districts  the  clefts  between  rocks  are  selected,  and  where  the 
soil  is  of  an  alluvial  nature  deep  burrows,  with  several  entrances,  one  of  which 
usually  opens  beneath  the  water,  are  excavated  in  the  banks.  A  large  pile  of  loose 
stones,  forming  one  of  the  piers  of  a  timber  bridge  over  the  Indus  above  the  town  of 
Leh  has  long  been  the  favorite  resort  of  a  colony  of  otters.  The  presence  of  numer- 
ous bones  and  scales  of  fish,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  web-footed  tracks  of  the  animals 
themselves,  will  always  indicate  whether  or  not  an  otter's  den  or  "holt"  is  inhabited. 

Otters  apparently  never  hibernate,  and  in  consequence  must  be  hard  pressed 
to  supply  themselves  with  food  during  the  winter  in  the  colder  portions  of  their 
habitat.  At  such  times  they  are  asserted  in  inhabited  districts  to  make  occasional 
raids  on  the  farmyard,  where  they  have  been  known  to  kill  poultry  and,  it  is  said, 
even  young  lambs  and  pigs.  Waterfowl  are  probably  also  attacked  at  such  periods, 
while  it  is  stated  that  eggs  are  always  acceptable  to  these  animals.  In  addition  to 
fish,  otters  are  in  the  habit  of  eating  frogs  and  such  fresh-water  or  marine  crusta- 
ceans as  are  found  in  the  waters  they  frequent. 

Although  chiefly  nocturnal,  —  more  especially  in  districts  where  they  are  much 
harassed, — otters  may  not  unfrequently  be  seen  hunting  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing, Mr.  Blanford  stating  that  he  has  frequently  observed  them  in  India  at  work 
up  to  nine  or  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning.  When  fishing,  it  appears  that  all  the 
members  of  a  party  of  otters  are  in  the  habit  of  combining  their  efforts  to  surround 
or  drive  a  shoal  of  fish.  General  M' Master  had  on  one  occasion  the  good  fortune 
to  observe  a  party  comprising  at  least  six  individuals  thus  engaged  in  the  Chilka 
lake  of  Orissa.  "  They  worked,"  writes  the  narrator  of  the  incident,  "  most  sys- 
tematically in  a  semicircle,  with  intervals  of  about  fifty  yards  between  each,  having 
I  suppose,  a  large  shoal  of  fish  in  the  centre,  for  every  now  and  then  an  otter  would 
disappear,  and  generally,  when  it  was  again  seen,  it  was  well  within  the  semicircle, 
with  a  fish  in  its  jaws,  caught  more  for  pleasure  than  for  profit,  as  the  fish,  so  far 
as  I  could  see,  were  always  left  untouched  beyond  a  single  bite. ' ' 

The  large  size  of  the  aperture  in  the  skull  below  the  socket  of  the  eye  for  the 
transmission  of  the  nerves  supplying  the  muzzle,  indicates  that  the  "whiskers"  of 
the  otter  must  be  extremely  sensitive.  With  regard  to  their  powers  of  hearing, 
smell,  and  sight,  Mr.  Blanford  believes  that,  while  the  two  former  are  well  developed, 
otters  are  somewhat  deficient  in  the  latter.  Their  general  intelligence  is  decidedly 
high,  and  they  likewise  often  display  much  cunning  and  forethought,  more  espe- 
cially in  avoiding  the  traps  set  for  their  capture.  When  excited  they  utter  a  kind 
of  yelping  bark,  and  they  are  stated  to  give  a  sort  of  whistle  as  an  alarm  note  to 
their  fellows.  There  is  still  a  dearth  of  information  as  to  the  breeding  habits  of  the 
otter.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  young  may  be  produced  at  any  season  of  the 
year,  although  the  winter  is  the  more  usual  time.  The  number  of  young  in  a  litter 
generally  varies  from  two  to  five,  the  cubs  themselves  being  born  blind. 
Tame  Otters  ^e  otter  *s  readily  tamed  if  captured  at  a  sufficiently  early  age, 
and  then  becomes  much  attached  to  its  owner,  whom  it  will  follow 
about  after  the  manner  of  a  dog.  The  natural  instincts  of  these  animals  are  taken 


684  THE   CARNIVORES 

advantage  of  by  the  native  fishermen  of  some  Oriental  countries  to  aid  them  in  their 
avocations.  The  late  Bishop  Heber,  when  voyaging  up  one  of  the  rivers  of  Bengal, 
states  that  his  vessel  passed  ' '  a  row  of  no  less  than  nine  or  ten  large  and  very  beau- 
tiful otters  tethered  with  straw  collars  and  long  strings  to  the  bambo  stakes  on  the 
banks.  Some  were  swimming  about  at  the  full  extent  of  their  strings,  or  lying  half 
in  and  half  out  of  the  water;  others  were  rolling  themselves  in  the  sun  on  the  sandy 
bank,  uttering  a  shrill  whistling  noise,  as  if  in  play.  I  was  told  that  most  of  the 
fishermen  in  the  neighborhood  kept  one  or  more  of  these  animals,  who  were  almost 
as  tame  as  dogs  and  of  great  use  in  fishing,  sometimes  driving  the  shoals  into  the 
nets,  sometimes  bringing  out  the  larger  fish  with  their  teeth."  According  to  later 
authorities  it  appears,  however,  that  the  bishop  was  misinformed  as  to  the  otters  be- 
ing employed  to  catch  fish  with  their  teeth,  their  sole  use  in  India  being  to  drive 
the  latter  into  the  nets.  In  China,  on  the  other  hand,  otters  are  actually  employed 
in  the  former  operation. 

H     ,.  Otter  hunting  in  England  has  been  already  alluded  to  briefly  under 

the  head  of  the  otterhound;  and  from  the  facts  there  mentioned  it  will 
be  gathered  that  these  animals  are  still  fairly  numerous  in  many  of  the  wilder  parts 
of  the  country. 

Otter  fur,  from  its  close  texture,  fine  gloss,  and  rich  color,  is  much 
Pelage 

esteemed  as  a  trimming,  and  commands  a  rather  high  price  in  the 

market.  A  large  number  of  the  otter  skins  exported  to  England  belong,  how- 
ever, to  the  North- American  species.  Skins  of  the  European  species  vary  from  one 
to  seven  dollars  in  price. 

..  „  Fossil  remains  of  the  common  otter  have  been  obtained  from  the 

r  ossil  Kemams 

superficial  deposits  and  caverns  of  England  and  the  Continent,  and 
likewise  from  the  so-called  "  forest  bed"  of  the  Eastern  Coast,  which  is  somewhat 
older.  A  fossil  otter  from  the  still  more  ancient  Norwich  Crag,  belonging  to  the 
upper  portion  of  the  Pliocene  period  has,  moreover,  been  identified  with  the  present 
species. 

This  otter  (L.  canadensis]  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the 

much  larger  size  of  the  naked  area  at  the  tip  of  the  muzzle,  which  ex- 
can  Otter 

tends  far  above  and  to  the  sides  of  the  nostrils,  instead  of  being  en- 
tirely confined  to  the  space  between  them,  as  in  the  latter.  According  to  Dr.  Coues, 
it  is  very  variable  in  point  of  size  and  color.  It  may,  however,  attain  a  total  length 
of  four  feet  or  more,  while  the  general  color  of  the  fur  is  liver  brown  with  a  purplish 
gloss,  the  chin,  throat,  and  under  parts  being  paler.  This  species  occurs  over  the 
whole  of  North  America  in  suitable  regions,  although  apparently  nowhere  very 
numerous;  its  northern  range  extending  along  the  Mackenzie  and  other  rivers  nearly 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

There  does  not  appear  much  that  is  especially  noteworthy  or  pecu- 
liar in  the  habits  of  this  species.  Dr.  Hart  Merriam  states  that  in  the 
Adirondack  region  the  number  of  fresh-water  crawfish  consumed  by  these  otters  is 
enormous,  this  crustacean  apparently  forming  as  important  a  portion  of  their  food 
as  fish.  The  same  writer  also  bears  testimony  as  to  the  long  journeys  undertaken 
by  the  North- American  otter  from  river  to  river  across  country;  these  journeys 


THE   OTTERS  685 

mostly  taking  place  during  the  winter.  On  such  occasions  they  'ego  so  fast  that  a 
man  has  great  difficulty  in  overtaking  them.  On  the  ice  they  proceed  by  a  series  of 
what  boys  call  '  a  run  and  a  slide,'  that  is,  they  make  several  jumps  and  then  slide 
ahead  flat  on  their  bellies,  as  far  as  their  impetus  and  the  smoothness  of  the  ice  per- 
mit, and  then  do  the  same  thing  over  again,  and  so  on."  A  curious  habit  of  this 
otter  is  its  propensity  for  sliding  down  smooth  and  steep  banks,  either  of  snow  or  of 
mud.  Such  gambols  have  been  watched  by  several  observers,  from  whose  accounts  it 
appears  that  in  winter  the  animals  select  the  highest  ridge  of  snow,  onto  the  top  of 
which  they  scramble,  whence,  as  Dr.  J.  D.  Godman  writes,  they  give  themselves  an 
impulse  with  their  hind-legs,  and  swiftly  glide  headforemost  down  the  declivity, 
sometimes  for  a  distance  of  twenty  yards.  This  sport  they  continue  apparently 
with  the  greatest  enjoyment  until  fatigue  or  hunger  induces  them  to  desist.  A 
pair  on  a  mud  bank  made  upward  of  twenty-two  slides  before  they  were  disturbed. 
The  number  of  young  in  a  litter  is  said  to  be  usually  two,  although  there  may  oc- 
casionally be  either  one  or  three.  They  are  born  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  autumn  the  female  is  generally  to  be  seen  accompanied  by  her 
two  young. 

'The  fur  of  the  otter  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  any  other  North- 
American  animal,  and  is  in  good  condition  from  November  till  the 
spring,  but  is  at  its  best  period  during  the  latter  season.  It  is  stated  by  Dr.  Coues 
that  the  number  of  skins  of  the  American  otter  exported  by  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  to  London  in  the  year  1873  exceeded  11,000,  while  in  1891  the  same  com- 
pany sold  8,171  skins.  The  ordinary  price  varies  from  seven  to  twelve  dollars  per 
skin. 

Trapping  These  otters  are  usually  caught  in  steel  traps,  which  are  set  beneath 

the  water  where  one  of  the  "slides  "  or  tracks  of  the  animals  leads  to 
the  margin.  Sometimes  the  trap  is,  however,  placed  at  the  top  of  the  slide  and 
covered  with  snow.  In  neither  case  is  any  bait  used;  but  in  all  methods  the  great- 
est care  is  necessary  that  no  traces  of  the  trapper's  presence  should  remain, 
as  the  otter  has  very  acute  smell  and  sight,  and  is  exceedingly  wary  and 
cunning. 

South  America  possesses  at  least  three  species  of  otters,   of  which  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  Brazilian  otter  and  the  feline  otter.     The  Brazilian  otter  (Z,. 

brasiliensis)  is  much  the  largest  of  all  the  living  species,  and  is  dis- 
Brazilian  Otter     . 

tmguished  by  the  presence  of  a  distinct  ridge  running  along  each 

side  of  the  tail,  whence  it  is  often  termed  the  margined-tailed  otter.  It  inhabits  the 
rivers  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Ariranha.  The  length  of  the 
head  and  body  is  over  forty  inches,  while  that  of  the  tail  is  about  twenty-three 
inches.  The  nose  is  completely  covered  with  hair,  and  the  general  color  of  the  pel- 
age is  chocolate  brown,  becoming  lighter  on  the  under  parts.  The  chin,  as  well  as 
a  large  irregular  patch  on  the  throat,  and  some  spots  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
body  are,  however,  whitish  or  yellow. 

In  some  of  the  South-American  rivers  these  otters  may  be  met  with 
Habits  .     ,  .  .       . 

in  large  companies,  and  they  differ  from  most  other  species  m  being 

purely  diurnal,  commencing  their  hunting  with  the  dawn  of  day  and  continuing  till 


686  THE   CARNIVORES 

nightfall.  When  in  such  companies,  the  otters  utter  a  kind  of  whistling  sound, 
which  is  said  to  have  some  resemblance  to  the  mewing  of  cats.  Hensel  states  that, 
when  traveling  on  the  Brazilian  rivers  in  a  canoe,  the  voyager,  when  shooting  out 
from  beneath  the  overhanging  branches  of  a  tree,  may  often  see  a  number  of  black 
objects  in  the  water,  which  at  his  approach  tend  to  collect  together.  Careful  ob- 
servation will  show  that  these  are  otters,  but  by  the  time  the  canoe  has  reached  the 
spot  where  they  were  first  seen  all  will  have  disappeared.  Soon,  however,  the 
traveler's  ears  are  struck  by  a  peculiar  snorting  sound,  and,  as  he  looks  around,  he 
sees  the  water  on  all  sides  dotted  with  the  dark  heads  of  the  giant  otters,  which, 
with  a  second  snort,  disappear  again  as  quick  as  lightning  beneath  the  surface. 

The  feline  otter  (L.  felina)  is,  on  the  other  hand,  one  of  the  small- 
Feline  Otter  ,  r  ,,  .  ....          .  ,     , 

est  members  of  the  group,  agreeing  approximately  in  size  with  the 

Indian  clawless  otter.  It  is  characterized  by  its  relatively-short  face  and  its  light 
and  delicate  teeth,  the  inner  tubercle  of  the  upper  flesh-tooth  being  much  smaller 
than  in  the  other  species  from  the  same  regions.  This  species  also  differs  from 
other  otters  in  being  almost  exclusively  marine  in  its  habits.  In  regard  to  its  dis- 
tribution, Mr.  O.  Thomas  states  that  "in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  it  extends  to 
the  straits  of  Magellan,  where  its  range  meets  that  of  the  larger  Brazilian  otter. 
Thence  northward  it  is  exceedingly  common  along  the  coasts  of  Patagonia  and 
Chili,  where  the  complex  labyrinths  of  gulfs  and  channels  are  highly  favorable  to 
its  manner  of  life."  It  has  been  found  in  Peru  and  Ecuador. 

In  regard  to  the  naked-nosed  and  flat-headed  South-American  otters,  inter- 
mediate in  size  between  the  two  last  species,  there  is  still  much  uncertainty,  but 
they  are  all  provisionally  included  under  the  name  of  L.  paranensis. 

In  addition  to  the  common   European   otter,    which  as  we   have 
Smooth  Indian    in  .  ,11  •  A     •     T    j-      ^1 

_  already  seen,  is  represented  by  a  variety  in  India,  there  are  three  In- 

dian and  Malayan  representatives  of  the  group.  The  first  of  these 
species  is  the  smooth  Indian  otter  {L.  macrodiis),  readily  distinguished  from  the 
common  otter  by  the  upper  border  of  the  naked  portion  of  the  muzzle  forming  a 
straight  line,  while  the  fur  is  very  smooth  and  short.  Then,  again,  the  skull  is  less 
depressed  and  flattened,  and  the  molar  and  flesh-tooth  in  the  upper  jaw  are  very 
large,  the  latter  differing  from  the  corresponding  tooth  of  the  common  species  by 
the  larger  proportionate  size  of  the  tubercular  portion  on  the  inner  side  of  the  blade. 
This  otter  is  found  all  over  India,  and  also  extends  to  Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  Sumatra.  Its  habits  appear  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  common  otter, 
and,  like  the  latter,  it  is  trained  for  fishing. 

The  hairy-nosed  otter  (L.  sumatrana)  is  a  very  well-marked  species 
Hairy-Nosed      .  ,.     .         .  ,     ,  .  ,.        ,       ,, 

Q,.  from  the  Malayan  region,  distinguished,  as  its  name  implies,  by  the 

muzzle  being  completely  covered  with  hair;  the  inner  tubercle  of  the 
upper  flesh-tooth  being  relatively  small.  A  closely-allied  extinct  species  (/,. 
palceindica)  occurs  in  the  Siwalik  hills  of  Northern  India. 

There  is  also  the  much  smaller  Indian  clawless  otter  (/,.  cinerea}, 

er  differing  from  the  others  not  only  by  its  inferior  dimensions,  but  also 

by  the  rudimentary  condition,  or  even  total  absence,  of  the  claws.     The  upper 

teeth  (shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  681)  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  first 


THE   OTTERS 


687 


African  Otters 


premolar,  and  the  great  length  from  front  to  back  of  the  molar  tooth.  Moreover, 
the  whole  skull  is  much  shorter  than  in  the  other  species.  The  length  of  the  head 
and  body  of  this  otter  varies  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  inches,  and  that  of  the 
tail  from  ten  and  one-half  to  thirteen  inches.  The  clawless  otter  ranges  from  India 
through  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  islands  to  China.  In  India  it  occurs 
in  the  Himalayas  at  low  elevations,  in  Lower  Bengal  and  the  Nilgiri  hills  of  Madras, 
and  perhaps  also  in  Ceylon.  It  appears  to  be  the  only  otter  found  in  Java.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Blanford,  the  habits  of  this  otter  are  similar  to  those  of  the  other 
Oriental  species. 

The  whole  African  continent  possesses  but  two  members  of  the 
group  under  consideration.  The  first  of  these  is  the  African  clawless 
otter  (/,.  capensis),  from  South  and  West  Africa,  which,  while  agreeing  with  the 
Indian  clawless  otter  in  the  rudimentary  condition  of  its  claws,  is  distinguished  by 
its  greatly  superior  dimensions;  being,  next  to  the  Brazilian  otter,  the  largest  rep- 
resentative of  the  whole  group.  Writing  of  this  species,  which  he  alludes  to  under 
another  Latin  name,  the  late  Professor  Moseley  states  that  "among  the  animals 
which  live  on  the  Cape  Peninsula,  the  clawless  otter  is  worthy  of  mention;  it  is  a 
very  large  otter,  twice  or  three  times  as  large  when  full-grown  as  the  European  one. 
It  lives  about  the  salt  marshes  and  lakes,  and  is  tolerably  common;  it  hunts,  like 
the  South-  American  marine  otter,  in  companies,  but  only  of  three  or  four.  It  has 
no  claws  on  the  fore-feet,  having  lost  them  by  natural  selection  in  some  way  or 
other,  and  on  the  hind-feet  the  claws  are  wanting  on  the  outer  toes,  and  only 
rudiments  of  them  remain  on  the  middle  ones.  There  are,  however,  pits  marking 
the  places  where  the  claws  used  to  exist.  The  webbing  between  the  toes  is  also 
in  this  otter  rudimentary;  the  beast  altogether  is  very  heavily  built,  with  the 
head  very  broad  and  powerful.  It  appears  to  be  an  otter  bent  on  returning  to 
land  habits." 

The  spotted-necked  otter  (L.  maculicollis)  is  one  of  the  smaller 
members  of  the  group,  with  well-developed  claws.  It  has  a  naked 
nose,  and  very  long  hind-  feet;  the  color  of  the  fur 
being  blackish  brown,  with  yellow  spots  on  the 
throat,  chest  and  under  parts.  This  otter  has  been  obtained  from 
the  Cape  and  Natal. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  occurrence 
of  the  common  otter  in  the  superficial  deposits  of 
Europe,  and  also  of  an  extinct  species  allied  to  the  hairy-nosed  THE  I,EFT  UPPER 
otter  in  the  Siwalik  hills  of  India.     In  addition  to  these,  there  are 

. 

numerous  extinct  otters  in  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  deposits  of 

Europe,  some  of  which  appear  to  connect  existing  forms  with  the 

martens  and  their  allies.     Another  is  remarkable  as  appearing  to 

indicate  affinities  between  the  otters  and  the  civets,  and  thus  serves 

to  confirm  the  previously-mentioned  evidence  as  to  the  existence  of  some  relation- 

ship between  the  now  widely  divergent  families  of  the  weasels  and  civets.     The 

otter-like  animal  is  distinguished  from  all  other  members  of  the  present  family  by 

having  two  molar  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw. 


Spotted- 
Necked 
Otter 


Extinct  Otters 


FLESH-TOOTH  OF 

AN  EXTINCT  IN- 
DIAN  OTTER 

The    outer    ridge 
6  of  figure)  is 


688 


THE   CARNIVORES 


Especial  interest  must  also  attach  to  some  giant  otters  from  the  Siwalik  hills  of 
India,  which  were  even  larger  than  the  existing  Brazilian  otter.  An  upper  flesh- 
tooth  of  one  of  these  otters  is  represented  in  the  cut  on  p.  687,  which  will  give 
some  idea  of  their  dimensions.  By  comparing  this  figure  with  the  corresponding 
tooth  of  the  recent  skull  represented  on  p.  68 1,  it  will  be  observed  that  these 
gigantic  Siwalik  otters  are  distinguished  by  having  three  distinct  cusps,  instead  of  a 
crescentic  cutting  edge  on  the  inner  tubercular  portion  of  the  upper  flesh-tooth. 


THE  SEA-OTTER 

t 

Genus  Latax 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  feline  otter  of  South  America  is  in  the  habit  of 
frequenting  the  lagoons  and  bays  of  its  native  coasts  rather  than  rivers,  and  these 


THE  SEA-OTTER. 

(One-tenth  natural  size.) 

(After  Wolf.) 

marine  habits  are  still  more  characteristic  of  the  animal  known  as  the  sea-otter 
(Latax  lutris},  which  is  regarded  as  forming  a  genus  by  itself. 

The  sea-otter  has  a  total  length  of  about  four  feet,  of  which  one  foot,  or  rather 
less,  is  occupied  by  the  tail.  In  general  appearance  it  is  compared  by  Dr.  Coues  to 
one  of  the  eared  seals,  a  resemblance  which  is  increased  by  the  long  and  flipper-like 
hind-feet,  quite  unlike  those  of  all  other  members  of  the  family  to  which  it  belongs. 
The  body  has  a  bolster-like  form,  tapering  in  front  to  join  the  rather  small  and 
rounded  head,  without  any  marked  constriction  at  the  neck.  Both  the  limbs  and 
tail  are  short,  the  latter  being  cylindrical,  slightly  tapering,  and  somewhat  trun- 


THE  SEA-OTTER  689 

cated  at  the  end;  while  the  disparity  in  the  size  of  the  fore  and  hind-feet  is  quite 
unknown  in  any  of  the  Carnivores  hitherto  described.  The  skin  is  remarkably  large 
and  loose  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  so  that  when  removed  from  the  body  it  can 
readily  be  stretched  to  a  third  more  than  its  normal  length.  The  pelage  consists 
mainly  of  a  fine  soft  woolly  under-fur,  among  which  are  a  small  proportion  of  long, 
stiff  hairs.  The  general  color  is  dark,  liver  brown,  silvered  over  with  the  grayish 
tips  of  the  long  hairs. 

Remarkable  as  are  the  external  characteristics  of  the  sea-otter,  it  is  not,  how- 
ever, solely,  or  even  chiefly  on  them,  that  the  zoologist  relies  in  referring  the  ani- 
mal to  a  genus  apart  from  that  containing  the  true  otters.  Equally  noteworthy  pe- 
culiarities occur  in  the  number  and  structure  of  the  teeth.  In  the  first  place,  there 
are  but  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw, —  a  feature  in  which  this  species 
differs  not  only  from  other  otters  but  likewise  from  every  other  true  Carnivore.  The 
total  number  of  teeth  is,  therefore,  thirty -two,  as  against  thirty-six  in  the  common 
otter;  there  being,  as  in  the  Indian  clawless  otter,  but  three  pairs  of  premolar  teeth 
in  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  jaws.  The  cheek-teeth,  although  of  the  same  gen- 
eral plan  of  structure  as  in  the  true  otters,  differ  by  their  extremely  blunted  and 
rounded  cusps.  "  If , "  remarks  Dr.  Coues,  ' '  the  teeth  of  ordinary  carnivorous 
quadrupeds  be  likened  to  fresh -chipped,  sharp,  and  angular  bits  of  rock,  those  of  the 
sea-otter  are  comparable  to  water- worn  pebbles ' ' ;  and  we  know  of  no  simile  which 
can  better  express  the  difference  between  the  cheek-teeth  of  the  common  and  the 
sea-otter. 

The  sea-otter  in  an  inhabitant  of  both  coasts  of  the  North  Pacific; 
its  chief  haunts  on  the  American  side  being  Alaska,  the  Aleutian  is- 
lands, the  neighborhood  of  Sitka  island  on  the  west  coast  of  Canada,  and  Vancouver 
island;  its  southern  limits  being  the  shores  of  Oregon.     On  the  Asiatic  side  it  occurs 
in  Kamchatka,  but  apparently  more  rarely  than  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

It  is  stated  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Elliot  that  when  the  Russian  traders  first  opened  up 
the  Aleutian  islands,  they  found  the  natives  commonly  wearing  cloaks  made  of  the 
fur  of  the  sea-otter,  which  they  were  at  first  willing  to  sell  for  a  mere  trifle,  esteem- 
ing these  skins  much  less  than  they  did  those  of  the  fur-seals.  Again,  when  the 
Pribilof  islands,  situated  in  Behring  Sea  to  the  eastward  of  the  Aleutians,  were 
first  discovered,  upward  of  five  thousand  skins  of  this  species  were  taken  in  the  first 
season,  while  in  six  years  these  animals  had  completely  disappeared  from  the  islands. 
Nearly  the  same  story  is  told  in  all  the  haunts  of  the  sea-otter,  which  has  now  be- 
come a  very  rare  animal  indeed,  and  stands  in  sore  need  of  protection  if  it  is  to 
escape  total  extermination.  Mr.  Elliot  states  that  "  over  two-thirds  of  all  the  sea- 
otters  taken  in  Alaska  are  secured  in  two  small  areas  of  water,  little  rocky  islets  and 
reefs  around  the  islands  of  Sanak  and  Chernobours,  which  proves  that  these  ani- 
mals, in  spite  of  the  incessant  hunting  all  the  year  round  on  this  ground,  seem  to 
have  some  particular  preference  for  it  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  nearly  all  the  rest 
of  the  territory.  This  may  be  due  to  its  better  adaptation  as  a  breeding  ground." 
A  similar  preference  for  a  small  area  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gray's  harbor  over  the 
whole  of  the  remainder  of  the  coast  of  Washington  and  Oregon  is  also  exhibited  by 
these  animals. 
44 


690  THE   CARNIVORES 

It  is  not  the  mainland  of  Sanak  island  which  is  frequented  by  the  sea-otters,, 
but  the  small  islets  and  reefs  lying  to  the  southward  and  westward  at  a  distance  of 
about  five  miles,  and  thence  stretching  seaward,  most  of  which  are  left  bare  at  low 
water.  Either  on  these  islets  and  reefs,  or,  in  calm  weather,  in  the  open  sea  around, 
the  sea-otters  are  to  be  found. 

The  female  sea-otter  has  only  two  teats,  and  produces  but  a  single 

young  one  at  a  birth,  so  that  the  increase  of  the  species  can  be,  at  the 
best,  but  slow.  The  young  may  apparently  be  born  at  any  season  of  the  year,  and  do 
not  attain  maturity  till  four  or  five  years  old.  Writing  of  the  general  habits  of  the 
species,  Mr.  Elliot  observes  that  the  "  mother  sleeps  in  the  water  on  her  back,  with 
her  young  clasped  between  her  fore-paws.  The  pup  cannot  live  without  its  mother, 
though  frequent  attempts  have  been  made  by  the  natives  to  raise  them,  as  they  of- 
ten capture  them  alive,  but,  like  some  other  species  of  wild  animals,  it  seems  to  be 
so  deeply  imbued  with  fear  of  man  that  it  invariably  dies  from  self-imposed  star- 
vation. 

The  remarkable  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth  of  the 

sea-otter  from  those  of  the  true  otters,  clearly  indicates  that  there 
must  be  an  equally  marked  difference  in  the  food  of  the  two;  and  the  rounded  prom- 
inences on  the  crowns  of  those  of  the  present  species  would  further  suggest  that  they 
were  adapted  for  pounding  and  crushing  hard  substances.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Mr. 
Elliot  tells  us  that  the  food  of  the  sea-otters  "  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  clams, 
mussels,  and  sea  urchins,  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  and  which  they  break  by 
striking  the  shells  together,  held  in  each  fore-paw,  sucking  out  the  contents  as  they 
are  fractured  by  these  efforts;  they  also  undoubtedly  eat  crabs,  and  the  juicy  tender 
fronds  of  kelp  or  seaweed,  and  fish.  They  are  not  polygamous,  and  more  than  one 
individual  is  seldom  seen  at  a  time  when  out  at  sea.  The  flesh  is  very  unpalatable, 
highly  charged  with  a  rank  smell  and  flavor.  They  are  playful,  it  would  seem,  for 
I  am  assured  by  several  old  hunters  that  they  have  watched  the  sea-otter  for  half  an 
hour  as  it  lay  upon  its  back  in  the  water  and  tossed  a  piece  of  seaweed  up  in  the  air 
from  paw  to  paw,  apparently  taking  great  delight  in  catching  it  before  it  could  fall 
into  the  water.  It  will  also  play  with  its  young  for  hours.  The  quick  hearing  and 
acute  smell  possessed  by  the  sea-otter  are  not  equaled  by  any  other  creature  in  the 
territory.  They  will  take  alarm  and  leave  from  the  effects  of  a  small  fire  four  or  five 
miles  to  the  windward  of  them;  and  the  footstep  of  man  must  be  washed  by  many 
tides  before  its  trace  ceases  to  alarm  the  animal,  and  drive  it  from  landing." 

In  Alaska  the  sea-otter  is  often  captured  by  shooting  it  in  the  head 

with  a  rifle  bullet  when  the  animal  is  sporting  in  the  surf;  the  boom- 
ing of  the  surf  deadening  the  report  of  the  rifle,  and  thus  allowing  successive  shots. 
to  be  taken  till  one  is  successful.  An  older  plan  is,  however,  for  a  party  to  go  out 
in  canoes  when  a  sea-otter  has  been  observed,  and  by  arranging  themselves  in  a 
circle  around  its  last  point  of  disappearance,  so  harass  the  creature  on  its  subse- 
quent emergence  that  eventually  it  becomes  exhausted  from  sheer  inability  to 
breathe.  The  third  method  is  by  knocking  the  animal  on  the  head  with  heavy 
clubs;  but  this  can  only  be  done  during  the  winter  at  such  times  when  strong  gales. 
are  blowing  from  the  northward.  Then,  writes  Mr.  Elliot,  the  boldest  of  the 


THE  SEA-OTTER  691 

natives  set  out  in  their  canoes  from  Sanak,  "  and  scud  on  the  tail  <df  the  gale  to  the 
far  outlying  rocks,  just  sticking  out  above  surf- wash,  where  they  creep  up  from  the 
leeward  to  the  sea-otters  found  there  at  such  times,  with  their  heads  stuck  into 
the  beds  of  kelp  to  avoid  the  wind.  The  noise  of  the  gale  is  greater  than  that  made 
by  the  stealthy  movements  of  the  hunters,  who,  armed  each  with  a  short,  heavy 
wooden  club,  dispatch  the  animals  one  after  another  without  alarming  the  whole 
body,  and  in  this  way  two  Aleuts  were  known  to  have  slain  seventy-eight  in  less 
than  an  hour  and  a  half."  Instead  of  these  methods,  which  are  employed  in 
Unalaska  island  and  the  districts  to  the  eastward,  among  the  Atka  Aleuts  the  sea- 
otters  are  caught  in  small  coarse-meshed  nets.  These  nets  are  spread  out  over  the 
kelp  beds  upon  which  the  otters  are  in  the  habit  of  sleeping.  The  animals  getting 
entangled  in  the  meshes  on  their  arrival,  appear  to  become  almost  paralyzed  with 
fear  and  thus  fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  hunters. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  Kamchatka,  according  to  Dr.  Guillemard,  the  sea-otter 
is  always  shot  with  a  bow  and  arrows.  ' '  The  former  is  a  tough  piece  of  wood  five 
or  six  feet  in  length,  which  is  enormously  strengthened  by  a  band  of  plaited  hide  on 
the  outer  face,  so  tightly  fixed  as  to  give  the  bow  a  curve  in  the  opposite  direction 
when  unstrung.  The  arrows  are  of  wood  for  three-quarters  of  their  length,  with 
feathers  fitted  diagonally  along  the  shaft,  so  as  to  produce  a  rotatory  motion.  The 
remaining  portion  is  of  walrus  ivory,  provided  at  the  end  with  a  socket,  into  which 
a  barbed  copper  point  is  inserted.  This  is  connected  to  the  arrow  by  a  long  string 
of  plaited  sinew  wound  around  the  shaft.  When  the  otter  is  hit,  the  barb,  which 
is  very  loose,  becomes  at  once  detached,  and  if  the  animal  gain  the  sea,  its  where- 
abouts is  indicated  by  the  arrow  floating  above  it. ' ' 

The  skin  of  the  sea-otter  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  all  furs. 
Pelage 

and  when  prepared  for  use  has  all  the  long  hairs  removed,  leaving 

only  the  under-fur.  In  Kamchatka,  Dr.  Guillemard  states  that  a  good  skin  will 
bring  even  as  much  as  seventy -five  dollars  to  the  native  hunter,  while  a  perfect  ex- 
ample has  been  known  to  realize,  according  to  Mr.  Poland,  as  much  as  one  thou- 
sand dollars  in  the  European  market.  The  average  price  in  1891  was  two  hundred 
and  seventy-five  dollars  per  skin. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

CARNIVORES — concluded 


EARED   SEALS,  WALRUSES,  AND  SEALS 
Families   OTARIID^E,    TRICHECHID^;,  and 


THE  whole  of  the  Carnivores  treated  of  in  the  preceding  chapters  constitute 
the  more  typical  representatives  of  the  order,  and  are  hence  collectively  termed  by 
zoologists  true  or  fissiped  Carnivores.  In  contrast  to  these  is  a  much  smaller  group 
comprising  the  eared  seals,  the  walruses,  and  the  true  seals,  differing  from  the 
above  by  their  flipper-like  limbs,  and  hence  known  as  the  pinniped  or  fin-footed 
Carnivores.  By  some  writers  the  pinnipeds  are  regarded  as  entitled  to  form  an 
order  by  themselves,  quite  distinct  from  the  Carnivores;  but  by  the  majority  of 
naturalists,  in  England  at  least,  they  are  considered  to  form  merely  a  suborder. 

The  members  of  the  pinniped  group  have  their  entire  organization  adapted  for 
an  aquatic  life;  this  adaptation  showing  itself  most  markedly  in  the  structure  of 
their  limbs.  Thus  both  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  are  modified  into  paddle  or  flipper- 
like  organs,  with  nearly  the  whole  of  their  upper  portions,  as  far  as  the  wrist  and 
ankle,  inclosed  in  the  common  integument  of  the  body;  while  the  feet  themselves 
are  greatly  elongated  —  more  especially  in  the  hind-limb  —  and  much  expanded, 
with  the  whole  of  the  five  toes  completely  connected  together  by  web.  A  peculiar- 
ity of  the  toes  of  the  hind-foot  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  the  first  and 
fifth  toes,  that  is  to  say,  those  corresponding  respectively  with  the  human  great  and 
little  toes,  are  stouter,  and  in  most  cases  also  longer,  than  the  three  middle  toes;  an 
arrangement  which  is  quite  unknown  among  the  true  Carnivores,  where  the  first  toe 
is  the  shortest  of  the  series.  The  pinnipeds  are  also  characterized  by  the  structure 
of  their  teeth,  which  are  simpler  than  those  of  the  true  Carnivores,  and  never  show 
a  specially-modified  "flesh-tooth"  in  one  jaw  biting  against  a  somewhat  similarly- 
modified  tooth  in  the  opposite  jaw.  As  a  general  rule,  the  cheek-teeth  comprise 
four  premolars  and  one  molar  on  either  side  of  each  jaw;  all  these  teeth  being  very 
similar  to  one  another  in  general  structure,  and  usually  consisting  of  a  pointed  main 
cone,  which  may  be  flanked  in  front  and  behind  by  smaller  cones  so  as  to  produce 
a  tricuspid  tooth.  Moreover,  the  number  of  incisor  teeth  is  invariably  reduced 
below  the  typical  three  pairs  in  each  jaw;  there  being  very  frequently  three  pairs  of 
these  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw,  or  but  two  pairs  in  each  jaw. 
Then,  again,  all  the  pinnipeds  are  characterized  by  the  reduced  or  rudimentary 
condition  of  their  milk  or  baby  series  of  teeth;  these  teeth  being  never  of  any  real 
(692) 


EARED  SEALS,   WALRUSES,  AND  SEALS  693 

use  to  their  owners,  and  being  not  ^infrequently  shed  previous  to  birth.  The  fore- 
going characteristics  are  amply  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  pinnipeds  from  the  true 
Carnivores,  although  these  animals  also  possess  certain  peculiarities  in  regard  to 
their  soft  parts,  into  the  consideration  of  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  here.  It 
may  be  mentioned,  however,  that  all  the  members  of  the  group  have  very  short 
tails,  while  they  are  all  remarkable  for  the  large  size  and  prominence  of  their  eyes, 
this  being  probably  necessary  in  order  to  secure  accurate  vision  under  water.  It  is 
also  noteworthy  that  in  all  the  members  of  the  group  the  rudimentary  collar  bones 
found  in  most  of  the  true  Carnivores  have  completely  disappeared. 

Those  who  admit  the  doctrine  of  the  evolution  of  organic  nature  can  have  no 
hesitation  in  regarding  the  pinnipeds  as  a  highly-specialized  group,  which  has  origi- 
nated either  from  some  section  or  sections  of  the  true  Carnivores,  or  from  an  extinct 
group,  to  be  noticed  later  on.  In  the  structure  of  their  skulls  the  eared  seals  come 
nearest  to  the  bears;  and  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  whole  group  must  have 
descended  from  Carnivores  which  still  retained  the  typical  five  digits  on  each  foot. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  true  seals  present  some  points  of  resemblance  to  the  otters, 
and  the  sea-otter  shows  us  how  easily  the  transition  from  the  ordinary  otter  type  to 
the  pinnipeds  might  have  taken  place.  The  sea-otter,  however,  is  clearly  (from  the 
structure  of  its  teeth)  in  no  sense  a  "missing  link";  and  it  is  by  no  means  im- 
probable that  the  pinnipeds  will  be  found  to  trace  their  origin  directly  to  the  extinct 
group  of  Carnivores  to  which  allusion  has  been  already  made. 

The  pinnipeds  are  divided  into  three  distinct  families,  namely,  the  eared  seals, 
the  walruses,  and  the  true  seals.  Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  these 
several  families,  we  may  refer,  however,  to  a  few  characteristics  common  to  the 
whole  group.  In  the  first  place,  the  pinnipeds,  as  already  mentioned,  are  thor- 
oughly aquatic  in  their  habits,  resorting  to  the  land  only  for  the  purpose  of  repose 
or  breeding,  and  when  there  moving  in  an  awkward  and  clumsy  fashion.  More- 
over, they  are,  as  a  rule,  marine;  although  some  ascend  tidal  rivers,  and  a  few  are 
found  in  inland  seas  and  lakes.  In  the  latter  instance  there  is,  however,  no  reason- 
able doubt  but  that  access  to  the  ocean  has  been  cut  off  since  the  date  when  the 
seals  first  reached  the  waters  in  which  they  are  now  confined. 

In  regard  to  their  general  characteristics,  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen,  who  has  paid  special 
attention  to  the  American  representatives  of  the  group,  observes  that  all  the  pinni- 
peds are  distinguished  by  their  high  degree  of  intelligence,  and  are  all  capable  of 
being  easily  domesticated,  when  placed  under  favorable  conditions.  They  are, 
almost  without  exception,  thoroughly  carnivorous,  "subsisting  upon  fishes,  mol- 
lusks,  and  crustaceans,  of  which  they  consume  enormous  quantities.  The  walruses 
and  eared  seals  are  polygamous,  and  the  males  greatly  exceed  the  females  in  size. 
The  ordinary  or  earless  seals  are  commonly  supposed  to  be  monogamous,  and  there 
is  generally  little  difference  in  the  size  of  the  sexes.  The  walruses  and  eared  seals 
usually  resort  in  large  numbers  to  certain  favorite  breeding  grounds,  and,  during 
the  season  of  reproduction,  leave  the  water,  and  pass  a  considerable  period  upon 
land.  The  earless  seals,  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  exception  of  the  sea-elephants, 
do  not  so  uniformly  resort  to  particular  breeding  grounds  on  land,  and  leave  the 
water  only  for  very  short  intervals. ' ' 


THE  EARED   SEALS  695 

Only  one  member  of  the  whole  group  appears  to  be  strictly  tropical,  and  com- 
paratively few  even  range  into  tropical  regions;  the  great  majorit'y  being  found  in 
the  Arctic,  Antarctic,  and  Temperate  zones,  many  of  them  being  exclusively  Arctic 
or  Subarctic,  while  one  is  as  entirely  Antarctic.  And,  whereas,  the  walruses  are 
restricted  mainly  at  the  present  day  to  the  northern  regions,  the  other  two  families 
are  well  represented  on  both  sides  of  the  Equator.  Most  of  the  true  or  earless  seals 
.are  confined  to  the  colder  latitudes,  and  generally  produce  their  young  on  the  ice. 


THE  EARED  SEALS 

Family  OTARIID^^ 

Genus    Otaria 

The  eared  seals  form  a  well-marked  family,  which  tends  to  connect  the  other 
and  more  specialized  representatives  of  the  group  with  ordinary  terrestrial  Carni- 
vores. In  the  first  place,  their  hind-limbs  are  decidedly  less  modified  ;  all  the  eared 
seals,  as  is  well  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  694,  being  characterized  by  having, 
when  on  land,  the  hind-flippers  turned  forward  under  the  body  in  the  direction  of 
the  head,  so  that  they  aid  in  the  support  of  the  trunk  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
They  derive  their  distinctive  title  from  the  presence  of  a  small  but  well-defined  ex- 
ternal ear;  and  by  these  two  characteristics  an  eared  seal  may  always  be  distinguished 
at  the  first  glance  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  group.  They  are  further 
characterized  by  having  the  soles  of  both  the  fore  and  hind-feet  entirely  devoid  of 
hair. 

These  animals  also  have  well-marked  necks,  and  their  fore-feet  are  nearly  as 
long  as  the  hind  ones.  In  the  fore-feet  the  toes  decrease  in  length  from  the  first  to 
the  fifth,  and  have  merely  rudimentary  claws;  while  in  the  hind-feet  the  three 
small  middle  toes  generally  have  better  developed  claws,  while  the  lateral  pair  are 
quite  clawless.  In  both  fore  and  hind-feet  the  skin  extends  considerably  in  advance 
of  the  tips  of  the  toes,  where  it  terminates  in  flaps.  Usually  there  are  thirty-four 
teeth,  but  sometimes,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  second  pair  of  molars  in  the  upper 
jaw,  there  may  be  thirty-six.  There  are  always  three  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  the 
upper,  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw. 

The  eared  seals  include  the  animals  commonly  known  as  sea-lions  and  sea- 
bears;  and  some  of  them  furnish  the  ' '  seal  skin  ' '  of  commerce.  This  seal  skin  is  the 
under-fur,  from  which  the  long  hairs  of  the  outer  coat  have  been  removed  ;  and 
such  species  as  possess  this  under-fur  are  consequently  termed  fur-seals.  Those 
species,  on  the  other  hand,  which  have  only  the  ordinary  close  coat  of  hair,  without 
any  woolly  under-fur,  are  commonly  termed  hair-seals  ;  and  their  commercial  value 
is  limited  to  the  oil  and  leather  which  they  yield.  In  regard  to  the  number  of 
species  of  eared  seals,  and  likewise  as  to  whether  they  should  all  be  included  in  a 
.single  genus  (Otaria},  or  referred  to  two  or  more  genera,  there  have  been  much  dis- 
cussion and  difference  of  opinion.  Writing  in  1880,  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  put  down  the 
number  of  definable  species  as  nine,  of  which  five  are  hair-seals  and  four  fur-seals. 


696  THE   CARNIVORES 

In  the  present  work  the  whole  of  these  will  be  included  under  the  single  generic 
title  of  Otaria  ;  but  an  alternative  plan  is  to  restrict  that  name  to  the  Patagonian 
sea-lion,  which  differs  in  certain  points  from  all  the, rest;  and  to  refer  the  rest  to  a 
second  genus  {Ardocephalus) . 

This  group  is  widely  distributed  over  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  both 
the  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres;  but,  doubtless  from  the  absence  of  suit- 
able sights  for  breeding  places,  is  quite  unrepresented  in  the  North  Atlantic.  As  a 
rule,  sea-lions  or  hair-seals,  and  sea-bears  or  fur-seals,  are  found  frequenting  the 
same  shores,  but  generally  living  apart  from  one  another;  while,  with  but  rare  ex- 
ceptions, only  one  species  of  each  section  occurs  in  any  one  locality.  Of  the  nine 
species  provisionally  recognized  by  Mr.  Allen,  two  out  of  the  five  hair- seals  are 
northern,  and  three  are  southern ;  while  of  the  four  fur-seals  one  is  northern  and 
three  are  southern.  By  later  writers  it  is  considered,  however,  that  there  are  cer- 
tainly two  other  species  of  southern  eared  seals. 

As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  the  whole  of  the  eared 
seals  spend  a  good  deal  of  their  time  on  land,  where  they  assemble  in 
large  companies;  and  they  are  also  polygamous.  Moreover,  the  males  are  gener- 
ally much  superior  in  size  to  their  consorts.  At  the  breeding  places,  which  are 
known  among  sealers  by  the  very  inappropriate  name  of  ' '  rookeries, ' '  the  older 
males  are  always  the  first  to  arrive,  and  thereupon  select  particular  stations  for 
themselves,  where  they  await  the  advent  of  the  females.  A  continual  warfare  is 
maintained  by  the  males  among  themselves  for  the  preservation  of  these  stations, 
and  also  for  the  defense  of  their  females.  The  strongest  males  are  naturally  suc- 
cessful in  obtaining  possession  of  the  largest  number  of  females;  the  number  of  fe- 
males on  the  stations  of  the  largest  males  usually  varying  from  ten  to  fifteen  or 
more.  To  guard  such  large  harems  requires  constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the 
males,  who  remain  on  land  throughout  the  whole  breeding  season,  during  which 
period  they  undergo  an  unbroken  fast  of  several  weeks'  duration.  When  they  first 
take  up  their  stations  on  land,  the  males  are  fat  and  in  good  condition;  but  at  the 
end  of  their  sojourn  they  become  emaciated  and  weak  to  the  last  degree.  The  fe- 
males, although  after  their  arrival  they  remain  continuously  for  a  certain  period  on 
the  stations  of  their  lords,  do  not  spend  nearly  such  a  long  unbroken  period  on  shore. 

The  largest  members  of  the  family  are  hair-seals,  and  the  smallest 
fur-seals.  Mr.  Allen  states  that  "all  the  hair-seals  are  yellowish  or 
reddish  brown  (in  the  Californian  sea-lion  sometimes  brownish  black),  generally 
darkest  when  young,  and  becoming  lighter  with  age,  and  also  in  the  same  indi- 
viduals toward  the  moulting  season.  .  .  .  All  the  fur-seals  are  black  when 
young,  but  they  become  lighter  with  age,  through  an  abundant  mixture  of  grayish 
hairs  which  vary  from  yellowish  gray  to  whitish  gray.  The  southern  fur-seals 
are  generally,  when  adult,  much  grayer  than  the  northern. "  There  is,  however, 
much  individual  variation  in  color  among  the  members  of  a  species  according  to 
age. 

The  fur-seals  are,  of  course,   far  more  valuable  commercially  than 
the  hair-seals.     The  best  skins  are  afforded  by  young  males  and  fe- 
males; and  these  are  prepared  for  use  by  the  inner  layer  of  the  skin  being  shaved 


LJ 

cn 

en 

or 


a 
a 


THE  SOUTHERN  SEA-LION  697 

away  with  a  sharp  knife,  thus  causing  the  long  hairs,  which  are  deeper  rooted  than 
the  woolly  under-fur,  to  fall  out. 

At  the  close  of  the  last  and  during  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury fur-seals  existed  in  countless  numbers  in  many  parts  of  the 
world;  but  human  greed  and  folly  have  succeeded  in  so  reducing  their  numbers  in 
most  regions  that  their  pursuit  is  no  longer  profitable.  Fortunately,  however,  both 
for  science  and  for  commerce,  the  seal  rookeries  of  the  Pribilof  islands  in  Behring 
Sea  have  been  placed  under  such  restrictions  as  to  render  the  annual  slaughter  com- 
pensated by  the  number  of  births.  As  an  indication  of  the  hosts  of  fur-seals  for- 
merly existing  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  we  may  quote  some  figures  given  by 
Mr.  Allen.  Thus  it  is  stated  that  in  the  year  1798  Captain  Fanning,  of  the  ship 
Betsy  of  New  York,  after  obtaining  a  full  cargo  of  skins  from  the  island  of  Musa- 
pura,  on  the  Chilian  coast,  estimated  the  number  of  fur-seals  remaining  on  the 
island  at  from  500,000  to  700,000;  and  it  appears  that  but  little  less  than  a  million 
skins  were  subsequently  taken  from  the  same  locality.  Fur-seals  were  still  found 
on  the  Chilian  coast  in  1815.  From  the  Georgian  islands,  at  the  extremity  of 
South  America,  no  less  than  112,000  fur-seals  are  reported  to  have  been  taken  in 
the  year  1800,  of  which  57,000  were  obtained  by  one  American  vessel.  About  this 
date  the  discovery  of  fur-seals  in  Australia  was  announced;  and  in  1804  a  single 
ship  obtained  74,000  skins.  Large  numbers  were  also  taken  about  the  same  period 
on  Prince  Edward's  islands,  lying  a  few  hundred  miles  to  the  southeastward  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Again,  between  the  years  1820  and  1821,  more  than  300,000 
skins  were  taken  from  the  South  Shetland  islands  alone;  while  it  is  estimated  that 
at  least  100,000  young  seals  were  left  to  perish  miserably,  owing  to  the  destruction 
of  their  mothers.  In  1814  and  1815  the  number  of  skins  exported  from  Antipodes 
island,  off  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales,  was  upward  of  400,000,  of  which,  it  is 
said,  no  less  than  one-fourth  were  spoiled  owing  to  bad  curing,  and  on  arrival  in  Eu- 
rope were  sold  as  manure.  As  early,  however,  as  the  year  1830,  the  number  of  fur- 
seals  in  the  southern  seas  had  been  so  greatly  diminished  that  vessels  generally 
made  losing  voyages;  and  at  the  present  day  such  a  voyage  partakes  largely  of  the 
nature  of  a  lottery.  During  the  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Challenger,  the  late  Professor 
Moseley  states  that  a  considerable  number  of  fur-seals  were  observed  about  Kergue- 
len  Land;  two  schooners  having  obtained  seventy  in  one  day,  and  twenty  in 
another.  The  number  of  skins  taken  in  the  Pribilof  islands  will  be  referred  to 
later  on;  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  at  the  present  time,  according  to  Mr.  F.  A. 
Lucas,  the  annual  slaughter  of  fur-seals  throughout  the  world  averages  185,000, 
while  that  of  hair-seals  reaches  the  enormous  number  of  875,000. 


THE   SOUTHERN   SEA-LION    (Otaria  jubata) 

The  southern  or  Patagonian  sea-lion,  of  which  a  group  is  represented  in  the 
illustration  on  p.  694,  is  a  hair-seal,  and  differs  in  certain  respects  both  externally 
and  internally  from  all  the  other  species.  It  inhabits  the  Galapagos  islands,  and 
the  coasts  of  South  America  from  Peru  and  Chili  on  the  Pacific  side,  and  from  the 


698  THE   CARNIVORES 

Rio  de  la  Plata  on  the  Atlantic  border,  southward  to  the  Falkland  islands  and 
Tierra  del  Fuego.  Externally  this  species  is  distinguished  from  all  the  others  by 
the  long  hair  of  the  neck,  which  forms  a  kind  of  mane;  although  this  mane  is  but 
indistinctly  seen  when  the  skin  is  wet.  The  profile  of  the  head  is  nearly  straight; 
the  muzzle  deep  and  somewhat  truncated,  and  the  naked  portion  of  the  nose  large; 
while  the  upper  lip  has  a  number  of  thick  bristles  of  considerable  length,  and  hang- 
ing nearly  straight  down.  The  ears  are  also  shorter  in  this  species  than  in  any 
other  member  of  the  group.  There  are  likewise  several  features  in  the  skull  of  this 
seal  by  means  of  which  it  can  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  eared  seals;  but  it 
will  suffice  to  mention  here  that  the  palate  is  deeply  hollowed  out  and  truncated  be- 
hind, whereas  in  the  other  species  it  is  neither  hollowed  out  nor  truncated.  There 
are  six  upper  cheek-teeth.  The  males  of  this  species  attain  a  length  of  about  seven 
feet  from  the  tip  of  the  muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  although  Captain  Cook 
states  than  in  his  time  much  larger  individuals  were  to  be  met  with. 
H  b'tat  This  species  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  group  known  in 

Europe,  having  been  met  with  by  Magellan  as  long  ago  as  the  year 
1579,  and  long  afterward  by  Cook.  It  was  likewise  the  first  exhibited  alive  in 
England,  a  specimen  having  been  bought  by  the  London  Zoological  Society  in  1866. 
Subsequently  other  examples  were  obtained  from  the  Falkland  islands  by  a  French 
sailor  named  Lecomte;  and  all  who  visited  the  Society's  Gardens  during  1868  and 
a  few  years  later  will  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  the  docility  and  cleverness  of  these 
animals  —  to  say  nothing  of  there  marvelous  activity  when  in  the  water.  Formerly 
these  seals  were  extremely  numerous  in  the  Falkland  islands,  and  on  the  coasts  of 
Patagonia  and  other  parts  of  South  America;  but  they  are  now  comparatively  few, 
and  their  distribution  is  restricted. 
__  .  The  following  particulars  of  the  habits  of  the  sea-lion  in  the  Falk- 

lands  were  communicated  by  Lecomte  to  Dr.  J.  Murie.  At  various 
times  these  seals  were  seen  in  parties  of  from  six  to  twelve,  and  even  as  many  as 
twenty;  but  fifteen  may  be  taken  as  the  average.  Several  such  families  may  con- 
gregate in  the  same  creek,  to  the  number  of  from  forty  to  one  hundred;  but  the  in- 
dividuals of  different  families  do  not  associate  with  one  another.  ' '  They  seem  to 
prefer  headlands  or  isthmuses,  and  choose  the  most  southern  locality  thereon  as  a 
resting  place.  One  of  the  old  males  is  on  guard  as  a  sentinel.  Usually  he  is  seen 
perched  on  an  eminence,  and  invariably,  as  Lecomte  affirms,  with  outstretched  neck 
and  upraised  head,  as  if  sniffing  around  for  the  slightest  ominous  warning.  The 
signal  of  a  grunt  or  growl  sets  the  others  on  the  alert;  and  on  any  real  approach  of 
danger  they  rush  all  helter-skelter  toward  the  water,  from  which  they  never  wander 
far.  Their  daily  occupation  seems  divided  between  sleeping  and  procuring  food. 
They  lie  huddled  together  in  a  drowsy  condition,  or  slumber,  for  a  great  part  of 
their  time;  and  this  both  during  the  day  and  night.  At  high  tides,  night  and  day, 
they  take  to  fishing  near  the  entrance  of  the  fresh-water  rivulets  into  the  sea.  At 
such  times  they  will  remain  a  whole  tide  dabbling  about  singly  after  food.  This 
consists  of  fish  and  crustaceans.  In  capturing  their  prey  they  swallow  it  either 
above  or  below  the  water.  .  .  .  Lecomte  says  these  eared  seals  never  drink 
water ;  and  he  substantiates  the  fact  that  he  kept  the  first  animal  he  brought  to 


THE    NORTHERN  SEA-LION  699 

England  for  a  year  without  fluid,  except  such  as  adhered  to  the  fish, he  fed  it  with. 
He  tells  me,  moreover,  he  has  noticed  the  common  seals  occasionally  suck  in  water 
as  a  horse  would,  but  the  otaria  never.  Another  curious  circumstance  he  assures 
me  of  is,  that  in  the  stomach  of  every  one  he  has  examined,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  a  young  animal,  there  existed  a  quantity  of  pebbles.  The  amount  varied  in 
individuals  from  a  few  to  many." 

_      ..  The  females  give  birth  to  a  single  young  one  about  the  end  of  the 

year,  equivalent  to  our  midsummer.  During  the  pairing  season,  which 
is  in  February  and  March,  pitched  battles  occur  between  the  males,  during  which 
the  females  look  quietly  on.  At  such  times  the  males  are  savage;  and  if  attacked 
will  stand  their  ground.  The  old  males  generally  utter  a  low  kind  of  growl,  but  in 
the  breeding  season  this  is  prolonged  into  a  loud,  voluminous,  interrupted  roar. 
The  young  utter  a  kind  of  bleating  cry.  From  July  to  November  these  seals  mi- 
grate southward  from  the  Falklands.  In  color  the  young  are  of  a  deep  chocolate, 
put  paler  after  the  first  year;  the  old  males  being  of  a  rich  brown  tint,  and  the  fe- 
males grayer;  while  at  all  ages,  and  in  both  sexes,  the  flippers  are  of  a  darker  hue 
than  the  body. 

THE   NORTHERN  SEA-LION    {Otaria   stelleri} 

The  northern  sea-lion,  which  is  likewise  a  hair- seal,  differs  from  the  preceding 
species,  and  agrees  with  all  those  that  follow  by  the  absence  of  a  mane  on  its  neck, 
by  its  narrow  and  pointed  nose,  relatively-long  ears,  and  by  the  flattened  palate  of 
the  skull,  which  is  not  truncated  behind.  In  the  concave  facial  profile  it  differs 
from  the  southern  sea-lion. 

This  is  the  largest  member  of  the  whole  group,  full-grown  males,  according  to 
Mr.  Allen,  measuring  from  eleven  to  twelve  and  one-half  or  thirteen  feet  in  total 
length,  of  which  the  tail  forms  three  or  four  inches;  while  their  girth  varies  from 
about  eight  to  ten  feet,  and  their  weight  is  estimated  at  from  1,000  to  1,300  pounds. 
In  color  the  young  are  of  a  rich,  dark,  chestnut  brown.  The  adults,  when  they  first 
reach  the  breeding  grounds,  are  of  a  light,  brownish-rufous  color  in  both  sexes,  the 
tint  being  darker  between  the  fore-limbs  and  on  the  under  parts.  Later  on  in  the 
season  the  color  changes,  however,  to  a  golden  rufous  or  ochrey  tint;  and  when 
the  new  winter  coat  appears  in  November,  the  color  has  been  described  as  a  light 
sepia,  or  Vandyke  brown  with  deeper  tints  on  the  under  parts;  and  at  this  season  of 
the  year  the  females  are  distinctly  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  males. 
Distribution  This  fine  seal  innabits  the  shores  of  the  North  Pacific  from  Behring 
Strait  southward  to  California  and  Japan,  and  is  one  of  the  species 
found  in  the  Pribilof  islands  in  Behring  Sea;  its  northern  limits  being  apparently 
determined  by  the  southern  border  of  the  Polar  floating  ice.  It  was  first  discovered 
in  the  year  1741,  during  Behring's  first  expedition,  and  was  described  by  the  natu- 
ralist Steller,  who  accompanied  that  navigator. 

Mr.  W.  D.  Elliot,   writing  of  this  species  in  the  Pribilof  islands, 

observes  that  it  has  a  really  leonine  appearance  and  bearing,  greatly 

enhanced  by  the  rich,  golden  rufous  of  its  coat,  and  the  ferocity  of  its  expression. 

Although  provided  with  flippers,  to  all  external  view  the  same  as  in  the  fur-seal,  it 


700 


THE   CARNIVORES 


cannot,  however,  make  use  of  them  in  the  same  free  manner.  While  the  fur-seal 
can  be  driven  five  or  six  miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  the  sea-lion  can  barely  go  two, 
the  conditions  of  weather  and  roadway  being  the  same.  The  sea-lions  balance  and 
swing  their  heavy  necks  to  and  fro,  with  every  elevation  of  their  hind-quarters, 
which  they  seldom  raise  from  the  ground,  drawing  them  up  after  the  fore-feet  with 
a  slide  over  the  grass,  sand,  rock,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be;  and  pausing  frequently 
to  take  a  sullen  and  ferocious  survey  of  the  field  and  the  drivers.  It  further  appears 
from  the  same  account  that  the  males  are  less  systematic  and  exacting  in  the  forma- 


THE    NORTHERN    SEA-WON. 
(One-thirtieth   natural   size.) 

tion  and  protection  of  their  parties  of  females  than  is  the  case  with  the  northern  sea- 
bear;  and  they  are  not  known  to  travel  so  far  inland.  Moreover,  these  seals  are  very 
shy  and  wary,  and  never  allow  their  haunts  to  be  visited  by  man  without  making  a 
sudden  rush  to  the  sea.  The  males  leave  the  sea  and  take  up  their  stations  on  the 
narrow  belts  of  ground,  which  they  prefer,  early  in  May,  while  the  females  follow 
them  after  an  interval  of  three  or  four  weeks,  thus  arriving  during  the  first  weeks  in 
June.  Usually  each  male  during  the  breeding  season  is  accompanied  by  from  ten  to 
fifteen  females.  The  latter  are  allowed  to  move  freely  from  place  to  place;  and  are 


THE   NORTHERN  SEA-LION  701 

accustomed  to  go  down  to  the  shore,  accompanied  by  their  young — <eften  carried  by 
the  nape  of  the  neck  —  and  disport  themselves  in  the  surf;  such  rambles  being  never 
undertaken  by  the  female  sea-bears.  On  the  two  main  islands  of  the  Pribilof  group, 
respectively  known  as  St.  Paul's  and  St.  George's,  it  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Elliot 
that  not  more  than  25,000  of  these  seals  were  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  former; 
while  from  7,000  to  8,000  landed  on  the  latter.  The  voice  of  this  species  is  described 
as  a  deep,  grand  roar,  forming  a  low  muttering  growl. 

Another  observer,  Captain  Charles  Bryant,  gave  the  following  account  of  the 
habits  of  these  seals  to  Mr.  Allen:  "  From  15,000  to  20,000  seal-lions  breed  an- 
nually on  the  Pribilof  or  Fur-Seal  islands.  They  do  not  leave  the  islands  in  win- 
ter, as  do  the  fur-seals,  to  return  in  spring;  but  remain  during  the  whole  year.  They 
bring  forth  their  young  a  month  earlier  than  the  fur-seal,  landing  during  the  months 
of  May  and  June.  They  advance  but  little  above  high-tide  mark;  and  those  of  all 
ages  land  together.  The  strongest  males  drive  out  the  weaker,  and  monopolize  the 
females,  and  continue  with  them  till  September.  They  go  with  them  into  the  water 
whenever  they  are  disturbed;  and  also  watch  over  the  young.  When  in  the  water, 
they  swim  about  the  young,  and  keep  them  together  until  they  have  an  opportunity 
to  land  again.  The  females  also  keep  near,  rushing  hither  and  thither,  appearing 
first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other  of  the  groups  of  young,  constantly  uttering  a 
deep,  hoarse  growl  at  the  intruder  whenever  they  come  to  the  surface.  When  left 
undisturbed  they  all  soon  land  again,  preferring  to  spend  the  greater  portion  of  their 
time  at  this  season  on  the  shore.  During  the  breeding  season  they  visit  the  same 
parts  of  the  shore  as  the  fur-seals;  but  the  sea-lions,  by  their  superior  power  and 
strength,  crowd  out  the  fur-seals  —  the  latter  passively  yielding  their  places  without 
presuming  to  offer  battle  to  their  formidable  visitors.  After  having  been  disturbed, 
the  sea-lions  continue  for  some  time  in  a  state  of  unrest,  occasionally  uttering  a  low 
moaning  sound,  as  though  greatly  distressed.  Even  after  the  breeding  season  they 
keep  close  to  the  shore  near  the  breeding  station  until  the  severe  weather  of  Janu- 
ary. After  this,  they  are  seen  only  in  small  groups  till  the  islands  are  free  from  ice 
and  snow  in  the  spring. ' ' 

The  sea-lions  on  St.  Paul's  island  are  driven  a  distance  of  from  ten 
to  twelve  miles  along  the  shore  to  the  village  where  they  are  to  be 
killed;  and  from  their  slow  rate  of  motion,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made, 
the  journey  is  a  long  and  protracted  business,  usually  taking  about  five  days.  When 
once  fairly  started,  and  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  man,  the  animals  are,  how- 
ever, readily  controlled,  and  kept  in  the  desired  direction.  At  the  end  of  a  day's 
journey  they  are  allowed  to  refresh  themselves  by  plunging  in  the  pools  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  route.  When  thoroughly  tired  out  at  the  end  of  a  day's  march, 
the  unfortunate  animals  stretch  themselves  at  full  length  on  the  ground,  with  ex- 
tended limbs.  Even  then,  however,  writes  Captain  Bryant,  "  their  rest  is  not  peace- 
ful, for  some  restless  one  soon  starts  up  and  flounders  over  the  others,  as  if  seeking 
a  better  place.  This  disturbs  the  whole  herd,  which  constantly  keeps  up  a  low 
moaning,  apparently  expressive  of  sore  distress."  "  By  this  time,"  the  author  con- 
tinues, ' '  the  sea-lions  have  become  so  accustomed  to  their  captors  that  they  will 
sooner  fight  than  run  from  them;  and  they  are  too  much  deafened  by  their  own  noise 


702 


THE   CARNIVORES 


Californian 
Sea-Lion 


to  hear  or  fear  any  other  sound.  As  they  lie  on  the  ground  in  a  compact  mass,  one 
of  the  men  takes  an  umbrella,  and  goes  twenty  to  thirty  yards  to  the  rear  of  the 
herds,  and  approaching  stealthily  until  he  is  quite  near,  suddenly  expands  the  um- 
brella, and  runs  with  it  all  along  the  edge  of  the  herd;  then,  closing  it,  he  retires  to 
repeat  the  manoeuvre.  This  has  the  effect  of  rousing  the  rear  rank,  which,  thus 
suddenly  alarmed,  plunges  forward  and  arouses  those  in  front,  which  suddenly  be- 
gin struggling  and  biting.  The  return  of  the  man  with  the  umbrella  communicates 
another  shock,  and  adds  another  wave  to  the  sluggish  mass.  This  is  repeated  at  in- 
tervals of  four  or  five  minutes,  till  the  successive  shocks  have  aroused  the  whole 
herd,  when,  with  much  roaring  and  bellowing,  the  whole  mass  begins  to  move,  grad- 
ually extending  itself  in  a  long  irregular  line  in  open  order,  each  animal  lumbering 
along  as  best  it  can.  By  shouting  and  waving  flags  at  the  rear,  and  on  the  flanks 
of  the  herd,  they  are  kept  moving  until  it  is  necessary  to  halt  them  again  for  rest." 
Finally,  the  herd  reaches  the  village,  when  the  sea-lions,  being  far  too  formi- 
dable animals  to  be  dispatched  with  clubs,  are  shot  with  rifles;  the  full-grown  males 
being  killed  first,  after  which  the  fore  part  of  the  herd  is  driven  back  upon  and  over 
the  rear,  when  the  slaughter  is  continued  with  lances.  The  description  of  this  scene 
is,  however,  by  no  means  pleasant  reading,  and  may  accordingly  be  passed  over. 

The  Californian  sea-lion  (O.  gillespii},  which,  far  from  being  re- 
stricted to  the  country  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  is  found  on 
both  sides  of  the  North  Pacific,  is  a  much  smaller  species  than  the 

last,  from  which  it  is  readily 
distinguished  by  the  convex 
crown  of  the  head,  and  the 
sudden  descent  of  the 
profile  at  the  eye;  the  side 
view  of  the  head  somewhat 
recalling  that  of  the  dog- 
faced  baboons.  The  bristles 
on  the  side  of  the  muzzle 
are  also  very  small.  The 
skull  is  characterized  by  its 
narrowness  and  elongation, 
and  also  by  the  great 
development  of  the  bony 
crests  on  the  brain  case. 
The  general  color  is  a  dark 
chestnut  brown,  becoming 
blackish  brown  on  the  under  parts  and  limbs;  but  there  is  great  seasonal  and  indi- 
vidual variation  in  this  respect.  Mr.  Allen  gives  the  total  length  of  adult  males  as 
varying  from  seven  to  eight  feet;  those  measurements  being  taken  from  the  muzzle 
to  the  end  of  the  outstretched  flippers. 

There  has  been  some  confusion  as  regards  the  habits  of  this  species, 
owing  to  its  having  been  confounded  with  the  northern  sea-lion.    Both 
species  occur  on  the  Farallone  islands,  near  San  Francisco;  but  the  present  species 


HEAD    OF    CALIFORNIAN    SEA-LION. 

(After  Forbes.) 


Habits 


THE  NORTHERN  SEA-LION  703 

is  by  far  the  more  numerous  of  the  two,  and  appears  to  be  the  only  .one  represented 
on  the  neighboring  island  of  Santa  Barbara.  Mr.  Elliot  states  that  the  two  species 
may  be  readily  distinguished  by  their  voices;  the  northern  sea-lion  uttering 
only  a  deep,  bass  growl,  and  a  prolonged,  steady  roar;  whereas  the  Californian 
sea-lion  never  roars,  but  utters  a  sharp  bark,  sometimes  almost  approaching  a 
howl. 

The  general  habits  of  this  species  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  north- 
ern sea-lion.  On  the  Farallones  these  seals  are  found  in  vast  numbers,  and  their 
barking  is  described  as  forming  an  incessant  din.  Captain  Scammon,  writing  of  his 
experiences  with  these  animals  on  the  island  of  Santa  Barbara,  during  the  sealing 
season  of  1852,  states  that  soon  after  the  arrival  of  his  party,  about  the  end  of  May, 
the  colonies  of  Californian  sea-lions  "  began  to  augment  and  large  numbers  of  huge 
males  made  their  appearance,  belching  forth  sharp,  ugly  howls,  and  leaping  out  of 
or  darting  through  the  water  with  surprising  velocity,  frequently  diving  outside  the 
rollers,  the  next  moment  emerging  from  the  crest  of  the  foaming  breakers  and 
waddling  up  the  beach  with  head  erect,  or,  with  seeming  effort,  climbing  some  kelp- 
fringed  rock  to  doze  in  the  scorching  sunbeams;  while  others  would  lie  sleeping  or 
playing  among  the  beds  of  seaweed,  with  their  heads  and  outstretched  limbs  above 
the  surface.  But  a  few  days  elapsed  before  a  general  contention  with  the  adult 
males  began  for  the  mastery  of  the  different  rookeries;  and  the  victims  of  the 
bloody  encounter  were  to  be  seen  on  all  sides  of  the  island,  with  torn  lips  or  muti- 
lated limbs  and  gashed  sides,  while  now  and  then  an  unfortunate  creature  would  be 
met  with  minus  an  eye,  or  with  the  orb  forced  from  its  socket  and,  together  with 
other  wounds,  presenting  a  ghastly  appearance.  As  the  time  for  '  hauling  up '  drew 
near,  the  island  became  one  mass  of  animation;  every  beach,  rock,  and  cliff,  where 
a  seal  could  find  foothold,  became  its  resting  place,  while  a  countless  herd  of  old 
males  capped  the  summit,  and  the  united  clamorings  of  the  vast  assemblage  could 
be  heard  on  a  calm  day  for  miles  at  sea.  The  south  side  of  the  island  is  high  and 
precipitous  with  a  projecting  ledge,  hardly  perceptible  from  the  beach  below, 
upon  which  one  immense  sea-lion  managed  to  climb,  and  there  remained  for  several 
weeks." 

The  same  observer  adds  that  ' '  at  the  close  of  the  season  —  which  lasts  about 
three  months  on  the  Californian  coast  —  a  large  majority  of  the  great  herds,  both 
males  and  females,  return  to  the  sea,  and  roam  in  all  directions  in  quest  of  food,  as 
but  few  of  them  could  find  sustenance  about  the  waters  contiguous  to  the  islands, 
or  points  on  the  mainland,  which  are  their  annual  resorting  places.  They  live  upon 
fish,  mollusks,  and  sea- fowls,  always  with  the  addition  of  a  few  pebbles  or  smooth 
stones,  some  of  which  are  a  pound  in  weight. ' '  The  quantity  of  fish  consumed  by 
these  seals  must,  indeed,  be  enormous.  Some  years  ago  it  was  estimated  that  the 
total  number  of  sea-lions  in  the  neighborhood  of  San  Francisco  was  upward  of 
twenty-five  thousand,  each  of  which  consumed  from  ten  to  forty  pounds  weight  of 
fish  per  day.  In  capturing  gulls  the  Californian  sea-lions  display  no  little  skill 
and  cunning.  When  in  pursuit  of  a  gull  Captain  Scammon  states  that  the  seal 
dives  deeply  under  water,  and  swims  some  distance  from  where  it  disappeared,  then, 
rising  cautiously,  it  exposes  the  tip  of  its  nose  above  the  surface,  at  the  same  time 


704  THE   CARNIVORES 

giving  it  a  rotary  motion,  like  that  of  a  water  buoy  at  play.  The  unwary  bird  on 
the  wing,  seeing  the  object  near  by,  alights  to  catch  it,  while  the  sea-lion  at  the 
same  moment  settles  beneath  the  waves,  and  at  one  bound,  with  extended  jaws, 
seizes  its  screaming  prey,  and  instantly  devours  it. 

The  Californian  sea-lion  is  the  species  most  commonly  seen  in  captivity  in  Eu- 
rope, as  it  appears  to  thrive  better  than  any  other  of  the  eared  seals  in  that  state. 

In  captivity  these  sea-lions  display  great  affection  for  one  another ;  and  when 
one  of  a  pair  dies  the  survivor  not  unfrequently  pines  away  and  dies  soon  after.  From 
observations  made  on  captive  specimens  in  Chicago,  it  appears  that  before  the  cub  takes 
to  the  water  the  parent  secretes  a  kind  of  oily  fluid  from  her  body,  with  which  the 
hair  of  the  cub  becomes  annointed,  owing  to  both  animals  rolling  on  the  same  spot. 

With  this  sea-lion  (O.  hookeri]  we  come  to  a  southern  species  of 

hair-seal,  first  obtained  from  the  Auckland  islands,  lying  to  the  south 
Sea-Lion 

of  New  Zealand,  during  the  voyage  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror.  This 
species,  of  which  examples  have  of  late  years  been  exhibited  alive  in  the  London 
Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  is  subject  to  great  variation  in  color,  some  specimens 
being  grayish,  while  others  have  a  more  or  less  markedly  brown  tinge.  The  head 
is  readily  distinguished  from  that  of  the  preceding  species  by  its  nearly  straight 
profile ;  the  muzzle  is  of  considerable  length,  the  ear  of  medium  size,  and  the  bristles 
on  the  muzzle  well  developed.  The  skull  is  characterized  by  the  extreme  narrow- 
ness of  the  palate,  and  has  .seven  upper  cheek-teeth  —  in  the  latter  respect  agreeing 
with  that  of  the  southern  sea-lion. 

The  hair-seal   (O.  lobata),  inhabiting  the  seas  of  Australia,  appears 

to  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  hair  and  the  fur-seals, 
Hair-Seal 

the  cubs  having  a  thick  coat  of  soft  under-fur,  which  quite  disappears 

in  the  adult.  This  indicates  that  the  distinction  between  hair  and  fur-seals  is  of  no 
great  zoological  importance,  although  it  forms  a  convenient  mode  of  classifying  the 
members  of  this  difficult  group.  The  profile  of  the  head  is  nearly  straight,  and  the 
whole  head  large  and  massive,  with  rather  small  ears.  The  males  are  considerably 
darker  than  the  females,  and  the  cubs  are  black.  From  the  presence  of  a  stripe  of 
rich,  deep,  fawn  color  (which  is  lighter  than  the  general  tint  of  the  body)  running 
across  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  nape,  and  sides  of  the  neck,  the  name  of  cowled 
seal  has  been  applied  to  this  species.  The  general  length  of  old  males  is  from  eight 
to  nine  feet,  but  few  such  specimens  are  stated  now  to  exist.  These  seals  were 
found  abundantly  in  King  George  sound,  and  also  in  Bass  strait.  The  Seal  Rocks 
off  Port  Stephens,  to  the  northward  of  Sydney,  partly  derive  their  name  from  the 
presence  of  colonies  of  this  species. 

THE  NORTHERN  SEA-BEAR  (Otaria  ursina) 

The  well-known  northern  .sea-bear,  or  northern  fur-seal,  is  the  first  representa- 
tive of  the  true  fur-seals,  and  the  only  one  found  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 
In  this,  as  in  the  other  fur-seals,  the  pelage  is  soft,  with  an  abundant  under-fur; 
and  the  color  of  the  adult  is  some  shade  of  dark  gray,  while  the  young  are  black. 
There  are  six  cheek-teeth  in  the  upper  jaw. 


THE  NORTHERN  SEA-BEAR 


705 


The  northern  sea-bear,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  is  dis- 
tinguished at  a  glance  from  all  the  southern  fur-seals  by  its  extremely-short  face, 
in  which  the  profile  is  nearly  straight,  and  likewise  by  its  relatively-weak  dentition. 
In  the  adult  males  the  general  color  of  the  upper  parts,  with  the  exception  of  the 
shoulders,  is  nearly  black,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  gray,  or  reddish-gray  grizzle; 
but  the  shoulders  are  distinctly  gray.  The  sides  of  the  nose  and  lips  are  brownish, 
the  breast  is  brownish  orange,  while  the  limbs  and  under-parts  are  reddish  brown. 


THE   NORTHERN   SEA-BEAR. 
(One-twenty-fifth  natural   size.) 

The  females  are  much  lighter  in  color,  being  uniformly  gray  above,  with  the  under 
parts  brownish  or  rufous.  In  both  sexes  the  individual  variations  in  color  are 
largely  due  to  the  varying  proportions  of  the  gray  in  the  hairs.  The  young  when 
first  born  are  of  a  uniform,  glossy-black  color,  with  the  under- fur  lighter  in  hue,  and 
less  abundant  than  in  the  adults. 

These  seals  are  much  smaller  than  the  larger  sea-lions,  the  old  males,  according 
to  Captain  Bryant,  measuring  from  seven  to  eight  feet  in  total  length,  and  having  a 
girth  of  from  six  to  seven  feet;    while  their  weight  is  estimated  at  from  700  to  800 
45 


706  THE  CARNIVORES 

pounds.  They  do  not  attain  their  full  size  till  about  the  sixth  year.  The  females, 
which  reach  their  full  dimensions  when  five  years  old,  measure  four  feet  in  length 
and  two  and  one-half  feet  in  girth,  and  weigh  from  80  to  100  pounds.  The  ears 
are  absolutely  longer  than  in  the  far  larger  northern  sea-lion.  The  difference  in  the 
dimensions  of  the  two  sexes  is  greater  than  in  any  other  member  of  the  family. 

The  northern  sea-bear  inhabits  both  shores  of  the  Northern  Pacific, 
and  is  known  to  have  been  formerly  abundant  on  the  American  side  as 
far  south  as  California,  although  the  precise  limits  to  which  it  once  ranged  in  this 
direction  have  not  been  ascertained.  On  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Pacific  its  range 
embraced  Kamchatka  and  the  Kurile  islands,  and  extended  as  far  as  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Saghalien  island,  where  it  was  still  abundant  at  the  period  of  the 
Crimean  War. 

At  the  present  day,  as  is  well  known,  the  headquarters  of  the  sea-bear  are  the 
Pribilof  group,  which  comprises  four  islands,  respectively  known  as  St.  Paul's, 
St.  George's,  Otter,  and  Walrus  islands;  the  two  former  of  which  are  alone  visited 
by  the  seals.  Here  the  capture  of  the  seals  is  strictly  regulated,  only  a  certain 
number  being  allowed  to  be  captured  annually.  The  Alaska  Commercial  Company 
leased  from  the  United  States  Government  in  1869  the  sole  right  of  sealing  on  these 
islands;  the  lease  permitting  them  to  capture  25,000  seals  on  St.  George's  and 
75,000  on  St.  Paul's.  And  it  appears  that  in  the  twenty  years,  from  1869  to  1889, 
the  company  has  realized  upward  of  thirty-three  millions  of  dollars  by  the  sale  of 
seal  skins.  Of  recent  years  large  numbers  of  British  vessels  fitted  out  from  Vic- 
toria and  British  Columbia  have,  however,  been  in  the  habit  of  visiting  Behring  Sea 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  seals;  and  it  is  stated  that  in  consequence  of  this  the 
profits  of  the  Alaska  Company  have  considerably  diminished. 

Besides  St.  George's  and  St.  Paul's,  no  other  islands  in  Behring  Sea  appear  to- 
form  suitable  habitats  for  the  sea-bears,  which  require  a  low,  shelving  coast,  either 
of  smooth  rocky  ledges  or  of  shingle,  with  a  cold  climate  and  a  fog-laden  atmos- 
phere. If  the  ground  is  such  that  water  can  collect  in  puddles,  the  seals  avoid 
it,  and  if  the  coast  is  sandy  the  wind  blows  the  sand  into  their  large,  sensitive  eyes, 
causing  them  intolerable  discomfort.  The  number  of  sea-bears  on  these  two  islands 
during  the  breeding  season  is  so  enormous  as  to  defy  anything  like  exact  calcula- 
tion. In  the  summer  of  1872  Mr.  Elliot  estimated,  however,  that  there  were  up- 
ward of  3,000,000  on  St.  Paul's,  while  in  the  following  year  he  put  down  the 
number  on  St.  George's  at  about  163,000. 

It   is  mainly  to  Mr.  Elliot  that  we  are  indebted  for  a  full  and 
adequate  account  of  the  habits  of  the  sea-bears  on  the  Pribilofs,  and 
it  is  from  his  graphic  descriptions  that  the  following  summary  is  derived. 

During  the  winter  the  Pribilofs  are  deserted  by  these  animals,  which  follow 
the  southward  migration  of  the  fish  upon  which  they  chiefly  subsist.  The  old 
males  are  the  first  to  revisit  their  old  haunts  in  the  following  spring;  and  a  few  of 
these  may  generally  be  found  on  the  islands  during  the  first  week  in  May.  At  this 
time  the  males  are  very  shy  and  sensitive,  and  remain  near  the  shore;  indeed, 
many  of  them  will  sometimes  spend  several  days  in  swimming  round  the  rocks 
before  venturing  to  land.  The  first  arrivals  are  not  always  the  oldest,  but  rather 


THE  NORTHERN  SEA-BEAR  707 

the  finest  specimens  of  their  race;  and  are  always  fully  capable  of  maintaining  pos- 
session of  the  stations  they  select  immediately  after  coming  ashore.  As  a  rule,  it 
appears  that  the  males  do  not  reoccupy  the  same  stations  year  after  year,  although 
sometimes  a  few  may  do  this  for  a  few  seasons.  ' '  From  the  time  of  the  first  arrival 
in  May,  up  to  the  first  of  June,  or  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  month,"  writes  Mr. 
Elliot,  "if  the  weather  be  clear,  is  an  interval  in  which  everything  seems  quiet; 
very  few  seals  are  added  to  the  pioneers.  By  the  first  of  June,  however,  or  there- 
abouts, the  foggy,  humid  weather  of  summersets  in,  and  with  it  the  bull-seals  come 
up  by  hundreds  and  thousands,  and  locate  themselves  in  advantageous  positions  for 
the  reception  of  the  females,  which  are  generally  three  weeks  or  a  month  later." 
Then  comes  the  great  struggle  for  obtaining  and  maintaining  a  position  on  the 
land,  those  males  which  are  the  last  to  arrive,  and  also  those  occupying  the  posts 
nearest  the  water's  edge,  having  the  greatest  difficulties  to  overcome.  Frequently 
the  combats  which  then  take  place  result  in  death;  while  some  of  the  earlier 
arrivals  which  have  taken  up  stations  near  the  shore  become  exhausted  by  repeated 
struggles,  and  have  to  shift  to  more  inland  quarters.  "The  fighting,"  says  Mr. 
Elliot,  "is  mostly  or  entirely  done  with  the  mouth,  the  opponents  seizing  each  other 
with  the  teeth,  and  clenching  the  jaws.  Nothing  but  sheer  strength  can  shake  them 
loose  and  that  effect  almost  always  leaves  an  ugly  wound,  the  sharp  canines 
tearing  out  deep  gutters  in  the  skin  and  blubber,  or  shredding  the  flippers  into 
ribbon  strips. ' ' 

During  the  time  that  the  males  are  thus  engaged  in  selecting  and  maintaining 
their  positions,  they  may  be  approached  from  the  leeward  when  asleep  so  closely  as 
to  admit  of  the  bristles  on  their  muzzles  being  pulled.  The  adventurous  investi- 
gator is,  however,  warned  that  after  one  such  experiment  he  must  beat  a  hasty 
retreat,  if  he  would  escape  an  unpleasant  mauling  from  the  animal's  teeth. 

At  this  period  the  males  give  vent  to  four  distinct  cries,  namely,  a  hoarse, 
resonant,  long,  and  loud  roar;  a  low,  gurgling  growl;  a  kind  of  hissing,  chuckling, 
piping  whistle,  which  must  be  heard  to  be  recognized;  and  a  kind  of  spitting  sound 
and  action,  which  is  the  most  characteristic  of  all.  The  females,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  only  a  kind  of  bleating  cry,  used  merely  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  cubs; 
while  the  call  of  the  latter  is  still  more  sheep-like.  Indeed,  it  is  stated  that  some 
sheep  imported  into  St.  George's  were  constantly  misled  by  the  cries  of  the  females 
and  young  seals  into  believing  that  others  of  their  own  species  were  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  seals  when  on  land  are  extremely  impatient  of  heat,  a  temperature 
of  48°  being  unpleasant  to  them;  while  when  the  thermometer  ranges  from  55°  to 
60°  they  appear  to  suffer  great  inconvenience.  On  such  occasions  they  may  be 
seen  lying  in  every  conceivable  position,  industriously  fanning  themselves  with 
their  flippers,  sometimes  holding  the  fore-flippers  vertically  upward  as  a  kind  of 
ventilator,  while  one  or  both  of  the  hinder  pair  are  employed  as  fans. 

From  their  first  arrival  until  the  end  of  the  pairing  season,  which  terminates 
during  the  first  part  of  August,  all  the  males  which  succeed  in  maintaining  their 
posts  never  leave  them  for  a  single  instant;  and  consequently  never  partake  of 
either  food  or  water  for  at  least  three  months,  while  in  some  instances  this  fast 
endures  for  upward  of  four  months.  During  this  time  they  must  subsist  entirely 


;o8  THE   CARNIVORES 

on  their  own  fat;  and  it  will  not  fail  of  notice  that  such  a  fast  is  very  different  from 
that  endured  by  bears  and  other  hibernating  animals,  during  which  most  of  the 
functions  of  the  body  are  dormant;  Nevertheless,  no  ill  consequences  appear  to 
accrue,  since  the  old  male  sea-bears  come  back  year  after  year  as  fat  and  sleek 
as  ever. 

Between  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth  of  June  the  first  females  make  their  ap- 
pearance on  the  Pribilofs.  When  they  first  land,  wet  and  dripping  from  the  sea, 
they  are  of  a  dirty,  gray  color,  darker  on  the  head  and  back  than  elsewhere;  but 
when  thoroughly  dry  their  coat  is  of  a  steel  gray  above,  and  nearly  white  beneath, 
with  a  brilliant  gloss.  A  few  days'  exposure  to  the  weather  is,  however,  sufficient 
to  tone  down  this  brilliant  dress  to  a  sombre,  grayish  brown  above,  and  an  ochrey 
tint  below.  Immediately  on  their  arrival,  the  females  are  received  with  most 
marked  attention  by  the  males  nearest  the  shore,  but  they  are  seldom  allowed  to 
rest  long  with  these,  as  the  males  on  the  more  inland  stations  are  ever  on  the  watch 
to  seize  and  take  possession  of  them  during  the  time  that  their  temporary  masters 
are  on  the  lookout  for  fresh  wives.  In  this  manner  the  unhappy  females  may  be 
seized  by  the  scruff  of  their  necks  as  unceremoniously  as  a  cat  takes  its  kitten,  and 
passed  on  from  male  to  male,  until  they  reach  a  place  of  security  in  the  stations 
furthest  away  from  the  water.  During  all  this  time  fierce  contests  are  continually 
taking  place  among  the  males.  By  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  last  batches  of  fe- 
males, which  takes  place  usually  between  the  tenth  and  fifteenth  of  July,  the  males 
have  become  thoroughly  exhausted,  and  have  obtained  as  many  females  as  they  de- 
sire. Consequently,  the  females  are  now  allowed  to  crowd  in  through  the  fifteen  or 
sixteen  rows  of  stations  usually  intervening  between  the  shore  till  they  reach  the 
open  ground  in  the  rear  of  the  colony,  where  they  congregate  in  droves,  carefully 
selecting  places  where  there  are  no  pools  of  water. 

It  is  considered  by  Mr.  Elliot  that,  on  the  average,  each  male  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  shore  has  from  twelve  to  fifteen  females,  while  those  more  inland  have 
only  from  five  to  nine.  One  old  male  was  observed  with  upward  of  forty-five  fe- 
males under  his  charge,  but  this  individual  was  favored  by  his  situation,  which  had 
but  one  path  of  access.  A  certain  number  of  males  in  the  rear  of  the  colony  never 
obtain  partners  at  all;  though  toward  the  close  of  the  season  some  of  them  may 
step  into  the  places  of  those  of  their  sex  as  have  to  leave  their  stations  through  ex- 
haustion. The  males  display  extreme  courage  in  defending  and  maintaining  their 
positions;  and  will  even  stand  being  fired  at  with  shot  without  forsaking  their  posts. 
The  females,  on  the  other  hand,  are  remarkable  for  their  gentle  disposition,  never 
quarreling  among  themselves,  and  but  seldom  uttering  a  cry  when  roughly  handled 
and  severely  wounded  by  the  contending  males.  During  their  sleep  the  bodies  of 
all  the  sea-bears  are  continually  undergoing  various  quivering  and  rolling  motions, 
accompanied  by  twitchings  of  the  paddles. 

The  cubs  are  born  shortly  after  the  landing  of  the  females,  coming  into  the 
world  with  their  eyes  open,  and  soon  finding  their  voice  and  taking  to  the  water. 
It  is  but  rarely  that  there  is  more  than  a  single  cub  at  a  birth.  They  weigh  from 
three  to  four  pounds,  and  vary  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  in  length  when  born; 
their  jet-black  coat  being  retained  for  three  months.  Both  parents  seem  to  treat 


THE  NORTHERN  SEA-BEAR  709 

c"~' 

their  offspring  with  marked  indifference;  and  a  cub  which  has  strayed  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  station  of  the  father  may  be  killed  before  the  eyes  of  the  mother 
without  evoking  any  concern  on  her  part.  Although  the  males  will  often  rush 
right  into  the  middle  of  a  whole  party  of  cubs,  it  is  but  seldom  that  any  of  the  lat- 
ter are  killed. 

After  the  birth  of  their  offspring,  the  females  appear  to  make  frequent  visits  to 
the  sea,  usually  returning  close  to  the  spot  where  their  cubs  were  left,  and  singling 
out  their  own  offspring  by  its  cries  without  a  moment's  hesitation.  The  cubs  are 
occustomed  at  an  early  period  to  collect  in  large  numbers,  while  from  the  latter  part 
of  September  to  the  time  of  departure  in  November,  they  assemble  together  in  tens 
of  thousands.  Even  among  such  numbers,  the  female  instantly  recognizes  the 
voice  of  her  own  offspring,  and  promptly  makes  her  way  by  thrusting  right  and  left 
to  that  spot  in  the  assembly  where  it  may  happen  to  be.  It  is  said  that  the  cubs 
themselves  do  not  know  their  own  mothers,  but  as  they  incessantly  utter  their  cry 
at  short  intervals,  the  females  have  no  difficulty  when  returning  from  the  sea  in 
finding  their  offspring. 

Between  the  end  of  July  and  the  close  of  the  first  week  in  August,  the  seal 
colonies  have  entirely  altered  in  appearance,  owing  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  various 
family  parties.  The  old  males  leave  their  stations,  and  betake  themselves  to  the 
sea,  in  a  very  emaciated  condition;  the  majority  of  them  not  returning  to  the  land. 
Such,  however,  as  do  make  a  second  visit  are  in  fine  condition,  and  have  grown  a 
new  and  brilliant  coat  of  fur.  The  return  visit  does  not  take  place  till  the  end  of 
September;  and  the  males  then  prefer  to  congregate  on  the  beach,  instead  of  going 
up  to  their  old  ground.  After  the  departure  of  the  old  males  in  the  beginning  of 
August,  the  females,  cubs,  and  those  males  which  did  not  succeed  in  obtaining 
wives,  take  possession  of  the  entire  seal  area  in  a  very  disorderly  manner;  while 
their  numbers  are  augmented  by  the  landing  of  a  host  of  young  males  which  had 
hitherto  been  prevented  by  their  elder  brethren  from  obtaining  a  footing  on  shore. 
At  this  time  three-fourths  of  the  females  are  generally  in  the  water,  only  coming 
ashore  for  short  intervals  to  look  after  their  cubs.  They  lie  idly  in  the  waves,  now 
and  then  lazily  rolling  over,  and  continually  scratching  their  sides  and  backs 
with  their  flippers.  After  the  first  week  in  August  the  cubs  nearest  the  shore  make 
their  first  attempts  at  swimming,  but  are  extremely  awkward,  and  quickly  tire  with 
their  efforts.  Soon,  however,  they  become  adepts  in  the  art,  and  may  then  be  seen 
sporting  and  frolicking  in  the  water  with  the  greatest  apparent  enjoyment.  By  the 
middle  of  September  all  the  cubs  have  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  water, 
and  have  entirely  deserted  the  higher  grounds  to  take  up  a  position  on  the  rocks 
and  beaches  near  the  water's  edge,  previously  unoccupied  by  any  of  the  seals. 
Finally,  in  November  the  islands  are  deserted  by  the  great  mass  of  the  sea-bears, 
although  some  do  not  leave  for  their  southerly  migration  until  driven  off  by  the 
snow  and  ice,  as  late  as  the  end  of  December  or  the  twelfth  of  January. 

The  preceding  observations  relate  almost  exclusively  to  the  old  males,  the  fe- 
males, and  the  cubs;  but  a  few  words  are  necessary  as  to  the  young  males  under  six 
years  of  age,  which  are  known  to  the  sealers  as  "bachelors."  In  the  early  part  of 
the  season  these  come  out  of  the  sea  in  detachments  of  from  a  hundred  to  a  thousand 


;io  THE   CARNIVORES 

strong,  but  later  on  by  hundreds  of  thousands.  They  generally  go  to  a  distance  of 
from  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  from  the  shore,  on  what  are  technically  known  as  the 
"  hauling  grounds,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  "rookeries."  These  seals  are  in  some 
cases  allowed  to  pass  up  and  down  to  their  haunts  by  passages  left  between  the  fam- 
ily parties  on  the  rookeries;  but  more  generally  repair  to  the  beaches  unoccupied  by 
the  rookeries,  where  they  will  occupy  the  whole  space  from  the  shore  to  a  distance 
of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  more  inland.  Some  of  the  younger  ones  will,  moreover, 
occasionally  desert  the  neighborhood  of  the  shore,  and  proceed  still  further  inland  to 
play  among  the  fresh  moss  and  grass  which  grows  in  the  interior.  These  young 
seals  do  not  undergo  any  long  periods  of  fasting,  but  are  constantly  repairing  to  the 
sea  at  short  but  uncertain  intervals.  For  instance,  during  a  few  dull  and  foggy 
days  they  may  be  found  by  hundreds  of  thousands  on  the  hauling  grounds;  but  a 
single  warm  and  sunny  day  will  drive  almost  the  whole  assemblage  to  the  sea,  leav- 
ing their  haunts  well-nigh  deserted.  They  are  thoroughly  restless  creatures,  being 
constantly  on  the  move;  and  although  very  frolicsome  and  sportive,  never  seem  to 
quarrel  or  fight.  In  the  water  these  young  seals  distinguish  themselves  by  their 
active  evolutions;  frequently  jumping  out  after  the  manner  of  dolphins,  more  espe- 
cially when  surprised,  and  in  such  cases  turning  their  heads  when  in  the  air  to  catch 
a  glimpse  at  the  cause  of  their  disturbance. 

Mr.  Elliot  adds  that  sea-bears  of  all  ages  ' '  swim  with  great  rapidity,  and  may 
be  fairly  said  to  dart  along  with  the  velocity  of  a  bird  on  the  wing  under  the  surface 
of  the  water;  and  in  all  their  swimming  I  have  not  been  able  yet  to  satisfy  myself 
how  they  used  their  long,  flexible  hind-feet,  other  than  as  steering  mediums. 
The  propelling  motion,  if  they  have  any,  is  so  rapid,  that  my  eye  is  not  quick  enough 
to  catch  it;  the  fore-feet,  however,  can  be  very  distinctly  seen  to  work,  feathering 
forward  and  sweeping  back  flatly,  opposed  to  the  water,  with  great  rapidity  and  en- 
ergy, and  are  evidently  the  sole  propelling  power. ' ' 

It  appears  that  of  the  total  number  of  sea-bears  about  half  are  males 
and  half  females;  but  some  two-thirds  of  the  former  are  never  per- 
mitted by  their  older  and  stronger  brethren  to  mix  with  the  females,  but  herd  to- 
gether by  themselves  in  the  manner  just  described.  It  is  these  bachelor  seals  which 
are  alone  allowed  to  be  killed  in  the  Pribilofs;  and  it  will  be  evident  that  their  asso- 
ciation by  themselves —  frequently  miles  away  from  the  breeding  grounds  —  must 
greatly  facilitate  the  arrangements  for  their  slaughter.  When  the  bachelor  seals  are 
assembled  near  the  water,  on  some  morning  early  in  June,  a  small  party  of  natives 
will  run  along  the  beach,  and  readily  turn  thousands  of  them  inland.  When  once 
turned,  the  party  is  easy  to  manage;  and  on  firm  or  grassy  ground  the  whole  herd 
in  cool  weather  can  be  driven  at  the  rate  of  half  a  mile  an  hour,  but  frequent  halts 
must  be  made.  The  weaker  seals  will,  however,  drop  out  from  time  to  time,  and 
are  left  either  to  recover  or  to  perish,  especially  when  the  march  is  long;  it  is  there- 
fore advisable  to  make  the  journey  as  short  as  possible. 

Arriving  at  the  place  of  slaughter,  the  seals  are  herded,  and  allowed  to  rest  and 
cool;  after  which  they  are  driven  off  in  detachments  of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred, 
and  knocked  on  the  head  with  heavy  oaken  bludgeons.  The  work  of  killing  and 
skinning  is  carried  out  with  great  rapidity;  a  party  of  forty- five  men  having  driven, 


THE  NORTHERN  SEA-BEAR  711 

Tailed,  and  skinned  upward  of  seventy-two  thousand  sea-bears  iirless  than  four  weeks 
during  the  summer  of  1872. 

slt  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  number  of  the  sea-bears  allowed  to  be 
killed  annually  on  the  Pribilofs  is  limited  by  the  terms  of  the  lease  to  100,000.  There 
is,  however,  reason  to  believe  that  considerably  more  than  this  number  are  killed  by 
the  natives;  and  it  is  further  asserted  that  the  total  number  of  sea-bears  visiting  the 
islands  is  steadily  diminishing. 

In  addition  to  the  seals  killed  on  the  Pribilofs,  a  large  number  have  of  recent 
years  been  taken  in  open  water  by  British  vessels  cruising  in  Behring  Sea. 
The  seals  thus  taken  appear  to  be  exclusively  young  males  or  barren  females, 
which  have  remained  at  sea  during  the  months  of  May  and  June,  when  the  great 
body  has  gone  northward  to  the  Pribilofs.  Well-appointed  schooners  are  engaged 
in  this  trade,  and  the  method  of  procedure  is  thus  described  by  a  correspondent  of 
the  Times.  When  one  of  these  vessels  is  at  sea,  "  and  seals  are  sighted,  the  little 
boats  are  hoisted  out;  a  hunter,  armed  with  two  shot  guns  and  a  rifle,  and  two  sail- 
ors to  pull  the  boat,  take  their  places,  and  the  hunt  begins.  A  seal  swimming  on 
the  water,  or  perchance  sleeping,  is  sighted,  and  the  boat  is  pulled  quietly  toward 
the  animal.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the  seal  takes  alarm  and  dives  out  of  sight 
before  the  boat  is  brought  close  enough  to  use  the  guns  with  effect,  and  in  no  case 
does  the  hunter  shoot  unless  he  feels  sure  of  his  quarry.  The  seal,  when  shot,  at 
once  commences  to  sink,  and  the  boat  has  to  be  pulled  rapidly  up  to  it,  when  the 
carcass  is  '  gaffed  '  and  hauled  aboard.  This  is  repeated  as  long  as  a  seal  can  be  seen. 
In  many  instances  only  one  or' two  will  be  killed  during  a  whole  day's  hunting,  but 
at  other  times  as  many  as  twenty  will  be  taken.  After  a  day's  hunt  the  boats  re- 
turn to  the  schooner,  and  the  seals  are  skinned  and  the  pelts  laid  in  salt  in  the  hold. 
This  goes  on  from  day  to  day  during  the  season.  The  seal  has  a  chance  of  escap- 
ing, and  the  percentage  killed  is  very  small.  When  it  is  considered  that  an  extent 
of  ocean  of  nearly  twelve  thousand  square  miles  is  hunted  over,  the  chance  is  slight 
of  the  seals  being  exterminated  by  the  fleet  of  fifty  or  so  vessels  engaged  in  the  seal- 
hunting  business.  If  has  been  asserted  that  only  a  few  seals  out  of  every  hundred 
shot  are  captured  by  the  hunters;  that  the  balance  sink  or  escape  wounded,  to  die 
later  on.  This  is  not  so.  On  the  contrary,  a  seal  hardly  ever  escapes  when  shot. 
Of  course  a  few  do,  but  the  percentage  is  small,  probably  not  over  five  or  six  out  of 
the  hundred."  Although  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  number  of  sea-bears  in  the 
open  sea  is  annually  diminishing,  this  is  denied  by  unprejudiced  experts;  and  it  is 
mentioned  by  the  writer  last  cited  that  "the  oldest  hands  in  the  business  state  that 
there  are  apparently  as  many  seals  in  the  sea  nowadays  as  there  were  many  years 
ago.  There  is,  however,  some  greater  difficulty  experienced  in  capturing  them. 
The  older  ones  have  learned  what  a  sealing  boat  is,  and  at  the  sound  of  a  gun,  or  at 
the  approach  of  a  boat,  the  wary  animal  is  on  its  guard,  and  thus  it  is  harder  for  the 
hunter  to  get  within  range  of  his  quarry.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  large  numbers  are 
killed,  and  the  business  is  fairly  profitable."  Of  the  two  methods  of  sealing,  the  shoot- 
ing in  the  open  sea  is  decidedly  to  be  preferred  on  humanitarian  grounds,  more  espe- 
cially if  it  be  true,  as  asserted,  that  on  the  Pribilofs  a  considerable  number  of  breeding 
female  seals  are  killed  before  their  cubs  are  old  enough  to  shift  for  themselves. 


712  THE   CARNIVORES 

THE  SOUTHERN  FUR-SEALS 

In  the  Southern  Hemisphere  there  are  some  four  species  of  sea-bears  or  fur- 
seals,  all  of  which  differ  from  the  northern  sea-bear  in  their  much  longer,  narrower, 
and  more-depressed  muzzles,  and  also  in  the  circumstance  that  the  flaps  of  skin  pro- 
jecting in  advance  of  the  toes  of  the  hind-flippers  are  much  less  elongated.  The 
southern  fur-seals  are  also,  as  a  rule,  decidedly  grayer  in  color  than  their  northern 
cousin.  There  is  still  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  number  of  species  belonging  to 
this  group,  and  their  resemblance  to  one  another  is  so  close  that  it  requires  an  ex- 
pert to  distinguish  between  them. 

The  South- American,  or  Falkland  island  fur-seal   (O.  australis]  in- 
habits the  Galapagos  islands,   and  the  shores  and  islands  of  South 
can  Fur- 
Seals          America  southward  from  Chili  on  the  western,  and  from  the  Rio  de  la 

Plata  on  the  eastern  side;  being  more  numerous  on  the  Falkland  and 
South  Shetland  islands  than  on  the  continent  itself.  The  males  attain  a  length  of 
from  six  to  seven  feet,  while  the  females  average  about  five  feet;  the  disproportion 
between  the  sexes  being  thus  much  less  than  in  the  northern  sea-bear.  The  color 
of  the  fur  is  distinctly  gray. 

The  habits  of  this  species  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  its 
northern  cousin;  the  old  males  arriving  on  the  Falklands  before  the  fe- 
males, and  similar  contests  taking  place  for  the  possession  of  the  latter,  which  arrive 
in  December.  The  cubs  are  born  during  the  same  month,  and  are  able  to  swim  well 
by  February.  The  young  males  remain  at  sea  during  the  greater  part  of  the  summer. 
not  landing  till  February  or  March.  They  sojourn  on  land  till  the  latter  part  of 
April,  when  they  again  take  to  the  water;  but  toward  the  end  of  June  they  once 
more  visit  the  shore  for  several  weeks,  remaining  partly  on  land  and  partly  in  the 
sea.  When  Weddell  visited  the  South  Shetlands  during  his  voyage,  lasting  from 
1818  to  1821,  these  seals  were  very  numerous,  and  had  so  little  fear  of  man  that 
numbers  of  them  were  killed  and  skinned  without  disturbing  the  remainder  of  the 
party.  Moseley,  during  the  voyage  of  the  Challenger,  found,  as  already  mentioned, 
these  seals  still  fairly  numerous  on  Kerguelen's  Land,  although,  from  the  reckless 
way  in  which  they  were  slaughtered,  they  appeared  in  imminent  danger  of  total  ex- 
termination. Like  the  sea-lions  of  the  same  regions,  the  southern  fur-seals  prey  at 
times  upon  penguins. 

The  Cape  fur-seal  (O.  pusilla)  is  a  very  well-marked  species,  char- 
>ea  acterized  by  the  straight  profile  of  the  head,  the  overhanging  and 
sharply-pointed  muzzle,  the  relatively-long  ears,  and  the  extreme  length  of  the 
numerous  bristles  depending  from  the  upper  lip.  A  living  example,  formerly  ex- 
hibited in  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens,  had  a  whitish-red  fur  grizzled 
with  blackish  hairs,  while  the  under  parts  were  of  a  reddish-brown  color.  This 
seal  appears  to  be  confined  to  South  Africa,  inhabiting  the  small  islands  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  as  well  as  others  some  forty  miles  distant  from  Port  Elizabeth. 
It  probably  also  once  inhabited  Tristan  da  Cunha.  It  is  still  fairly  common,  but  its 
fur  is  of  comparatively  little  value,  owing  to  the  shortness  of  the  hair,  although 
that  of  the  young  animals  is  longer.  Some  years  ago,  from  70,000  to  80,000  skins 


THE    WALRUS 


713 


were  annually  imported  from  the  Cape  into  London,  but  the  number  is  now  much 
reduced.  In  Algoa  bay  as  many  as  from  200  to  300  of  these  seals  have  been  taken 
during  a  single  night. 

There  has  been  much  uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  fur-seals  of  the 
New  Zealand     .  .. 

Fur-Seal      Australian  seas,   but  it  now  appears  that  there  is  but  one  species, 

namely,  the  New  Zealand  fur-seal  ( O.  forsteri ) ,  of  which  the  so-called 
cinereous  fur-seal  (O.  cinerea),  according  to  Mr.  H.  O.  Forbes,  is  the  female.  This 
seal  is  the  only  one  found  on  the  New  Zealand  coasts,  and  it  also  occurs  at  Chatham 
island  and  the  Seal  Rocks  near  Port  Stephens.  Although  formerly  abundant,  it  is 
now  becoming  very  rare.  At  the  time  of  Flinders'  visit  in  1798  it  was  found  in 
thousands  at  Passage  Point,  to  the  north  of  Tasmania.  The  males  are  usually  dark 
gray  above  and  brown  below,  while  the  lighter  females  are  generally  yellowish 
brown  above  and  dark  below,  some  of  them  having  a  crest  of  long  whitish  hairs. 
While  the  fur  of  the  male  is  valuable  and  beautifully  curled,  that  of  the  female 
seems  to  have  frequently  but  little  under-fur,  so  that  skins  have  been  described  as 
those  of  hair-seals. 


THE  WALRUS 
Family   TRICHECHID^ 

The  huge  and  ungainly  animals,   commonly  known  by  the  name  of  walrus 
(from  the  Scandinavian  valross,  meaning  whale-horse),  constitute  not  only  a  distinct 


SKELETON  OF  THE  WALRUS. 

genus  of  the  Pinniped  Carnivores,  but  are  likewise  the  sole  representatives  of  a 
special  family.  Walruses  are  strictly  confined  at  the  present  day  to  the  Arctic 
regions  of  both  Hemispheres  ;  but  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
those  found  in  the-  Pacific  are  specifically  distinct  from  the  typical  Atlantic  form. 
The  two  are,  however,  so  extremely  closely  allied  that  we  prefer  to  regard  them  as 
belonging  to  a  single  species  (  Trichechus  rosmarus}. 

In  many  respects  the  walrus  is  nearly  allied  to  the  eared  seals,  this  being 
especially  shown  in  the  structure  of  the  hind-limbs.     Thus  the  hind-feet  are  capable 


THE   CARNIVORES 


of  being  turned  forward  beneath  the  body,  and  are  employed  in  locomotion  on  land; 
while  they  have  the  three  middle  digits  much  smaller  than  the  outer  pair.  Moreover, 
the  toes  of  the  hind- feet  are  similarly  terminated  by  large  lobes  projecting  far  beyond 
the  extremities  of  the  bones;  and  the  fore-limbs  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  hinder  ones. 
The  walrus  differs,  however,  from  the  eared  seals  in  the  total  absence  of  exter- 
nal ears,  and  also  in  its  massive  and  clumsy  build,  as  well  as  in  the  number  and 
structure  of  its  teeth.  Thus  the  front  portion  of  the  skull  is  greatly  swollen,  and 
carries  a  pair  of  very  long  and  laterally-compressed  tusks,  or  canine  teeth,  depend- 
ing from  the  upper  jaw.  In  the  adult  animal  internally  to  these  tusks  there  is 
usually  a  row  of  four  small  teeth,  of  which  in  the  young  state  the  first  is  situated  in 
advance  of  the  latter,  and  is,  therefore,  an  incisor;  the  other  three  being  premolars. 
The  lower  jaw  has  but  four  teeth  on  each  side,  of  which  the  foremost  corresponds 
to  the  upper  tusk,  while  the  other  three  represent  the  premolars.  Consequently, 
an  adult  walrus  has  but  eighteen  teeth  altogether.  The  young  animal  has,  how- 
ever two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  five  upper  and  four  lower  cheek- 
teeth; thus,  with  the  tusks,  bringing  up  the  total  number  of  teeth  to  thirty.  We 
thus  see  that  the  young  walrus  presents  resemblances  to  the  eared  seals  in  respect  of 
the  number  of  its  teeth,  which  are  totally  lost  in  the  adult  animal.  Our  figure 

of  the  skeleton  of  the  walrus 
shows  the  tusks  in  their  full  de- 
velopment; the  illustration  of  the 
living  animal  being  taken  from 
examples  with  poorly-developed 
tusks.  With  the  exception  of 
these  large  upper  tusks,  all  the 
teeth  have  low,  blunted,  subcon- 
ical  crowns,  admirably  adapted  for 
crushing  the  mollusks  on  which 
these  animals  so  largely  subsist. 

In  comparison  with  the  size 
of  the  body,  the  head  of  the  wal- 
rus is  rather  small,  and  while 
squared  and  abruptly  truncated  in 
front  is  somewhat  rounded  behind; 
this  rounded  appearance  being  in- 
creased by  the  absence  of  all  trace 
of  external  ears.  The  muzzle 
seems  to  be  divided  into  two  lobes 

by  the  vertical  groove  below  the  nostrils,  and  is  furnished  on  either  side  with  a  num- 
ber of  stout  translucent  bristles  growing  from  the  upper  lips.  The  eye  is  very  small; 
and  the  entire  head  has  a  remarkably-rugged  and  battered  appearance;  the  lower 
jaw  narrowing  to  a  point  between  the  upper  tusks.  The  latter,  which  ordinarily 
project  to  a  length  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  or  more  inches  below  the  level  of  the 
gum,  communicate,  of  course,  the  most  striking  and  characteristic  feature  to  the 
head,  and  indeed  to  the  whole  animal.  Although  relatively  longer  than  in  the  true 


HEAD  OF  WALRUS. 


THE    WALRUS 


715 


seals,  the  neck  is  shorter  than  in  the  eared  seals,  and  graduallyrthickens  posteriorly, 
where  it  imperceptibly  merges  into  the  trunk.  The  body  is  extremely  bulky  and 
ungainly,  with  a  rounded  outline,  and  diminishing  gradually  in  size  from  the  shoul- 


WALRUSES    ON    THE    ICE. 
(One-fortieth   natural   size.) 


ders  to  the  hind-quarters.  The  tail  is  very  small;  and  the  limbs  are  to  a  great  extent 
inclosed  in  the  skin  of  the  trunk.  There  are  five  rudimentary  claws  on  both  the 
fore  and  the  hind-feet,  the  soles  of  which  are  completely  devoid  of  hair. 


716  THE   CARNIVORES 

In  the  young  of  the  walrus  the  body  is  thickly  covered  with  short,  yellowish- 
brown  fur,  which  is  thinner  and  shorter  on  the  under  parts  and  limbs  than  else- 
where, where  it  also  becomes  of  a  reddish-brown  or  chestnut  tinge.  This  fur  per- 
sists till  middle  age,  but  in  old  age  becomes  gradually  more  and  more  scanty, 
frequently  disappearing  almost  completely,  or  even  entirely,  from  patches  of  larger 
or  smaller  extent;  while  in  some  very  old  males  of  the  Pacific  walrus  the  whole  skin 
may  be  almost  naked.  The  skin  over  the  entire  body  is  thrown  into  a  number  of 
folds  and  wrinkles,  these  folds  being  heaviest  in  the  region  of  the  shoulders.  The 
frequent  fights  in  which  these  animals  engage  add  a  number  of  scars  to  the  skin. 
Of  four  adult  males  measured  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  the  smallest  had  a  length  of  nine 
and  one-half  and  the  largest  of  eleven  feet,  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of 
the  tail.  Other  individuals  have,  however,  been  recorded,  measuring  somewhat 
more  than  twelve  feet  in  total  length;  but  the  statements  of  fifteen  or  even  sixteen- 
feet  walruses  must  be  received  with  hesitation.  There  is  still  much  uncertainty  as 
to  the  weight  which  these  animals  will  attain.  Parry  gives  the  weight  of  an  imma- 
ture female  as  1,550  pounds;  while  other  trustworthy  writers  set  down  the  weight 
of  full-grown  males  at  from  2,250  to  3,000  pounds.  Larger  weights  have,  indeed, 
been  suggested,  but  it  is  probable  that  in  those  cases  the  estimates  were  far  too 
high.  In  regard  to  the  size  of  the  tusks  of  the  Atlantic  walrus,  a  fine  pair  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Allen  had  a  total  length  of  twenty-four  inches,  of  which  probably 
about  eighteen  inches  would  have  protruded  from  the  jaw  during  life;  the  weight 
of  each  of  these  being  four  pounds.  Others  have,  however,  been  obtained  with  a 
total  length  of  thirty-one  inches,  and  a  weight  of  upward  of  eight  pounds  apiece; 
but  such  are,  now  at  least,  extremely  rare.  The  tusks  of  females  seldom  exceed 
twenty  inches  in  length.  In  the  Pacific  walrus  the  tusks  are  said  to  be  longer  and 
thicker,  and  more  convergent;  but  we  have  not  met  with  any  account  of  their  maxi- 
mum dimensions. 

In  addition  to  this  difference  in  the  form  of  the  tusks,  the  Pacific  walrus  has 
the  muzzle  proportionately  broader  and  deeper,  while  the  bristles  on  the  upper  lip 
are  shorter  and  smaller.  Important  differences  also  occur  in  the  form  of  the  skull 
of  the  two  varieties. 

The   geographical   range   of   the  walrus  has  been  considerably  re- 
Distribution          .      j   .  .  .  , 

stncted  in  modern  times  owing  to  the  incessant  persecution  of  the 

animal  in  all  accessible  regions,  and  it  is  now  exterminated  in  many  places  where 
it  was  formerly  abundant.  Its  numbers  have,  indeed,  been  sadly  diminished  every- 
where, and  unless  it  receive  prompt  and  efficient  protection  it  is  one  of  those 
creatures  which  stand  a  good  chance  of  becoming  extinct;  this  being  more 
especially  the  case  with  the  Pacific  variety.  The  Atlantic  walrus  was  known  in 
Europe  during  the  latter  part  of  the  ninth  century,  and  appears  to  have  been  hunted 
on  the  coast  of  Finmark  about  a  century  later,  while  by  the  year  1600  walrus  hunting 
was  a  regular  trade.  Occasionally  these  animals  wandered  as  far  southward  as  the 
coasts  of  Scotland;  and  they  were  abundant  on  many  of  the  islands  near  the  northern 
coast  of  continental  Europe,  and  even  on  the  shores  of  the  continent  itself;  while 
eastward  their  range  extended  into  Asia  as  far  as  the  river  Lena.  Northward,  the 
walrus  appears  to  extend  as  far  as  vessels  have  penetrated.  In  1600  it  was  very 


THE    WALRUS  717 

abundant  on  Cheric  or  Bear  island,  lying  about  two  hundred  an4  eighty  miles  to  the 
northward  of  Cape  North,  in  Norway;  no  less  than  six  or  seven  hundred  having 
been  killed  on  one  occasion  in  six  hours,  while  on  another  from  nine  hundred  to  a 
thousand  were  slaughtered  in  less  than  seven  hours.  The  animals  were  accustomed 
to  collect  in  large  parties  on  the  shore;  and  the  plan  adopted  was  first  to  shoot  those 
nearest  the  sea,  whose  bodies  then  formed  a  barrier,  cutting  off  the  retreat  of  the 
rest.  In  less  than  eight  years  the  walruses  on  Bear  island  had  become  scarce  and 
shy,  and  it  was  not  long  before  they  were  completely  exterminated.  The  retreat- 
ing walruses  were  then  followed  to  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  and  even  there  their 
numbers  have  so  diminished  that  walrus  hunting  cannot  be  profitably  conducted 
unless  carried  on  in  conjunction  with  whaling.  Baron  Nordenskjold  states  that  at 
the  present  day  the  walrus  is  seldom  found  during  summer  on  the  west  coast  of 
Nova  Zembla  to  the  south  of  Matotshkin  Shar,  but  that  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
same  island,  and  in  parts  of  the  Kara  Sea  it  is  fairly  common.  It  is  but  rarely  seen 
in  Iceland,  but  is  not  unfrequent  on  the  coasts  of  Western  Siberia. 

In  America  the  Atlantic  walrus  formerly  ranged  from  Nova  Scotia  to  about 
latitude  80°,  and  was  at  one  time  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
eastern  coasts  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador.  About  1534,  walruses  were  very 
abundant  on  the  Magdalen  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  and  many  expedi- 
tions were  soon  after  fitted  out  in  Europe  for  the  capture  of  the  animals  on  these 
and  adjacent  islands.  Till  a  few  years  ago,  the  heaps  of  walrus  bones  on  the  shores 
of  the  Magdalen  islands  attested  the  slaughter  that  had  taken  place.  According 
to  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard,  the  last  walrus  seen  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  was  killed 
in  1840;  but  a  few  have  been  observed  subsequently  on  some  of  the  neighboring 
coasts  and  islands.  In  Greenland  it  was  stated  that  about  the  year  1877,  the  walrus 
was  only  sparsely  distributed  in  most  places,  with  the  exception  of  the  tract  lying 
between  the  66th  and  68th  parallels,  where  it  was  sometimes  met  with  in  consider- 
able numbers,  and  was  regularly  hunted  by  the  natives  in  their  canoes.  Walruses 
also  occur  on  the  west  coast  of  Baffin's  Bay,  and  some  of  the  islands  to  the  north; 
but  their  range  appears  to  be  limited  by  the  western  shore  of  Hudson's  Bay;  and  as 
they  are  not  again  met  with  till  we  reach  Alaska,  a  large  part  of  the  coast  of  Arctic 
America  is  probably  uninhabited  by  them. 

Although  the  Pacific  walrus  has  been  known  in  Europe  since  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  it  was  not  much  molested  by  hunters  till  about  the  year  1860,  by 
which  date  whaling  had  become  much  less  profitable  than  it  had  been.  The  range  of 
this  variety  was  always  much  more  restricted  than  that  of  its  Atlantic  cousin,  reach- 
ing from  the  limit  of  ice  southward  on  the  American  coast  as  far  as  latitude  55°,  and 
on  the  Asiatic  shores  to  latitude  60°.  In  longitude  its  range  to  the  north  of  Behring 
Strait  in  the  Arctic  Sea  was  limited  to  the  eastward  by  Point  Barrow  in  Northern 
Alaska,  and  to  the  westward  by  Cape  Chelagskoy,  in  longitude  170°,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Siberia.  As  on  the  latter  coast  the  range  of  the  Atlantic  walrus  did  not 
extend  eastward  of  the  Lena,  the  two  varieties  were  widely  separated  from  one 
another  in  this  direction,  as  they  also  were  in  the  opposite  direction.  On  the 
Alaskan  side  of  Behring  Sea  and  Behring  Strait,  the  Pacific  walrus  was  formerly 
found  in  enormous  herds  in  Bristol  bay  and  Norton  and  Kotzebue  sounds;  and  in 


7i8  THE   CARNIVORES 

summer  it  also  visited  the  Pribilof  islands  in  large  numbers.  These  animals  were 
likewise  common  on  the  Aleutian  islands;  but  in  the  more  southern  portions  of 
their  range  they  were  always  sparsely  distributed.  Up  to  the  year  1874  they  were 
still  found  in  innumerable  herds  where  the  waters  of  the  Arctic  Sea  join  with  those 
of  Behring  Strait,  and  also  in  Behring  Sea;  but  since  that  date  their  diminution 
has  been  rapid.  It  is  stated  that  between  the  years  1870  and  1880  close  on  2,000,000 
gallons  of  walrus  oil,  and  400,000  pounds  of  ivory  were  obtained  from  these  regions; 
thus  representing  the  destruction  of  not  far  short  of  100,000  animals.  When  the 
Russians  first  opened  up  the  Pribilof  islands,  walruses  were  found  in  numbers  on 
both  St.  Paul's  and  St.  George's,  but  they  soon  retreated  to  Walrus  island,  leaving 
the  other  two  to  their  less  timorous  cousins  the  sea-bears  and  sea-lions.  It  is 
stated  that  in  a  single  year  upward  of  28,000  pounds  of  walrus  ivory  were  obtained 
from  the  Pribilofs  alone. 

In  prehistoric  times  the  range  of  the  Atlantic  walrus  was  much  more  extensive 
than  during  the  historic  epoch,  on  both  the  eastern  and  the  western  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  Thus  its  remains  have  been  dredged  up  from  the  Dogger  Bank  off  the 
eastern  coast  of  England;  while  a  skull  was  dug  up  from  the  peat  near  Ely,  indi- 
cating that  the  animal  formerly  inhabited  the  valley  of  the  Ouse,  which  was  at  that 
time  probably  an  estuary.  On  the  eastern  coast  of  America  walrus  bones  have  been 
dug  up  as  far  south  as  New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and  even  California.  At  a  still  earlier 
period  walruses,  which  are  considered  to  belong  to  an  extinct  species,  inhabited 
both  the  eastern  coast  of  England  and  the  shores  of  Belgium ;  numerous  remains 
having  been  obtained  from  the  so-called  crags  of  the  Pliocene  period  in  both 
countries. 

There  appears  to  be  no  well-marked  difference  between  the  habits  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  varieties.  Walruses  are  usually  found  in  the 
neighborhood  of  shores  or  masses  of  floating  ice,  and  are  but  seldom  seen  in  the 
open  sea.  As  a  rule,  they  associate  in  companies  or  herds,  depending  in  size  upon 
the  number  of  individuals  in  the  particular  locality.  In  addition  to  this  fondness 
for  each  other's  company,  Baron  Nordenskjold  states  that  curiosity  is  a  distinguish- 
ing trait  of  the  walrus,  and  relates  how  that  when  on  one  occasion  he  rowed  right 
into  the  midst  of  a  herd,  "part  followed  the  boat  long  distances  quite  peaceably, 
now  and  then  emitting  a  grunting  sound;  others  swam  quite  close,  and  raised  them- 
selves high  out  of  the  water,  in  order  to  take  a  view  of  the  strangers.  Others 
again,  lay  so  closely  packed  on  pieces  of  drift-ice  as  to  sink  them  down  to  the 
water's  edge,  while  their  comrades  swimming  about  in  the  sea  endeavored  with 
violence  to  gain  a  position  on  the  already  overfilled  resting  places,  though  a  num- 
ber of  unoccupied  pieces  of  ice  floated  up  and  down  in  the  neighborhood." 
When  on  shore,  or  on  an  ice  floe,  the  various  members  of  a  party  of  walruses  are 
described  as  huddling  and  pressing  together  against  one  another  like  pigs.  From 
April  to  June,  according  to  the  latitude,  is  the  breeding  season;  and  during  this 
period  the  walruses  are  stated  to  remain  on  shore  for  about  a  fortnight,  during 
which  time  they  neither  eat  nor  drink.  Usually  there  is  but  a  single  young 
produced  at  a  birth ;  and  there  is  never  more  than  a  pair.  The  young  are  stated  to- 
be  suckled  by  the  parent  for  upward  of  two  years;  and  it  is  hence  believed  that 


THE    WALRUS  719 

the  same  female  breeds  but  once  in  every  three  years.  The  females,  while  suckling 
their  young,  are  said  to  assemble  in  herds  apart  from  the  males.  Like  seals,  walruses 
appear  to  have  circular  breathing  holes  in  the  ice,  to  which  they  can  resort  from  be- 
low without  exposing  themselves.  The  voice  of  these  animals  is  a  loud  roar,  which 
in  the  case  of  large  herds  can  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  several  miles. 

Unless  molested,  the  walrus  is  stated  to  be  gentle  and  inoffensive  in  disposition; 
but  when  attacked,  displays  great  fierceness  and  vindictiveness,  while  its  huge  bulk 
renders  it  a  formidable  antagonist,  especially  when  its  aggressors  are  afloat  in  a 
small  boat.  Not  less  noteworthy  is  the  affection  of  the  female  walrus  for  its  young, 
and  likewise  the  sympathy  of  all  the  members  of  a  herd  for  a  wounded  comrade. 
When  one  of  the  herd  is  wounded,  all  its  fellows  are  stated  to  combine  together  for 
its  defense;  and  on  such  occasions  the  aspect  of  the  animals  is  described  as  abso- 
lutely terrific.  Either  through  confidence  in  their  size  and  power,  or  from  want  of 
appreciation  of  danger,  walruses  when  on  shore  or  on  the  ice  can  often  be  ap- 
proached very  closely,  and  may  thus  be  easily  dispatched;  they  learn,  however, 
greater  caution  with  experience.  In  other  cases  they  seem  to  be  more  vigilant  on 
all  occasions,  having  a  certain  number  of  their  body  acting  as  sentinels.  In  hunt- 
ing them  the  great  object  is  to  cut  off  their  retreat  to  the  water,  for  if  they  once  gain 
the  open  sea  they  generally  escape.  The  number  of  walruses  formerly  found  on  the 
ice  floes  of  Spitzbergen  was  so  great,  and  so  thickly  were  the  creatures  crowded 
together,  that  an  eyewitness  wrote  of  them  as  presenting  the  appearance  of  solid 
islands  of  animals. 

The  walrus  feeds  chiefly  upon  thick-shelled  bivalve  mollusks, 
especially  those  commonly  known  as  gapers.  For  crushing  the  shells 
of  these  mollusks  the  stunted  and  short  cheek-teeth  of  the  walrus  are  admirably 
adapted;  but  it  appears  that,  after  being  broken  the  shells  themselves  are  rejected, 
and  only  the  soft  portions  of  the  mollusks  swallowed.  This  molluskan  diet  is  also 
supplemented  by  fish  and  various  crustaceans;  while  in  addition  to  these,  large 
quantities  of  seaweed  are  also  swallowed,  although  it  is  quite  probable  that  their 
introduction  into  the  creature's  mouth  is  not  intentional.  It  appears  to  be  now 
ascertained  beyond  doubt  that  the  chief  use  of  the  tusks  of  the  walrus  is  to  dig  in 
the  mud  and  ooze  for  the  purpose  of  raking  up  the  mollusks,  on  which  it  feeds  so 
largely.  Dr.  R.  Brown  states,  however,  that  he  has  seen  walruses  employ  their 
tusks  to  aid  in  dragging  their  unwieldy  bodies  on  to  the  ice,  and  also  to  aid  their 
clumsy  progress  when  on  land.  These  observations  are  fully  confirmed  by  Dr. 
Kane,  who  states  that  he  has  known  walruses  in  this  manner  drag  themselves 
on  rocky  islands  to  heights  of  sixty  or  a  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water. 
The  walrus  is  killed  when  on  land  or  ice  either  by  means  of  long 
lances,  or  with  rifles;  while  when  at  sea  it  is  chased  with  special  boats 
and  harpooned.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  enormous  numbers  of  these 
animals  killed  in  the  Magdalen  islands,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries;  but  one  more  instance  of  an  enormous  destruction 
of  these  animals  may  be  referred  to  in  greater  detail.  This  occurred  in  the  summer 
of  1852  on  Thousand  island,  lying  off  the  southwest  coast  of  Spitzbergen.  Here, 
writes  the  narrater,  Mr.  Lamont,  ' '  two  small  sloops,  sailing  in  company,  approached 


720  THE   CARNIVORES 

the  island,  and  soon  discovered  a  herd  of  walruses,  numbering,  as  they  calculated, 
from  three  to  four  thousand,  reposing  upon  it.  Four  boats'  crews,  or  sixteen  men, 
proceeded  to  the  attack  with  spears.  One  great  mass  of  walruses  lay  in  a 
small  sandy  bay,  with  rocks  inclosing  it  on  each  side,  and  on  a  little  mossy  flat 
above  the  bay,  but  to  which  the  bay  formed  the  only  convenient  access  for  such 
unwieldy  animals.  A  great  many  hundreds  lay  on  other  parts  of  the  island  at  a 
little  distance.  The  boats  landed  a  little  way  off,  so  as  not  to  frighten  them,  and 
the  sixteen  men,  creeping  along  shore,  got  between  the  sea  and  the  bay,  full  of 
walruses,  before  mentioned,  and  immediately  commenced  stabbing  the  animals  next 
them.  The  walrus,  although  so  active  and  fierce  in  the  water,  is  very  unwieldy 
and  helpless  on  shore,  and  those  in  front  soon  succumbed  to  the  lances  of  their  as- 
sailants; the  passage  to  the  shore  soon  got  so  blocked  up  with  the  dead  and  dying 
that  the  unfortunate  wretches  could  not  pass  over,  and  were  in  a  manner  barricaded 
by  a  wall  of  carcasses.  '  '  The  slaughter  went  on  until  the  men  were  drenched  with 
blood  and  thoroughly  exhausted,  while  their  lances  became  so  blunt  as  to  be  useless. 
After  returning  to  the  ship  to  refresh  themselves  and  grind  their  lances,  the  work 
of  destruction  was,  however,  resumed,  and  did  not  cease  until  upward  of  nine  hun- 
dred animals  had  been  slain.  Even  then,  however,  so  sluggish  and  lethargic  were 
the  walruses,  that  several  hundreds  were  still  lying  on  adjacent  parts  of  the  island. 
When  the  narrator  visited  the  spot  six  years  later  the  carcasses  were  still  lying  as 
they  fell,  in  some  instances  two  or  three  feet  deep,  and  the  stench  from  them  was 
perceptible  for  miles  out  at  sea.  The  worst  feature  of  this  great  slaughter  was,  in- 
deed, the  circumstance  that  the  perpetrators,  owing  to  the  size  of  their  vessels,  were 
only  able  to  carry  away  a  small  portion  of  their  victims. 

The  walrus  is  hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  oil,  hide,  and  tusks.  The  yield  of  oil 
is  proportionately  less  than  in  the  seals;  the  amount  obtained  from  the  largest  speci- 
mens seldom  exceeding  five  hundred  pounds;  and  the  quality  also  is  stated  to  be  in- 
ferior to  seal  oil.  The  hides  are  chiefly  exported  to  Russia  and  Sweden,  where  the 
leather  is  used  for  harness  and  the  soles  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  also  is  twisted  into 
tiller  ropes.  The  value  of  the  hides  in  America  is  stated  to  be  from  two  to  four 
dollars  per  half  skin.  In  thickness  the  skin  varies  from  one  to  one  and  one-half 
inches.  More  valuable  are  the  tusks,  although  their  ivory  is  far  inferior  to  that  of 
elephants.  The  large  amount  of  walrus  ivory  annually  obtained  has  been  already 
mentioned;  and  it  may  be  added  that,  in  America,  while  the  price  per  pound  was 
only  forty  or  forty-five  cents,  in  1879,  it  had  risen  to  a  dollar  or  a  dollar  and  a 
quarter  in  1880;  while  in  1883  the  price  varied  from  four  to  four  and  a  half  dollars. 

Another  Scandinavian  name  for  the  walrus  is  morse,  while  to  the  Inuits  the 
animal  is  known  as  the  awuk. 

THE  TRUE,  OR  EARLESS  SEAI.S 
Family 


With  the  true  seals  we  come  to  the  third  and  last  family  of  the  Pinniped  Car- 
nivores.    These  animals  are  at  once  distinguished  from  the  eared  seals  and  the  wal- 


THE  TRUE,  OR  EARLESS  SEALS 


721 


ruses  by  the  characteristics  of  the  hind-limbs,  which,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figure,  are  permanently  directed  backward,  and  conjointly  form  a  kind  of  rudder-like 
organ.  Then,  again  there  is  no  trace  of  any  external  ear;  and  the  neck  is  shorter  than 
in  either  of  the  two  preceding  families.  As  additional  characteristics  of  the  limbs,  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  the  front  pair  are  always  smaller  than  the  hinder,  and  that 
the  first  digit  or  thumb  of  the  former  is  always  longer  than  the  other  digits;  while 
the  whole  of  the  digits  are  furnished  with  well-developed  claws  situated  at  their  ex- 
tremities. The  hind-feet,  which  are  incapable  of  the  great  expansion  characteriz- 
ing those  of  the  eared  seals,  usually  have  all  the  digits  armed  with  claws,  and 
generally  want  the  long  flaps  of  skin  at  their  extremities,  which  characterize  those 
of  the  eared  seals.  The  number  of  front  or  incisor  teeth  is  variable  in  the  different 
groups;  but  there  are  constantly  five  pairs  of  cheek-teeth  in  each  jaw,  of  which  the 
first  four  belong  to  the  premolar  series.  In  all  the  species  the  under  surfaces 
of  both  the  fore  and  hind-feet  are 
covered  with  hair;  while  the  fur 
clothing  the  body  is  invariably 
stiff  and  devoid  of  any  woolly 
under-fur. 

The  true  seals  form  a  much 
less  homogeneous  group  than  the 
«ared  seals,  and  are  arranged 
under  several  distinct  genera;  the 
total  number  of  species  being 
about  sixteen  or  seventeen,  al- 
though there  is  .still  a  certain 
amount  of  doubt  in  some  cases  as 
to  whether  some  forms  should  be 
regarded  merely  as  local  races  or 
as  distinct  species.  The  greater 
number  of  the  genera  have  but  a 
single  species  each,  and  in  only  one 
of  the  genera  does  the  number  of 
species  exceed  two. 

True  seals  occur  along  the  shores  of  the  temperate  and  colder  portions  of  the 

globe;  but  the  greater  number  are  found  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.      Moreover, 

with  the  exception  of  the  elephant-seals,  the  seals  of  the  Northern 

and  Habits    Hemisphere   belong   to  genera   distinct    from    those    inhabiting   the 

Southern  Hemisphere;  and  the  whole  of  the  Arctic  species  are  generally 

distinct  from  those  of  the  Antarctic  regions.     Nearly  the  whole  of  the  true  seals  are 

characterized  by  their  strongly-developed  social  instincts  and  their  extraordinary 

affection  for  their  young.     In  disposition  they  are,  as  a  rule,  gentle  and  submissive, 

offering  no  resistance  when   attacked  by  man;   although  the  crested  seal  of  the 

North  Atlantic  is  an  exception  in  this  respect.     Many  of  the  species  are  accustomed 

to  assemble  in  large  flocks  during  the  breeding  season,  while  others  are  gregarious 

at  all  periods  of  the  year.     It  is,  however,  only  the  elephant-seals  that  resemble  the 
46 


HIND- FLIPPERS  OF  RINGED  SEAL  —  OPEN  (A)   AND 

CLOSED  (B). 


722  THE   CARNIVORES 

eared  seals  in  passing  a  period  of  several  weeks,  during  the  breeding  season,  en- 
tirely on  land,  and  without  partaking  of  any  kind  of  food.  As  a  rule  there  is  but  a 
single  young  one  produced  at  a  birth,  and  there  is  never  more  than  a  pair.  All  the 
seals  are  in  the  habit  of  spending  a  large  portion  of  their  time  basking  in  the  sun  on 
sandy  beaches  or  ice  floes. 

Their  food,  of  which  a  large  quantity  is  necessary,  consists  chiefly  of  fish,  but 
also  comprises  crustaceans  and  mollusks;  and  most  of  the  species,  like  the  eared  seals, 
are  in  the  habit  of  swallowing  a  number  of  pebbles. 

As  may  be  at  once  seen  from  the  total  absence  of  external  ears  and  the  struc- 
ture of  the  hind-limbs,  these  seals  are  more  specialized  creatures  than  the  eared 
seals,  and  are  thus  more  completely  adapted  for  an  acquatic  life.  This  is  especially 
shown  by  the  long  period  these  animals  can  remain  under  water  without  coming  up 
to  breathe.  According  to  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  the  average  time  of  a  seal's  submer- 
gence is  from  five  to  eight  minutes,  while  the  limit  is  set  down  by  the  same  observer, 
at  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  Other  authorities  state,  however,  that  the  time  may  be 
extended  to  as  much  as  twenty  or  thirty  minutes.  The  sounds  uttered  by  seals  are 
various,  in  some  cases  taking  the  form  of  a  kind  of  barking  note,  while  in  others  they 
assume  a  more  bleating  tone,  or  even  resemble  the  cry  of  a  child;  the  note  of  the  young 
being  always  more  plaintive  and  less  hoarse  than  that  of  the  adult.  In  no  cases,  how- 
ever, do  they  utter  barking  roars  comparable  to  those  characteristic  of  the  eared  seals. 

The  strange  circumstance  that  young  seals  take  to  the  water  reluctantly,  and 
have  to  be  taught  the  art  of  swimming  by  their  parents,  would  alone  appear  to  be  a 
sufficient  indication  that  seals  are  originally  descended  from  land  Carnivores.  Among 
some  species  the  young  remain  entirely  on  the  land  or  the  ice  for  the  first  two  or  three 
weeks  of  their  existence,  or  until  they  have  shed  their  first  coat  of  woolly  hair. 
Numbers  of  seals  are  destroyed  by  the  Polar  bear,  while  others  fall  victims  to  the 
rapacious  killer- whale.  Others  again  are  frequently  destroyed  by  being  jammed  be- 
tween ice  floes;  and  it  is  stated  that  thousands  are  sometimes  killed  by  this  means. 
The  reduction  in  their  numbers  by  all  these  causes  are,  however,  trivial  compared  to 
those  inflicted  by  man,  who,  according  to  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen,  requires  about  a  million 
and  a  half  to  supply  his  annual  needs.  So  reckless,  indeed,  has  been  the  destruction 
of  seals,  that  some  species  are  already  well-nigh  exterminated,  while  others  have 
been  so  reduced  in  numbers  as  to  render  their  pursuit  no  longer  profitable. 

Several  species  of  seals  inhabiting  the  Northern  Hemisphere  are  in  the  habit  of 
making  long  migrations,  moving  southward  to  avoid  the  intense  cold  of  winter,  and 
returning  northward  in  summer;  such  migrations  being  most  marked  in  the  Green- 
land and  the  hooded  seal.  These  movements  have  been  carefully  observed  by 
Mr.  J.  C.  Stevenson,  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  North  America.  The  southern  mi- 
gration commences  soon  after  the  frost  sets  in;  and  at  this  season,  he  writes,  "  a  fish- 
erman, posted  as  sentinel  on  some  headland  commanding  an  extensive  sea  view,  com- 
municates to  the  hamlet  the  first  indication  of  the  approaching  host,  the  vanguard 
of  which  invariably  consists  of  small  detachments  of  from  half  a  dozen  to  a  score  of 
seals.  Such  parties  continue  to  pass  at  intervals,  gradually  increasing  in  frequency 
and  numbers  during  the  first  two  or  three  days  of  the  exodus,  by  the  end  of  which  time 
they  are  seen  in  companies  of  one  or  more  hundreds.  The  main  body  is  now  at  hand, 


THE   GRAY  SEAL  723 

and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  next  two  days  one  continuous  uncountable  crowd  is 
constantly  in  sight.  The  whole  procession  coasts  along  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
shore,  presenting  to  an  eyewitness  a  most  extraordinary  scene.  In  all  quarters,  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  carry,  nothing  is  visible  but  seals — the  sea  seems  paved  with  their  heads." 

From  the  conformation  of  their  hind-limbs,  the  true  seals  are  unable  to  progress 
on  land  in  the  manner  characteristic  of  the  eared  seals  and  the  walrus;  both  the  latter 
being  able  to  bring  their  hind-limbs  under  the  body  by  arching  the  back  and  carry- 
ing forward  the  hind-feet  by  a  kind  of  jerk.  Very  generally  the  true  seals  move  on 
land  merely  by  a  kind  of  wriggling  motion  of  the  body,  with  the  fore-limbs  held 
close  to  the  sides  of  the  trunk  and  the  hind-limbs  stretched  out  straight  behind.  Dr. 
Murie  has,  however,  ascertained  that  in  the  case  of  the  Greenland  and  crested  seals 
there  is  a  kind  of  motion  somewhat  intermediate  between  the  above  and  that  charac- 
teristic of  the  eared  seals.  Thus  the  former  of  these  two  species  ' '  very  often  uses 
its  fore-limbs,  placing  these  on  the  ground  in  a  semigrasping  manner,  and,  by  an  al- 
ternate use  of  them,  drags  its  body  along.  The  hind-legs  meantime  are  either  trailed 
behind  slightly  apart,  or  with  opposed  plantar  surfaces  slightly  raised  and  shot  stiffly 
behind.  On  uneven  ground,  or  in  attempting  to  climb,  a  peculiar  lateral  wrig- 
gling motion  is  made;  and  at  such  times,  beside  alternate  palmar  action,  the  body 
and  the  hind-limbs  describe  a  sinuous  spiral  track."  On  the  other  hand,  the  com- 
mon seal  appears  far  less  capable  of  making  use  of.  its  fore-limbs  in  progression  on 
land,  these  being  only  occasionally  employed  to  obtain  a  hold  on  rocks. 

On  smooth  ice,  seals  are  able  to  progress  with  considerable  rapidity;  the  average 
rate  being  about  one  mile  an  hour  in  cool  weather.  Such  journeys  are  always  un- 
dertaken during  the  night;  and  the  seals  advance  by  raising  their  bodies  from  the 
ice  by  means  of  the  fore-limbs,  and  then  drawing  themselves  forward.  On  land, 
seals  will  occasionally  travel  considerable  distances;  and  it  is  on  record  that  in  the 
winter  of  1829  a  gray  seal  in  Norway  traveled  through  the  snow  a  distance  of  fully 
thirty  miles;  the  time  occupied  in  accomplishing  this  journey  being  believed  to  have 
been  about  a  week,  during  which  period  the  creature  could  not  have  touched  food. 

The  true  seals  are  not  a  very  ancient  group,  geologically  speaking,  although 
their  remains  are  found  through  the  Pleistocene  and  Pliocene  strata,  and  in  a  por- 
tion of  those  belonging  to  the  Miocene  period.  Fossil  seals  are  very  common  in  the 
Pliocene  deposits  of  Belgium;  most  of  them  being  more  or  less  nearly  allied  to  the 
species  now  inhabiting  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  It  is  very  noteworthy  that  while 
true  seals  range  downward  to  the  Miocene  period,  no  remains  which  can  be  defi- 
nitely assigned  to  the  eared  seals  have  hitherto  been  discovered  in  any  but  the  most 
recent  and  superficial  deposits.  If  this  apparently  late  origin  of  the  eared  seals  be 
confirmed  by  future  researches,  it  will  go  far  to  confirm  the  suggestion  that  the  lat- 
ter have  taken  rise  from  land  Carnivores  quite  independently  of  the  true  seals. 

THE  GRAY  SEAL 
Genus  Halichcerus 

The  gray  seal  (^Halichcerus  grypus},  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  its 
genus,  belongs  to  a  group  confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  distinguished 


724  THE   CARNIVORES 

from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  by  the  presence  of  three  pairs  of  incisor 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  two  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw.  A  further  characteristic  of 
the  group  is  to  be  found  in  the  presence  of  claws  on  all  the  toes  of  both  pairs  of 
limbs;  while  all  those  of  the  hind-feet  are  of  nearly  equal  length. 

The  gray  seal  is  at  once  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  this  group  by 
the  circumstance  that  the  crowns  of  the  relatively-large  cheek-teeth  are  composed  of 
but  a  single  conical  cusp,  although  there  may  occasionally  be  fore-and-aft  cusps  in 
the  last  two  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw.  Another  peculiar  feature  of  these  teeth  is  that, 
with  the  exception  of  the  last  one  or  two  in  the  upper  and  the  last  one  in  the  lower 
jaw,  they  are  implanted  in  the  jaws  by  means  of  only  a  single  root  each. 

The  gray  seal  is  a  rather  large  species,  full-grown  males  usually  measuring  about 
eight  feet  in  length,  although  occasionally  reaching  as  much  as  nine  feet;  these 
measurements  being  taken  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  hind-feet. 
The  general  color  of  the  fur  is  silvery  or  yellowish  gray,  becoming  lighter  on  the 
under  parts,  and  marked  with  a  number  of  blackish  or  dusky  ill-defined  spots. 
There  is,  however,  great  individual  variation  in  this  respect,  some  specimens  being 
uniformly  silvery  or  yellowish  white,  with  little  or  no  trace  of  spots,  while  others 
are  almost  black.  The  young  are  always  white  or  yellowish  white  at  birth,  but,  as 
a  rule,  soon  acquire  darker  tints. 

The  gray  seal,  according  to  Mr.  Allen,  is  one  of  the  least  common 
of  the  northern  members  of  the  family,  and  has  a  somewhat  restricted 
distribution,  being  only  found  within  comparatively  narrow  limits  in  the  North  At- 
lantic. On  the  shores  of  northern  Europe  it  appears  to  be  commoner  than  on  the 
American  side;  and  it  occurs  in  Iceland,  Scandinavia  as  far  north  as  Finmark,  the 
British  Islands,  and  probably  Greenland.  It  appears,  however,  to  be  unknown  in 
Spitzbergen  and  the  islands  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  is  not  met  with,  at  all  events  as  a 
regular  inhabitant,  on  the  shores  of  the  English  Channel.  On  the  American  coast 
this  species  extends  as  far  south  as  Sable  island,  off  Nova  Scotia,  while  northward 
it  is  met  with  occasionally  in  the  straits  of  Labrador  and  Belle  Isle,  and  ranges  as 
far  as  Disco  island. 

With  the  possible  exception  of  the  bearded  seal,  the  present  species 
is  peculiar  in  breeding  in  the  autumn;  the  young  being  produced  in 
the  Shetland  islands  from  September  to  November.  There  the  gray  seal  is  com- 
monly found  associating  in  pairs,  and  frequenting  the  most  exposed  positions.  De- 
scribing the  habits  of  this  seal  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Mr.  Lucas  writes  that 
"  it  is  fond  of  crawling  out  on  the  rocks,  especially  on  sunny  days,  when  it  will  lie 
basking  in  the  sunshine  for  hours  at  a  time.  The  seals  do  not  come  on  shore  at 
any  convenient  spot,  but  at  a  limited  number  of  chosen  localities,  and  these  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind.  Except  in  very  light  breezes  the 
lee  side  of  the  island  is  selected,  not  entirely  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  effecting 
a  landing  on  the  windward  side,  but  also  because  the  seal  relies  very  largely  upon 
its  acute  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  to  warn  it  of  approaching  danger  from  the 
land.  The  chosen  landing  places  are  where  a  shelf  of  rock,  raised  but  little  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  descends  vertically  for  several  feet  beneath,  thus  enabling  the 
seal  to  plunge  headfirst  into  the  water  and  disappear  at  once  from  sight.  Before 


THE  COMMON  SEAL  AND  THE  GREENLAND  SEAL         725 

r'" 
landing,  the  animal  will  swim  back  and  forth  several  times  with  head  raised,  and 

eye,  ear,  and  nose  on  the  alert  to  detect  any  sign  of  danger,  the  wary  nature  of  the 
creature  being  well  shown  by  the  fact  that  almost  immediately  after  emerging  from 
the  water  the  animal  turns  completely  round  so  as  to  lie  with  the  head  seaward,  and 
in  readiness  for  an  instant  dive.  The  fairer  the  day  and  the  lighter  the  breeze  the 
more  readily  the  seals  come  ashore,  while  during  rough  weather  they  not  only  do 
not  land  so  often  but  are  more  watchful  when  they  do  come  out."  This  species  is 
less  docile  and  intelligent  than  the  common  seal,  and  cannot  be  tamed  in  the  same 
manner.  A  specimen  measuring  eight  feet  in  length  weighed  nearly  four  hundred 
pounds. 

THE  COMMON  SEAL  AND  THE  GREENLAND  SEAL 
Genus  Phoca 

The  common  seal  (Phoca  vitulina]  and  the  Greenland  seal   (P.  grcenlandica) 
may  be  selected  as  well-known  examples  of  the  genus  Phoca,  which  is  the  only 


SKELETON  OF  THE  COMMON  SEAL. 

genus  in  the  family  containing  more  than  two  species.  All  the  members  of  this 
genus  differ  from  the  gray  seal  by  their  smaller  and  more-pointed  teeth,  but  more 
especially  by  the  circumstance  that  each  of  the  cheek-teeth,  with  the  exception  of 
the  first  in  each  jaw,  is  implanted  by  two  distinct  roots,  and  has  its  crown  composed 
of  three  or  four  compressed  cusps  arranged  in  a  line.  In  such  a  tooth  there  is  one 
large  main  cusp  in  the  middle,  which  corresponds  to  the  single  cusp  of  the  teeth  of 
the  gray  seal ;  while  in  front  and  behind  this  are  one  or  two  much  smaller  cusps. 

The  common  seal,  which  is  the  only  species  in  addition  to  the  gray 
seal  ordinarily  met  with  on  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands,  is  one  of 
three  nearly-allied  forms,  which,  in  the  young  condition,  cannot  always  be  satisfac- 
torily distinguished  from  one  another  by  color  alone.  The  three  species  in  question 
are  the  common  seal,  the  ringed  seal  (P.  hispida),  and  the  Greenland  seal.  All 
these  three  species  are  much  smaller  than  the  gray  seal;  the  ringed  seal  being  the 
smallest  of  all.  The  latter  species  can  always  be  distinguished  from  either  of  the 
others  by  the  greater  length  of  the  first  digit  in  the  fore-foot,  which  exceeds  that  of 


726 


THE   CARNIVORES 


the  other  toes.  When  adult,  the  ringed  seal  is  blackish  gray  above,  with  oval, 
whitish  rings,  and  whitish  on  the  under  parts ;  its  usual  length  varying  from  four 
and  one-half  to  five  and  one-half  feet.  The  common  seal,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be 
easily  distinguished  from  either  of  the  others  by  its  more  massive  teeth;  the  cheek- 
teeth being  very  broad  and  thick,  and  set  obliquely  and  close  together  in  the  jaws, 
instead  of  being  placed  in  the  same  straight  line,  and  separated  from  one  another  by 
distinct  intervals.  It  is,  moreover,  a  relatively  stouter-built  animal,  with  a  larger 
head,  broader  nose,  and  shorter  limbs. 

The  adult  of  the  common  seal  is  very  variable  in  color,  but  the  usual  tint  of  the 
hair  on  the  upper  parts  is  some  shade  of  yellowish  gray,  with  irregular  dark  brown 
or  blackish  spots;  the  under  parts  being  yellowish  white,  generally  marked  with 
smaller  spots  of  brown.  The  length  of  the  male  varies  from  five  to  six  feet.  The 
young  when  first  born  are  yellowish  white,  and  are  peculiar  in  that  they  shed  their 
woolly  coat  either  on  the  day  of  birth  or  very  shortly  afterward. 


Distribution 


THE  COMMON  SEAI,. 

The  common  seal  has  a  much  wider  distribution  than  the  gray  seal, 
occurring  not  only  in  the  North  Atlantic  but  also  in  the  North  Pacific, 
and  extending  on  the  shores  of  both  oceans  to  the  Arctic  regions,  and  thus  being 
doubtless  circumpolar.  In  the  Atlantic  it  is  found,  though  rarely,  .as  far  southward 
as  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  American  side  as  far  as  New  Jersey.  In  the 
Pacific  its  southern  limits  appear  to  be  marked  on  the  Asiatic  side  by  Kamchatka, 
and  on  the  American  by  southern  California.  It  is,  moreover,  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  the  coasts,  but  ascends  some  of  the  larger  tidal  rivers  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  their  mouths;  and  it  has  been  known  to  pass  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
Great  Lakes.  In  the  North  Atlantic  this  seal  is  strictly  littoral  in  its  habits,  and 
always  avoids  the  ice  of  the  open  seas.  It  is  very  common  in  Spitzbergen  and 
Greenland;  the  number  of  individuals  belonging  to  this  species  and  the  ringed  seal 
captured  annually  some  years  ago  in  the  Danish  settlements  in  Greenland  being, 
according  to  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  upward  of  700,000.  In  the  British  Islands,  accord- 
ing to  the  authors  of  Bell's  British  Quadrupeds,  this  seal  "is  found  all  round  the 


THE  COMMON  SEAL  AND  THE  GREENLAND  SEAL 


727 


coast  in  suitable  places,  but  is  much  less  abundant  than  it  formerly  was,  and  has 
been  quite  banished  from  many  places  where  it  was  formerly  well  known.  It  is 
common  on  many  parts  of  the  Irish  coast,  and  is  very  abundant  among  the  Scotch 
islands,  especially  in  Shetland  and  Orkney.  In  Wales  and  Cornwall  it  is  well  known, 
but  is  now  very  rarely  seen  on  the  shores  of  the  southern  and  eastern  counties  of 
England."  Not  many  years  ago  one  of  them  was  observed  on  the  beach  at 
Brighton. 

The  common  seal  does  not  make  any  seasonal  migrations,  but  is 
found  in  the  same  haunts  throughout  the  year.     It  prefers  sheltered 
sounds  and  bays,  with  shallow  water  and  an  abundant  supply  of  fish,  to  more  ex- 


Habits 


THE    GREENLAND    SEAT,. 

(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

posed  positions;  and  leaves  the  water  at  every  tide  to  rest  on  the  rocks  or  beach, 
almost  invariably  selecting  such  rocks  as  are  separated  from  the  mainland.  The 
young  are  born  in  the  latter  part  of  May  or  June,  and  take  to  the  water  at  an  early 
period.  Like  other  members  of  the  family,  this  seal  is  readily  attracted  by  music, 
and  will  follow  boats  from  which  such  sounds  proceed  to  a  considerable  distance. 
Whether,  however,  this  attraction  by  musical  sounds  is  due  merely  to  the  curiosity 
characterizing  all  the  Pinniped  Carnivores,  or  to  an  appreciation  of  the  music  itself, 
has  not  been  ascertained.  In  disposition  the  common  seal  is  more  intelligent  and 
gentle  than  most  of  its  congeners;  these  qualities  being  displayed  not  only  in  the 
care  and  affection  they  bestow  on  their  offspring,  but  likewise  by  the  readiness  with 
which  they  can  be  tamed,  and  their  fidelity  and  affection  for  their  masters.  There 


728  THE   CARNIVORES 

are,  indeed,  many  instances  where  these  seals  have  followed  their  owners  about  like 
a  dog;  and  some  where  they  have  come  back  to  a  house  after  every  effort  had  been 
made  to  drive  them  away. 

Although  the  Greenland  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  harp,  or  saddle- 
Greenland  Seal 

backed  seal,  in  its  immature  condition  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  from 

the  common  seal,  in  the  case  of  adult  males  of  the  two  species  there  is  no  sort  of 
difficulty  in  this  respect,  the  peculiar  coloration  of  the  Greenland  species  being 
amply  sufficient.  In  the  adult  male,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  the  general  color  is 
yellowish  white  or  white;  the  nose  and  the  fore  part  of  the  head  to  behind  the  eyes  are 
black;  and  there  are  very  generally  some  black  spots  on  the  throat  and  chest.  The 
most  characteristic  mark  is,  however,  the  irregular  crescentric  band  of  black  on  each 
side  of  the  body,  extending  from  the  shoulders  nearly  to  the  tail;  these  bands  being 
generally  widest  where  they  unite  in  the  middle  line  over  the  shoulders.  They  may 
be  interrupted  posteriorly,  but  more  generally  join  once  more  in  front  of  the  tail, 
so  as  to  enclose  an  ellipsoidal  area.  The  length  of  the  male  is  usually  from  five  to 
five  and  one-half  feet,  but  may,  it  is  said  be  as  much  as  six  feet.  The  female  has 
generally  much  the  same  coloration  as  the  male  when  adult,  but  the  black  markings 
are  less  distinct  and  may  be  wanting.  The  full  coloration  is  not  obtained  till  the 
fifth  year,  and  so  different  is  the  appearance  of  the  animal  at  different  stages  of  its 
growth  that  the  Greenlanders  have  distinct  names  for  it  according  to  age.  The 
white  or  yellowish-white  woolly  fur  of  the  young  is  not  changed  for  the  hairy  coat 
till  several  weeks  after  birth. 

The  Greenland  seal,  which  can  at  most  be  regarded  only  as  a  very  occasional 
visitant  to  the  British  Isles,  is  essentially  a  northern  species,  ranging  in  the  Atlantic 
from  Newfoundland  and  the  North  Sea  to  the  Arctic  regions,  and  also  occurring  in 
the  North  Pacific. 

The  migratory  habits  of  this  species  have  been  already  alluded  to  at 
sufficient  length  ;  the  most  noted  breeding  stations  are  Newfoundland 
and  the  vicinity  of  Jan-Mayen,  at  which  localities  these  animals  may  be  seen  in 
enormous  herds  in  the  spring;  but  where  they  pass  the  remainder  of  the  season  is 
not  ascertained.  In  Greenland  these  seals  visit  the  coasts  both  in  the  autumn  and 
in  the  spring;  and  it  may  be  some  of  these  herds  that  pass  westward  to  Jan-Mayeu. 
During  their  migrations  the  seals  keep  close  to  the  coasts,  and  frequently  enter  the 
bays  and  estuaries;  but  when  settled  at  their  breeding  resorts  they  prefer  exposed 
ice  floes  in  the  open  sea,  never  resorting  to  the  shores,  and  being  seldom  met  with 
on  the  firm  ice.  Everywhere  the  Greenland  seal  is  in  the  habit  of  assembling  in 
immense  herds;  and  it  is  so  abundant  that  its  numbers  probably  exceed  those  of  all 
the  other  species  put  together.  In  consequence  of  this  abundance,  it  is  this  species 
which  forms  the  main  basis  of  the  sealing  trade  of  the  northern  seas.  Unlike  the 
bearded  and  ringed  seals,  the  Greenland  seal  never  forms  a  breathing  hole  in  the 
ice;  and  this  is  doubtless  the  reason  that  it  frequents  the  ice  floes  rather  than  the 
continuous  stretches  of  unbroken  ice.  Off  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  the  young 
are  born  in  the  early  part  of  March,  but  in  the  Jan-Mayen  district  not  until  the  end 
of  that  month.  When  assembled  in  their  countless  herds  on  the  ice  floes  during  the 
breeding  season,  it  is  stated  that  their  cry  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  several 


THE  COMMON  SEAL  AND  THE  GREENLAND  SEAL 


729 


miles,  more  especially  if  the  ear  be  applied  to  the  ice.  As  ari  indication  of  the 
enormous  numbers  in  which  these  seals  once  existed,  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
during  the  year  1866  a  single  steamer  obtained  22,000  seals  in  nine  days;  and  it  was 
not  uncommon  for  a  ship's  crew  to  kill  from  500  to  800  adults  and  2,000  young 
ones  in  a  day.  In  Greenland  the  annual  catch  was  estimated  at  33,000,  while  that 
in  Newfoundland  used  to  exceed  500,000,  and  in  the  Jan-Mayen  seas  the  total  num- 
ber killed  each  year  was  fully  30,000. 

Of  the  remaining  members  of  the  genus  Phoca  our  notice  must  be 

very  brief.     It  has  been  already  mentioned  how  the  ringed  seal  (/*. 

kispida)  may  be  distinguished  at  all  ages  from  the  two  preceding  species,  and  refer- 


SEALS    SWIMMING. 


ence  has  likewise  been  made  to  its  adult  coloration.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
ringed  seal  differs  from  the  common  seal  by  its  more  slender  form,  longer  limbs  and 
tail,  narrower  head,  and  more  pointed  nose.  The  ringed  seal  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  occasionally  visiting  the  British 
Islands;  but  it  may  be  regarded  as  pre-eminently  boreal,  its  true  home  being  the  icy 
Arctic  seas.  Its  favorite  resorts  are  stated  to  be  sheltered  bays  and  fjords,  in  which 
it  remains  so  long  as  they  are  filled  with  solid  ice;  but  when  this  breaks  up  the  seals 
betake  themselves  to  ice  floes,  upon  which  the  young  are  born  in  the  months  of 
March  and  April.  The  ringed  seal  is  not  a  migratory  species,  and  in  some  localities 


730  THE   CARNIVORES 

is  found  in  considerable  numbers.  It  is  one  of  those  seals  which  make  a  circular 
"blowhole"  in  the  ice,  through  which  they  can  ascend  or  descend  at  pleasure; 
such  apertures  being  made  while  the  ice  is  forming. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  ringed  seal  are  the  Baikal  seal  (P.  sibirica)  and  the  Caspian 
seal  (P.  caspica),  which  are  respectively  confined  to  the  inland  seas  from  which 
they  take  their  names.  Both  these  seals  are  rather  larger  than  the  ringed 
seal,  and  are  very  similar  to  one  another.  Their  especial  interest  is  derived 
from  their  habitat;  the  Baikal  seal  inhabiting  a  fresh-water  lake,  while  the  waters 
in  which  the  Caspian  seal  dwells  are  but  slightly  salt.  The  curious  part  of  the 
matter  is  that  neither  lake  Baikal  nor  the  Caspian  Sea  appear  to  have  had  any 
recent  connection  with  the  Arctic  Ocean;  and  if,  as  is  most  probably  the  case  with 
the  latter,  we  have  to  look  to  a  former  connection  with  the  ocean  to  the  southward, 
it  becomes  difficult  to  see  whence  came  the  stock  from  which  these  two  allied  species 
were  derived.  Mr.  Allen  has  suggested,  however,  that  the  ringed,  the  Baikal,  and 
the  Caspian  seal  may  all  be  descended  from  an  allied  extinct  species  whose  remains 
are  found  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Belgium. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  bearded  seal  (P.  barbata),  which  is  distinguished  from  all 
the  other  members  of  the  genus  by  its  superior  size,  its  broad  muzzle  and  convex 
forehead,  as  well  as  by  its  small  and  weak  teeth,  some  of  which  generally  fall  out 
in  the  adult.  Moreover;  the  front  nipper  differs  from  that  of  all  the  other  species  in 
having  the  third  or  middle  digit  longer  than  the  rest;  whereas  in  the  other  species 
the  digits  decrease  in  size  from  the  first  or  first  and  second  together.  The 
color  of  the  bearded  seal  is  some  shade  of  gray,  darker  on  the  middle  of 
the  back  than  elsewhere,  but  varying  considerably  in  different  individuals. 
In  distribution  the  bearded  seal  is  circumpolar  and  almost  exclusively  boreal, 
its  only  migration  in  winter  being  that  due  to  the  extension  of  the  unbroken 
ice  fields,  by  which  it  is  compelled  to  move  somewhat  to  the  southward.  On 
the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic  this  seal  extends  as  far  as  Labrador,  but 
not  apparently  down  to  Newfoundland.  It  is  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Green- 
land, but  in  Europe  does  not  appear  to  occur  further  south  than  Iceland  and  the 
North  Sea. 

The  bearded  seal  is  by  far  the  largest  of  all  the  northern  seals,  full-grown  males 
being  said  to  attain  a  length  of  about  ten  feet.  An  adult  female  skeleton,  measured 
by  Mr.  Allen,  had  a  length  of  seven  feet  two  inches.  The  species  is  said  to  be 
nowhere  abundant,  and  is  more  or  less  solitary  in  its  habits,  never  congregating  in 
large  herds.  It  is  fond  of  basking  upon  large  pieces  of  floating  ice,  and  generally 
keeps  well  out  to  sea;  and  upon  such  occasions  is  easily  approached  and  killed  by 
the  Eskimos.  A  distinctive  peculiarity  of  this  species  is  its  habit  of  turning  a 
complete  somersault  when  about  to  dive,  especially  when  fired  at.  The  skin 
is  thicker  than  that  of  any  other  northern  seal,  and  is  consequently  valued  by 
the  Eskimos,  who  employ  it  in  making  their  harpooning  lines.  Its  flesh  and 
blubber  are  stated  to  be  more  delicate  in  flavor  than  those  of  other  species.  Owing 
to  its  comparative  rarity,  the  bearded  seal  is  of  no  commercial  importance;  the 
total  annual  number  caught  some  years  ago  in  Greenland  not  exceeding  one 
thousand. 


THE  MONK-SEAL  731 

r"' 

THE   MONK-SEAL 
Genus    Monachus 

The  monk-seal  {Monachus  albiventer}  belongs  to  a  group  differing  from  the  pre- 
ceding by  having  but  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws; 
and  also  by  the  first  and  fifth  toes  of  the  hind-feet  being  much  longer  than  the 
others,  and  having  their  claws  either  rudimentary  or  absent.  With  the  exception 
of  the  first  in  each  jaw,  the  cheek-teeth  are  implanted  by  double  roots;  and  the  total 
number  of  teeth  is  thirty-two,  against  the  thirty-four  of  the  last  group.  The  monk- 
seal  is  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  group  by  the  characteristics  of 
its  cheek-teeth;  these  being  large,  hollowed  on  the  inner  side,  and  marked  with  a 
prominent  ring  at  the  base,  while  the  cusps  on  either  side  of  the  main  cusp  are  very 
small.  Moreover,  the  claws  on  all  the  toes  are  small  and  rudimentary.  The  fur  is 
short,  and  is  dark  brown  mingled  with  gray  on  the  upper  parts,  and  whitish 
beneath.  Full-grown  males  attain  a  length  of  from  seven  to  eight  feet  or  more. 

Together  with  its  ally  the  West-Indian  seal  (M.  tropicalis),  the 
monk-seal  is  the  only  species  of  the  family  inhabiting  the  warmer 
seas;  it  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas,  and  on  the  coasts  of  the 
neighboring  portions  of  the  Atlantic,  extending  to  Medeira  and  the  Canary  islands. 
Although  but  little  is  known  of  its  habits  in  a  wild  state,  the  monk-seal  is  very 
readily  tamed,  and  is  the  species  which  used  to  be  exhibited  in  England  as  the 
"talking-fish." 

The  closely-allied  West-Indian  seal  is  of  nearly  the  same  color  as 
the  monk-seal  in  the  adult  state,  but  the  young  are  of  a  deep  glossy 
black.  This  species  is  interesting  from  its  restricted  distribution,  and 
the  prospect  of  its  impending  extermination.  Although  discovered  as  far  back  as  the 
year  1494  by  the  flotilla  of  Columbus,  when  cruising  in  the  West  Indies,  this  seal, 
up  to  the  year  1883,  was  represented 'in  scientific  collections  only  by  a  single  skin 
sent  to  the  British  Museum  in  1846  by  Mr.  P.  H.  Gosse.  In  the  year  1687,  when 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  visited  the  Bahamas,  these  seals  were  extraordinarily  abundant, 
the  sealers  sometimes  killing  as  many  as  a  hundred  in  a  single  night.  In  less  than 
two  centuries  they  had,  however,  become  exterminated  from  most  of  their  former 
liaunts,  although  some  were  known  to  remain  on  the  rocky  islands  of  Pedro  Keys, 
to  the  southward  of  Jamaica.  In  1886,  as  Mr.  F.  A.  Lucas  tells  us,  a  vessel  visited 
three  small  islands  lying  between  Yucatan  and  Florida,  known  as  the  Triangles, 
with  the  hope  of  finding  a  colony  of  these  seals.  In  this  hope  the  expedition  was 
not  disappointed,  upward  of  forty  specimens  being  secured  before  the  vessel  was 
compelled  to  put  back  from  stress  of  weather.  We  are  not  told  how  many  of  these 
seals  were  then  remaining  on  the  islands. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  seals  of  this  group  have  the  first  and 
fifth  toes  of  the  hind-feet  much  longer  than  the  others,  and  since  this  is  a  charac- 
teristic which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  eared  seals,  it  is  interesting  to  learn 
that  the  West-Indian  seal  has  the  power  of  bringing  the  hind-feet  forward  to  a 
certain  extent  when  on  land  by  curving  the  body  upward.  When  straightening 


732 


THE   CARNIVORES 


itself  the  creature  pitches  ahead  on    its    breast,  advancing  about  a  foot  by  the 
operation. 

THE  LEOPARD-SEAL 


SKUI.I,    OF    LEOPARD-SEAI,. 


Genus    Ogmorhinus 

The   leopard-seal   {Ogmorhinus  leptonyx}    may   be   taken   as  the   best-known 

representative  of  four  genera 
confined  to  the  Southern 
and  Antarctic  seas,  and 
each  containing  but  a  single 
species.  These  seals  differ 
from  the  monk  -  seal  by  cer- 
tain characteristics  of  their 
skulls,  and  are  likewise  dis- 
tinguished from  that  species 
and  from  one  another  by  the 
form  of  their  cheek-teeth. 
The  leopard-seal  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  sea-leopard  is  distinguished  by  the 
great  length  of  its  skull,  and  by  the  cheek-teeth  consisting  of  three  large  and  dis- 
tinct cusps.  The  middle  and  largest  of  these  cusps  has  its  tip  slightly  inclined  back- 
ward, while  the  summits  of  the  two  smaller  cusps  are  curved  toward  the  middle 
one.  Adult  males  of  this  species  attain  a  length  of  as  much  as  twelve  feet.  Mose- 
ley  describes  these  animals  as  much  resembling  the  common  seal  in  coloration;  the 
short  and  glossy  fur  being  spotted  yellowish  white  and  dark  gray  on  the  back,  and 
the  under  surface  of  a  general  yellowish  color.  The  females  are  usually  darker  than 
the  males,  in  which  the  ground  color  of  the  fur  is  often  of  a  silvery  gray. 

The  leopard-seal  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  Southern,  Temperate, 
and  Antarctic  seas,  having  been  recorded  from  the  coasts  of  New 
Zealand,  Australia,  and  the  adjacent  islands,  from  the  Falkland  islands,  Kerguelen 
Land,  and  the  shores  of  Patagonia,  and  being  also  found  on  the  pack  ice  in  the 
Antarctic  Ocean.  It  does  not  appear  to  be  migratory,  and  is  sometimes  found  on 
the  ice  or  on  islands  in  considerable  herds.  In  Kerguelen  Land  it  was  still  pretty 
common  at  the  date  of  the  visit  of  the  Challenger,  a  herd  estimated  at  four  hundred 
in  number  being  reported  on  one  of  the  small  islands  adjacent. 

The  first  of  the  remaining  members  of  this  group  is  the  crab-eating 
seal  (Lobodon  cartinophaga)  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  It  is  of  a  nearly 
uniform  olive  color  above,  with  the  sides  of  the  face  and  the  under 
parts  yellowish  white,  and  sometimes  a  few  light-colored  spots  on  the  flanks.  The 
cheek-teeth  are  even  more  complex  than  those  of  the  leopard-seal,  having  one  cusp 
in  front  of  the  large  main  cusp,  and  from  one  to  three  distinct  cusps  behind  the  lat- 
ter. The  claws  are  entirely  wanting  on  the  hind-feet.  Practically  nothing  is 
known  of  the  habits  of  this  species. 


Distribution 


Crab-Eating 
Seal 


THE   CRESTED   SEAL  733 

w  dd  11'  S  1  Weddell's  seal  (Leptonychotfs  weddelli}  is  (-another  Antarctic 
species,  distinguished  by  the  teeth  having  simple  conical  and  some- 
what compressed  crowns,  without  additional  fore-and-aft  cusps.  It  was  originally 
obtained  from  the  Southern  Orkneys,  but  has  also  been  obtained  from  Patagonia 
and  the  Antarctic  pack  ice.  The  general  color  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  leopard- 
seal,  being  pale  grayish  above,  spotted  with  yellowish  white  on  the  back,  and 
yellowish  beneath.  The  jaw  is  weaker  and  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  are  larger  than 
in  the  leopard-seal. 

The  last  of  these  four  southern  species  is  Ross's  seal  (Ommatophoca 
Ross's  Seal 

rossi ) ,  long  known  by  two  skulls  and  a  single  skin  obtained  from  the 

Antarctic  pack  ice  during  the  voyage  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror  in  the  years 
1839-1843,  and  appropriately  named  after  the  commander  of  that  expedition.  The 
fur  is  rough  and  coarse,  with  general  greenish-yellow  color,  .marked  with  oblique 
yellow  stripes  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  paler  on  the  under  parts.  There  are  no 
claws  on  the  hind-feet,  and  but  very  small  ones  in  front.  The  skull  is  character- 
ized by  the  immense  capacity  of  the  sockets  of  the  eyes,  and  also  by  the  small  size 
of  the  teeth.  The  cheek-teeth  have  very  small  fore-and-aft  cusps. 

One  of  the  two  known  skulls  of  this  seal  is  peculiar  in  that,  while  on  one  side 
the  first  upper  cheek-tooth  and  both  the  corresponding  lower  teeth  are  imperfectly 
divided  by  a  vertical  groove,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  upper  jaw  the  place  of  this 
tooth  is  taken  by  two  complete  simple  teeth.  Hence,  it  is  obvious  that  we  have  here 
a  case  where  an  originally  single  tooth  divides  into  two  distinct  but  simpler  teeth. 
This  may  not  at  first  sight  seem  a  fact  of  much  importance;  but  in  reality  it  serves 
to  show  how  the  numerous  simple  teeth  characteristic  of  the  toothed  whales  may 
have  been  derived  by  the  splitting  up  of  teeth  originally  composed  of  three  distinct 
cusps  like  those  of  the  leopard-seal;  each  cusp  of  such  a  tooth  forming,  as  we  shall 
see,  a  distinct  tooth  in  the  whales. 


THE  CRESTED  SEAI, 
Genus  Cystophora 

The  remarkable-looking  animal  represented  in  the  illustration  on  the  next  page, 
and  commonly  known  as  the  crested,  hooded,  or  bladder-seal  (Cystophora  cristata), 
is  at  once  distinguished  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  family  by  the  casque-like 
prominence  crowning  the  fore  part  of  the  head.  This  seal,  together  with  the 
under-mentioned  elephant-seal,  differs  from  all  the  species  yet  noticed  in  having  but 
thirty  teeth,  owing  to  the  reduction  of  the  incisors  to  two  pairs  in  the  upper,  and 
to  one  pair  in  the  lower  jaw.  In  both  the  cheek-teeth  are  small  and  simple,  with, 
in  general,  but  a  single  root  each;  and  in  the  males  of  both  the  nose  is  furnished 
with  an  appendage  which  can  be  inflated  at  will.  Moreover,  the  first  and  fifth  toes 
of  the  hind-feet  are  considerably  longer  than  the  three  middle  ones,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  long  lobes  projecting  in  advance  of  the  rudimentary  claws,  or  the  posi- 
tion which  these  should  occupy. 


734 


THE  CARNIVORES 


In  the  crested  seal  the  appendage  on  the  nose  takes  the  form  of  a  large  sac> 
which  is  in  communication  with  the  nostrils,  and  when  inflated  covers  the  head  as 
far  back  as  the  eye;  but  the  female  has  no  trace  of  this  appendage,  which  does  not 
make  its  appearance  in  the  male  till  a  considerable  time  after  birth.  The  hind-feet 
of  this  species  are  provided  with  small  claws;  and  the  last  cheek-tooth  generally  has 
two  roots.  The  ground  color  of  the  fur  is  bluish  black,  becoming  lighter  on  the 
flanks  and  under  parts,  and  marked  with  small  irregular  whitish  spots;  the  head  and 
limbs  being  uniformly  black.  Sometimes,  however,  the  ground  color  is  light  gray- 


SEAI,. 
(One-twentieth  natural  size.) 

ish  white,  varied  with  dark  brown  or  blackish  spots.  The  woolly  fur  of  the  newly- 
born  young  is  pure  white.  In  size,  full-grown  males  of  this  seal  vary  from  seven 
and  one-half  to  eight  feet  in  total  length;  females  measuring  about  seven  feet.  The 
skull  is  very  short  and  broad;  and  the  bony  partition  dividing  the  nostrils  is  pro- 
duced above  the  level  of  their  margin  in  order  to  support  the  sac.  This  seal  is 
restricted  to  the  colder  regions  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  certain  portions  of  the  Arc- 
tic Sea;  its  range  extending  from  Greenland  eastward  to  Spitzbergen,  and  thence 
along  the  northern  coast  of  Europe.  Southward  these  seals  are  but  seldom  found 
below  Norway  on  the  one  side,  and  Newfoundland  on  the  other. 


LJ 

CD 

I 

Q 

cr 
< 

Q_ 
CD 


THE    ELEPHANT-SEAL 


735 


Habits 


In  habits  the  crested  seal  is  essentially  migratory  and  pelagic,  trav- 
eling south  in  winter,  and  always  preferring  the  drift  ice  of  the  open 
sea  to  the  neighborhood  of  land;  indeed,  it  very  seldom,  if  ever,  resorts  to  the  shores 
or  even  to  outlying  rocks.  Compared  with  the  Greenland  seal,  the  present  species 
is  a  comparatively  rare  one,  and  is  nowhere  met  with  in  large  numbers,  although 
apparently  more  numerous  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  than  in  most  of  its  haunts. 
Although  at  times  the  sexes  are  said  to  live  apart,  they  usually  associate  together  in 
family  parties  or  small  herds  during  the  breeding  season,  previous  to  which  the  males 
engage  in  fierce  contests  for  the  possession  of  the  females.  While  these  fights  are 
going  on,  the  males  utter  cries  which  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  several  miles. 
The  young  are  born  on  the  ice,  far  away  from  land,  during  March;  and  in  defense 
of  their  offspring  both  parents  will  lose  their  own  lives  rather  than  escape  by  flight. 
In  disposition,  the  crested  seal  is  much  fiercer  and  bolder  than  any  of  the  other 
members  of  the  family;  and  it  will  not  unfrequently  turn  upon  its  aggressor,  so  that 
its  pursuit  in  the  frail  kayaks,  or  canoes,  of  the  Eskimo  is  attended  with  a  consider- 
able share  of  danger,  the  protection  afforded  to  the  head  by  the  inflated  sac  render- 
ing the  males  difficult  to  kill  in  the  ordinary  manner  by  means  of  clubs.  What  is 
the  precise  use  of  the  appendage  in  question  has  not  yet  been  fully  determined;  but 
from  its  presence  in  the  males  only  it  may  be  inferred  to  be  a  sexual  feature  analo- 
gous to  the  antlers  of  the  deer.  It  was  estimated  some  years  ago  that  the  total  num- 
ber of  these  seals  annually  killed  in  Greenland  did  not  exceed  3,000.  In  addition  to 
fish,  the  crested  seal  feeds  largely  upon  cuttles  and  squids. 


THE  ELEPHANT-SEAL 
Genus  Macrorhinus 

In  the  elephant-seal  or  sea-elephant  {Macrorhinus  leonmus)  the  appendage  on 
the  nose  of  the  male  takes  the  form 
of  a  short  proboscis,  which,  though 
generally  hanging  in  a  limp  condi- 
tion, can  be  expanded  and  dilated 
at  the  will  of  its  owner.  The  end 
of  this  proboscis  is  obliquely  trun- 
cated, and  penetrated  by  the  nos- 
trils, and  the  whole  organ  communi- 
cates a  most  peculiar  and  almost 
ridiculous  physiognomy  to  the 
animal.  The  female,  however,  re- 
sembles an  ordinary  seal  in  the 
form  of  the  head.  The  teeth  (which 
are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
woodcut)  are  very  small  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  head;  those  of  the  cheek-series  being  of  simpler  struc- 
ture than  in  the  crested  seal,  and  each  inserted  only  by  a  single  root.  In  the  hind- 


THE  UPPER  TEETH  OF  THE  ELEPHANT-SEA!,. 

The  two  on  the  right  are  the  incisors,  the  next  the  tusk,  and 
the  five  small  ones  to  the  left  the  cheek-teeth.— After  Sir  W.  H. 
Flower. 


736  THE   CARNIVORES 

feet  the  claws  are  wanting,    and   their  first  and  fifth  toes  are  longer  in  proportion 
to  the  others   than  is   the  case  with  the  crested  seal. 

The  elephant-seal  is  the  largest  of  all  the  pinnipeds,  not  even  excluding  the 
walrus,  adult  males  attaining  a  length  of  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  feet  to  the  end  of 
the  body,  or,  reckoning  from  the  tip  of  the  trunk  to  the  extremities  of  the  out- 
stretched flippers,  a  length  of  twenty  or  twenty-two  feet.  When  in  good  condition 
the  girth  of  an  old  male  will  be  as  much  as  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet,  while  the  yield 
of  oil  from  such  an  animal  will  reach  210  gallons.  The  females  are  much  smaller, 
not  exceeding  nine  or  ten  feet  in  total  length.  The  general  color  of  the  coarse  and 
short  fur  is  gray,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  blackish  or  olive  tinge,  darker  on  the 
upper  than  on  the  under  parts. 

The  typical  elephant-seal  formerly  inhabited  many  of  the  islands  in 
the  South  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans,  as  well  as  those  in  the 
Antartic  Sea;  some  of  its  favorite  haunts  being  Juan  Fernandez,  the  Falkland  is- 
lands, Kergueleu  Land,  New  Georgia,  the  South  Shetlands,  and  Tristan  da  Cunha. 
In  such  places,  during  the  earlier  portions  of  this  century  and  in  the  preceding  one, 
these  animals  were  met  with  in  enormous  herds,  as  described  in  the  accounts  of  the 
voyages  of  Cook,  Peron,  and  Anson.  Northward  the  elephant-seal  reaches  Pata- 
gonia, and  extends  some  distance  up  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  but  how 
far  does  not  seem  to  be  clearly  ascertained,  although  it  certainly  stops  short  of  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn.  When,  however,  we  have  crossed  the  Equator  and  reached 
some  distance  north  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  elephant-seals  are,  or  were,  once  more 
met  with  between  latitude  25°  and  35°  on  the  coast  of  California.  The  difference 
between  the  Antartic  and  California  elephant-seals  is  very  slight  indeed;  and  it  ap- 
pears that  the  chief  reason  that  the  American  naturalists  have  for  regarding  them  as 
distinct  species  is  their  isolated  habitats.  It  may  be  that  the  area  between  these  two 
habitats  was  once  occupied  by  these  seals,  but  the  suggestion  that  the  Californian 
race  took  origin  from  a  few  individuals  that  succeeded  in  crossing  the  tropical  zone 
appears  the  more  probable  view,  as  it  seems  difficult  to  believe  the  same  species 
should  inhabit  both  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  the  Equatorial  seas.  In  any  case,  the 
Californian  elephant-seal,  whatever  its  origin,  and  whether  it  be  a  distinct  species 
or  only  a  local  race  of  its  Antarctic  cousin,  is,  from  a  distributional  point  of  view,  of 
considerable  interest,  and  its  extermination,  which,  if  not  actually  accomplished, 
must  be  imminent,  cannot  fail  to  be  a  source  of  regret. 

In  the  southern  seas  the  elephant-seals  have  long  since  been  practi- 
cally exterminated  from  the  Falkland  islands;  and,  at  the  time  of  the 
visit  of  the  Challenger,  Moseley  states  that,  while  elephant-seals  had  completely  dis- 
appeared from  Tristan  da  Cunha,  they  were  still  to  be  met  with  in  Marian  island, 
were  comparatively  numerous  in  Kerguelen  Land,  and  on  the  neighboring  Heard' s 
island  occurred  in  thousands.  After  mentioning  an  encounter  with  a  male  on 
Kerguelen  island,  when  the  animal  assumed  a  threatening  attitude,  and  raised  its 
tail  nearly  to  the  level  of  its  head,  as  depicted  in  Anson' s  voyage,  Professor  Moseley 
goes  on  to  state  that,  on  the  more  exposed  side  of  Heard's  island,  "  there  is  an  ex- 
tensive beach,  called  Long  Beach.  This  is  covered  over  with  thousands  of  sea- 
elephants  in  the  breeding  season,  but  it  is  only  accessible  by  land,  and  then  only  by 


SEAL   HUNTING  737 

crossing  two  glaciers.  No  boat  can  live  to  land  on  this  shore,  consequently  men  are 
stationed  on  the  beach,  and  live  there  in  huts ;  and  their  duty  is  constantly  to  drive 
the  sea-elephants  from  this  beach  into  the  sea,  which  they  do  with  whips  made  of 
the  hide  of  the  seals  themselves.  The  beasts  thus  ousted  swim  off,  and  often  '  haul 
up,'  as  the  term  is,  upon  the  accessible  beaches  elsewhere.  In  very  stormy 
weather,  when  they  are  driven  into  the  sea,  they  are  forced  to  betake  themselves  to 
the  sheltered  side  of  the  island.  Two  or  three  old  males,  termed  'beach  masters,' 
hold  a  beach  to  themselves  and  cover  it  with  cows,  but  allow  no  other  males  to  haul 
up.  The  males  fight  furiously,  and  one  man  told  me  that  he  had  seen  an  old  male 
take  up  a  younger  one  in  his  teeth  and  throw  him  over,  lifting  him  in  the  air.  The 
males  show  fight  when  whipped,  and  are  with  great  difficulty  driven  into  the  sea. 
They  are  sometimes  treated  with  horrible  barbarity.  The  females  give  birth  to 
their  young  soon  after  their  arrival.  The  newly-born  young  are  almost  black,  unlike 
the  adults,  which  are  of  a  light  slate  brown.  They  are  suckled  by  the  female  for 
some  time,  and  then  left  to  themselves  lying  on  the  beach,  where  they  seem  to  grow 
fat  without  further  feeding.  They  are  always  allowed  by  the  sealers  thus  to  lie,  in 
order  to  make  more  oil.  This  account  was  corroborated  by  all  the  sealers  I  met  with. 
I  do  not  understand  it.  Probably  the  cows  visit  their  offspring  unobserved  from 
time  to  time.  Peron  says  that  both  parent  elephant-seals  stay  with  the  young  with- 
out feeding  at  all,  until  the  young  are  six  or  seven  weeks  old,  and  that  then  the  old 
ones  conduct  the  young  to  the  water,  and  keep  them  carefully  in  their  company. 
The  rapid  increase  in  weight  is  in  accordance  with  Peron' s  account.  Goodridge 
gives  a  somewhat  different  account,  namely,  that  after  the  females  leave  the  young, 
the  old  males  and  young  proceed  inland,  as  far  as  two  miles  sometimes,  and  stop 
without  food  for  more  than  a  month,  and  during  this  time  lose  fat.  The  male  sea- 
elephants  come  on  shore  on  the  Crozets  for  the  breeding  season  at  about  the  middle 
of  August,  the  females  a  little  later." 


SEAL  HUNTING 

Although  incidental  mention  has  been  made  here  and  there  of  the  annual  catch 
of  various  species  of  the  true  seals,  nothing  has  yet  been  said  as  to  the  various 
modes  in  which  these  animals  are  captured.  The  chief  sealing  districts,  or,  as  they 
are  technically  called,  "  sealing  grounds,"  in  the  Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  Oceans 
are  West  Greenland,  the  Newfoundland  district,  the  Jan-Mayen  seas,  Nova  Zembla 
and  the  Kara  Sea,  the  White  Sea,  and  the  Caspian.  The  most  important  of  these 
is  the  Jan-Mayen  area,  where,  as  in  all  the  other  districts  except  the  Caspian,  the 
Greenland  seal  is  the  species  mainly  hunted.  So  incessant  and  unremitting  has 
been  seal  hunting  in  the  icy  Jan-Mayen  seas  that  the  numbers  of  these  animals  have 
been  very  sensibly  diminished  ;  and  as  far  back  as  1871  attention  was  called  to  the 
necessity  of  some  stringent  regulations  being  applied  to  the  sealing  trade.  This 
was  followed  in  1876  by  an  enactment  on  the  part  of  the  British  Government  estab- 
lishing a  close  time  for  seals,  so  far  as  their  own  subjects  were  concerned  ;  and  not 
long  after  similar  action  was  taken  by  the  other  governments  interested. 
47 


;38  THE    CARNIVORES 

The  chief  sealing  trade  in  the  North  Pacific  was  the  capture  of  the  elephant- 
seals  on  the  Californian  coast  —  a  trade  which  has  of  necessity  come  to  an  end  by 
the  extermination  of  the  object  of  pursuit.  In  the  more  southern  seas  the  trade 
was  likewise  confined  to  the  capture  of  elephant-seals.  From  their  great  numerical 
abundance  and  their  large  size,  the  pursuit  of  these  animals  was  an  extremely 
lucrative  occupation  in  the  early  years  of  this  century.  Now,  however,  as  we  have 
seen,  these  seals  are  exterminated  from  most  of  their  former  haunts,  and  only  re- 
main in  any  numbers  on  Kerguelen  and  Heard's  islands,  where  they  would  also  long 
since  have  disappeared  had  it  not  been  for  the  inaccessible  nature  of  the  beaches 
they  frequent.  Consequently,  the  southern  sealing  trade  has  now  shrunk  to  an  in- 
appreciable fraction  of  its  former  volume,  although  there  is  a  prospect  of  its  being 
revived  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Antarctic  pack  ice. 

Of  the  various  methods  of  capturing  seals  in  the  northern  seas  nota- 
bly  the  oldest  is  that  of  harpooning  from  canoes,  or  kayaks,  as  now 
practiced  by  the  Eskimo.  The  kayak,  which  is  made  of  skins,  although  upward 
of  eighteen  feet  in  length,  is  so  light  as  to  be  easily  carried  in  the  hand.  In  "seal- 
ing ' '  the  victim  is  approached  within  some  twenty-five  feet,  when  the  harpoon 
is  hurled  from  a  wooden  "thrower."  The  harpoon,  in  addition  to  its  line,  is 
furnished  with  a  bladder  attached  by  another  cord,  which  marks  the  course 
of  the  seal  while  below  the  water,  and  enables  the  hunter  to  follow  its  track 
and  wound  it  with  his  lance  time  after  time  as  it  comes  to  the  surface  to  breathe, 
until  it  is  finally  dispatched.  The  lance,  it  should  be  observed,  is  thrown  from 
the  hand,  and,  after  striking  the  seal,  always  detaches  itself  and  floats  on  the 
surface. 

A  large  number  of  seals  are  also  captured  in  nets,  this  method  being 
chiefly  employed  during  the  spring  and  autumn  visits  of  the  migratory 
species  to  the  shore.  Nets  appear  to  have  been  in  use  longest  in  the  Gulf  of  Both- 
nia, the  Caspian  Sea,  and  Lake  Baikal,  where  they  are  set  either  from  the  shore  or 
beneath  the  ice.  In  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  such  nets  are  from  sixty  to  ninety  feet  in 
length,  and  about  six  feet  in  depth.  Two  of  them  are  generally  set  together  in  the 
neighborhood  of  rocks  to  which  the  seals  resort,  and  are  always  placed  to  the  lee- 
ward of  the  mainland  or  some  headland.  When  they  strike  against  the  nets,  the 
seals  thrust  their  heads  through  some  of  the  meshes,  and  by  twisting  themselves 
about  gradually  become  completely  involved.  In  the  Caspain  Sea  the  nets  are 
usually  hung  from  boats  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore.  In  Lake 
Baikal,  on  the  other  hand,  the  nets  are  let  down  through  the  breathing  holes  of  the 
seals  in  the  ice,  and  the  animals  become  entangled  on  rising. 

The  seal-box  used  in  parts  of  Scandinavia  is  a  contrivance  writh  a 
Seal-Box,  etc. 

swinging  plank,  upon  which,  when  the  seal  lands,  it  is  precipitated 

headlong  into  a  deep  pit.  Another  Scandinavian  plan  is  to  surround  a  seal-rock 
with  a  line  armed  with  a  number  of  barbed  hooks.  These  hooks  allow  the  seals  to 
land  with  impunity;  but  when  a  number  of  the  animals  are  on  the  rock,  and  through 
a  sudden  fright  rush  headlong  into  the  water,  some  of  them  are  pretty  sure  to  be 
caught.  A  third  method  employed  in  the  same  country  is  to  fix  a  harpoon  in  a 
tube,  with  a  spring-and-trigger  arrangement,  and  to  bury  the  whole  contrivance  in  a 


THE  PRIMITIVE    CARNIVORES  739 

hole  bored  in  a  seal- rock  in  such  a  manner  that  when  a  seal  presses  against  the  trig- 
ger the  weapon  will  be  discharged  into  its  body. 

A  large  number  of  seals  are  also  shot  on  the  shore  with  rifles;  and  others  fall  to 
the  harpoon  of  the  Eskimo,  who  either  steals  up  to  them  while  asleep,  or  awaits 
their  rising  at  a  breathing  hole.  When  a  large  number  of  seals  can  be  surprised  on 
shore  at  one  of  their  favorite  landing  places,  clubbing  is  resorted  to  as  the  most 
effectual  and  speedy  means  of  dispatch;  and  it  is  said  that  sometimes  as  many  as 
15,000  have  been  killed  in  this  manner  in  one  night. 

T          The  above  methods  apply  only  to  sealing  on  or  near  the  shore;  but 
turc  on  ice 

Floes  f°r  tfle  capture  of  seals  on  the  ice  floes  at  long  distances  from  land, 
vessels  of  some  kind  have  to  be  especially  equipped.  In  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  these  expeditions  are  or  were  carried  out  in  open  boats,  each  manned  by 
eight  sailors;  but  in  the  Newfoundland  and  Jan-Mayeu  seas  steamers  of  considerable 
size  are  now  employed.  When  the  seals  are  found  on  the  ice,  they  are  killed  in  the 
same  way  as  on  shore,  that  is,  either  by  shooting,  harpooning,  or  clubbing, 
p  d  The  most  valuable  product  of  the  sealing  industry  is  the  oil,  which 

is  used  both  for  lighting  and  for  lubricating  machinery.  Writing  in 
1880,  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  states  that  the  total  annual  quantity  of  seal  oil  then  obtained 
reached  close  on  90,000  barrels.  Next  in  value  to  the  oil  are  the  skins,  which  are 
manufactured  into  leather  of  various  sorts;  a  large  number  being  used  for  lacquered 
leather.  To  the  northern  tribes  seals  are  all  important,  furnishing  not  only  the 
greater  part  of  their  food,  but  likewise  most  of  the  materials  from  which  their  boats 
and  sledges  are  made,  as  well  as  their  clothes  and  their  hunting  implements. 


THE   PRIMITIVE   CARNIVORES 

No  account  of  the  Carnivores  would  be  complete  without  some  reference,  how- 
ever brief,  to  a  number  of  peculiar  species  occurring  in  the  Miocene  and  Eocene 
formations  of  Europe  and  America,  which  differ  so  remarkably  from  all  living  ter- 
restrial representatives  of  the  order,  as  to  render  it  imperative  to  refer  them  to  a 
totally  distinct  group.  These  extinct  primitive,  or,  as  they  are  technically  called, 
Creodont  Carnivores,  differ  from  modern  land  Carnivores  in  the  absence  of  a  distinct 
flesh-tooth  in  either  jaw;  all  the  molar  teeth  of  each  jaw  being  constructed  on  the 
same  plan,  and  the  whole  of  those  in  the  lower  jaw  being  frequently  like  the  single 
flesh-tooth  of  other  Carnivores.  As  a  rule,  the  crowns  of  the  upper  molar  teeth  are 
triangular  in  form,  and  of  the  type  noticed  on  p.  344  in  the  first  volume.  And 
whereas  in  all  existing  Carnivores  the  two  bones  in  the  upper  row  of  the  wrist  tech- 
nically known  as  the  scaphoid  and  lunar,  are  completely  welded  together,  in  nearly 
all  the  Creodonts  they  remain  quite  distinct.  These  and  other  characteristics  indi- 
cate that  these  primitive  Carnivores  are  a  much  more  generalized  group  than  the 
modern  land  Carnivores,  of  which  they  may  have  been  the  direct  ancestors.  More- 
over, the  teeth  of  many  of  these  extinct  forms  are  so  like  those  of  the  carnivorous 
Marsupials  (although  agreeing  generally  in  number  with  the  modern  carnivorous 
type,  as  exemplified  by  some  of  the  dogs),  that  there  is  considerable  probability 


740  THE   CARNIVORES 

that  in  these  animals  we  have  a  direct  connecting  link  between  the  Marsupials  and 
the  existing  land  Carnivores.  The  best-known  representatives  of  this  group  in 
Europe  have  been  described  under  the  names  of  Hyanodon  and  Pterodon;  and  while 
some  of  the  species  were  no  larger  than  a  fox,  others  attained  dimensions  nearly  or 
fully  equal  to  those  of  a  brown  bear.  There  is  little  doubt  that  from  some  of  these 
primitive  Carnivores  —  and  more  especially  the  North- American  forms  known  as 
Miacis  —  the  majority  of  the  existing  land  Carnivores  are  descended.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  an  American  and  European  genus  known  as  Palceonictis  shows  a  remark- 
able gradation  in  the  structure  of  its  teeth  toward  the  cats;  although  it  is  rather 
difficult  to  believe  that  the  cats  are  directly  derived  from  this  primitive  form. 


CHAPTER    XX 
THE   UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS  —  ORDER  UNGULATA 


THE   HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS 
Family  BOVID^ 

IF  WE  accept  the  bats,  in  which  the  outermost  fingers  of  the  wings  are  clawless, 
and  some  of  the  seals  and  their  allies,  the  whole  of  the  Mammals  described  in  the 
preceding  chapters  are  characterized  by  having  the  digits  of  both  the  fore  and  hind- 
limbs  provided  either  with  claws  or  with  thin  nails.  Moreover,  in  the  greater 
number  of  instances,  the  fore-limbs  themselves  are  endowed  to  a  larger  or  smaller 
degree  with  the  power  of  free  movement  in  several  directions;  these  movements  be- 
ing displayed  to  the  fullest  degree  among  the  Primates,  where  the  hand  can  be  ro- 
tated upon  the  fore-arm,  although  they  are  also  well  developed  in  the  Cat  family. 
Then,  again,  the  number  of  digits  in  the  great  majority  of  these  animals  is  five  on 
either  one  or  both  pairs  of  limbs,  and  in  no  instance  is  it  less  than  four.  Further,  the 
crowns  of  their  cheek-teeth  are  never  complicated  by  vertical  and  lateral  infoldings 
of  the  enamel,  so  as  to  produce  when  worn  down  an  elaborate  pattern. 

The  Ungulate,  or  Hoofed  Mammals,  such  as  cattle,  deer,  camels,  swine,  horses, 
tapirs,  rhinoceroses,  and  elephants,  of  which  we  have  now  to  treat,  differ  in  many 
important  respects  from  the  above.  Thus,  while  no  existing  member  of  the  order 
has  the  feet  provided  with  claws,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  toes  are  inclosed 
in  solid  hoofs,  although  in  a  few  instances  they  are  furnished  with  broad  and  flat 
nails.  Then,  again,  the  movements  of  the  fore-limbs  are  mainly  or  entirely  re- 
stricted to  a  backward  and  forward  motion,  and  in  no  case  can  the  fore-foot  be  rotated 
on  the  fore-leg.  Many  extinct  forms  had  four  or  five  functional  and  well-developed 
digits  to  the  limbs,  but  in  all  living  members  of  the  order,  except  the  elephants, 
there  are  never  more  than  four  functional  digits;  and  in  a  large  number  of  instances 
these  functional  digits  are  reduced  to  two,  or  more  rarely  three  in  number.  'Some 
species,  like  the  giraffe,  have,  indeed,  but  two  digits  to  each  foot,  while  in  the  horse 
and  its  living  allies  only  a  single  digit  remains. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  assumed  from  the  last  sentence  that  the 
Un  ulates  toes  are  gradually  reduced  from  three  to  two,  and  from  two  to  one; 
the  fact  really  being  that  the  reduction  takes  place  along  two  different 
lines,  in  one  of  which  the  number  is  diminished  from  four  to  two,  and  in  the  other 
from  three  to  one.     As  it  is  of  primary  importance,  in  order  to  understand  the  re- 
lationship of  existing  Ungulates  to  one  another,  to  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  manner 
in  which  this  reduction  of  the  digits  takes  place,  the  subject  may  be  dealt  with  in 
some  detail.     In  all  the  Ungulates  the  limbs  have  entirely  ceased  to  be  used  as  or- 
gans of  prehension,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  no  necessity  why  there  should  be 

(740 


742 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


any  adherence  to  the  primitive  five-toed  type,  as  develop- 
ment advances.  The  majority  of  the  members  of-  the  order 
being,  however,  unable  to  protect  themselves  against  foes, 
and  being  also,  in  proportion  to  their  height,  heavy-bodied 
animals,  the  attainment  of  a  high  degree  of  speed  was  essen- 
tial to  their  well-being  and  development,  if  not  for  their 
actual  existence.  For  such  a  kind  of  life  it  will  be  obvious 
that  the  greater  the  length  and  slenderness  of  limb,  the 

BONES  OF  THE  LEFT  greater  will  at  first  sight  be  the  speed.  Now,  in  order  to 
WRIST  AND  FORE-FOOT  produce  a  long  and  slender,  and  at  the  same  time  a  strong 
OF  THE  CORYPHODON.  limb)  from  a  ^Q^  and  shOrt-toed  one,  greater  strength  will 

(One-fourth  natural  size.)  ,  ,  »«••••'.«.«.  u  r  ^t.  j 

clearly  be  attained  by  reducing  the  number  or  the  toes,  and 

The  letters  indicate  the  bones 

of  the  wrist  (cuneiform,  lunar  lengthening  and  strengthening  those  which  remain,  rather 

scaphoid,  trapezium, trapezoid,  .  ',,          -  . ,        ,,  ,,111 

magnum,  unciform),  and  the   than  by  lengthening  the  whole  of  the  five  toes,  the  slender 

pr-Af'ter  osebornhemetacar"   bones  of  which  would  be  liable  to  fracture  by  the  concussion 

of  the  solid  hoofs  against  the  ground.     Accordingly,  among 

the  Ungulates,  the  plan  has  been  to  gradually  lengthen  and  strengthen  the  bones  of 
one  or  more  of  the  original  five  toes,  and  at  the  same  time  to  dispense  more  or  less 

\  completely  with  the  others.  In  almost  the  low- 
est Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe  and  North  America 
there  occur,  for  instance,  the  remains  of  certain 
large  Ungulates,  known  as  coryphodons,  in 
which  both  the  fore  and  hind-feet  (as  represented 
in  the  accompanying  figure)  have  five  complete 
toes.  It  will  be  observed  that  both  the  meta- 
carpal  bones  and  the  toe  bones  by  which  they 
are  succeeded  are  very  short;  and  these  animals 
must  accordingly  have  walked  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent upon  the  soles  of  their  feet  in  the  old- 
fashioned  plantigrade  manner.*  It  will  also  be 
noticed  that  the  third  or  middle  toe  (in)  is 
larger  than  either  of  the  others,  and  symmet- 
rical in  itself.  Another  feature  of  this  type  of 

foot  is  that  the  component  bones  forming  the  two  horizontal  rows  of  the  wrist  are 
placed  almost  vertically  one  above  another,  the  bone  lettered  /  merely  touching  the 
adjacent  angle  of  the  one  marked  u. 

When  we  ascend  to  the  overlying  Miocene  Tertiary  deposits  we  meet  with 
other  large  Ungulates  having  a  foot  of  the  type  of  that  shown  in  our  second  figure, 
where  it  will  be  noticed  that  while  all  trace  of  the  first  toe  (i)  has  disappeared,  the 
metacarpal  bones  of  all  the  others  have  become  very  much  more  elongated,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  animal  no  longer  walked  upon  the  soles  of  its  feet,  but 
entirely  upon  the  toes,  or  was,  in  other  words,  digitigrade.  It  will  also  be  observed 
that  the  third  toe  has  become  still  larger  in  proportion  to  the  others.  Moreover, 
the  upper  row  of  wrist  bones  appears  to  have  been  slided  over  those  of  the  lower 

*As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  coryphodon  was  partially  digitigrade  in  its  fore-feet,  but  entirely  plantigrade  114 
the  hinder  ones. 


BONES  OF  THE  LEFT  WRIST  AND   FOOT 
OF  THE  TITANOTHERE. 

(One-eighth  natural  size.) 
(After   Osborn.) 


THE  HOLLOW-HORNED   RUMINANTS 


743 


LIKE   ANIMAL. 


row  toward  the  fifth  toe,  so  that  the  bone  marked  /  largely  overlaps  the  one  lettered 
u;  and  it  will  be  obvious  that  this  interlocking  of  the  bones  of  the  wrist  produces  a 
joint  much  more  capable  of  resisting  strain  than  is  that  of  the  coryphodon.  The 
hind-foot  of  the  titanothere,  as  the  extinct  Ungulate  we  are  now  considering  is 
called,  exhibits  a  still  further  advance,  having  lost  the  fifth  as  well  as  the  first  toe, 
and  thus  being  three  toed.  The  living  tapirs  are  in  a  precisely 
similar  condition,  being  four  toed  in  front  and  three  toed  behind; 
but  the  rhinoceroses  have  advanced  one  step  still  further,  having 
but  three  toes  both  in  front  and  behind. 

In  the  foot  of  the  titanothere,  while  the  bones  of  the  meta- 
carpus have  become  longer  than  in  the  coryphodon,  the  toe  bones 
still  remain  as  short  as  in  the  latter;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with 
the  rhinoceroses.  All  these  are,  indeed,  bulky  animals,  fitted  for 
dwelling  in  swampy  localities,  and  not  specially  adapted  for  speed. 
In  another  group,  however,  as  shown  in  our  third  figure,  the  toe  LEFT  FORE  -FOOT 
bones  themselves  have  become  elongated,  while  the  metacarpal  OF  A  THREE- 
bones  are  still  longer  and  more  slender.  In  the  feet  represented  in 
our  third  and  fourth  figures  the  middle  or  third  toe  is  very  much 
larger  than  either  of  the  others;  but  whereas  in  the  one  the  fifth  toe 
still  remains,  in  the  other  it  is  represented  only  by  a  rudiment  of 
the  upper  end  of  its  metacarpal  bone.  This  type  of  foot  leads  on 
to  that  of  the  extinct  three-toed  horse,  or  hipparion,  of  the  Plio- 
cene Tertiary,  shown  in  our  fifth  figure,  where  the  two  side  toes 
have  become  still  smaller,  and  the  last  trace  of  the  fifth  has  disap- 
peared. Finally,  at  the  very  top  of  the  geological  series,  we  have 
the  horse,  where  the  only  remaining  toe  is  the  third,  now  very 
large;  the  metacarpal  bones  of  the  second  and  fourth  toes  being  BONES 
represented  solely  by  the  small  splints  on  either  side  of  the  large 
metacarpal,  now  known  as  the  canon  bone. 

A  complete  transition  has  thus  been  traced  from  a  five-toed 
Ungulate,  walking  partly  on  the  soles  of  its  feet,  to  one  provided 
with  but  a  single  toe  to  each  foot,  and  walking  entirely  upon  the 
very  tip  of  that  one  toe,  by  which  means  the  full  extent  of  the 
limb  comes  into  play  as  an  aid  to  speed.  Throughout  this  series 
it  is  the  third  or  middle  toe  which  has  undergone  development  at 
the  expense  of  the  others;  and  since  this  toe  is  always  symmetrical 
in  itself,  the  term  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  is  applied  to  the  members 
of  the  group  thus  characterized. 

The  resources  of  nature  are,    however,    manifold, 

06  J"1  „  and  instead  of  this  being  the  only  line  of  evolution 
Even-Toed 

of  the  Ungulates,    nearly   similar  results  have   been 

reached  by  a  totally  different  series  of  modifications. 
Starting  once  more  from  a  foot  somewhat  similar  to  the  one  repre- 
resented  in  the  first  figure  of  this  chapter,  it  will  be  found  that  instead  of  the  third 
toe  remaining  symmetrical  in  itself  and  gradually  increasing  in  size  at  the  expense 


OF  THE 
LEFT  FORE-FOOT 
OF  A  FOUR-TOED 
HORSE- LIKE  AN- 
IMAL. 


LEFT  FORE  -FOOT 

(")T?      TTTP       HTP* 

PARION. 


744 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED   MAMMALS 


FOOT 
HORSE. 


of  the  others,  the  third  and  fourth  toes  become  symmetrical  to  a  vertical  line  drawn 
between  them.  When  this  takes  place  the  first  toe  disappears,  and  the  second  and 
fifth  become  diminished  in  size;  an  instance  of  this  stage  of  development  being 
presented  by  the  pig,  where  the  two  large  and  medially-symmetrical 
toes  represent  the  third  and  fourth  of  the  typical  series,  while  the  two 
small  lateral  ones  are  the  second  and  fifth.  In  the  pigs*  all  the  met- 
acarpal  bones  remain  distinct  and  relatively  short;  but  in  the  water- 
chevrotain  *  of  Africa  the  third  and  fourth  metacarpals  become  much 
elongated  and  closely  applied  to  one  another,  while  the  second  and 
fifth  are  reduced  to  mere  splints,  and  their  toes  so  diminished  as 
to  become  practically  functionless.  Finally,  in  the  deer,  oxen,  and 
their  allies,  the  third  and  fourth  metacarpals  in  the  fore-limb,  and 
the  corresponding  metatarsal  bones  in  the  hind-limb,  have  become  com- 
BONESOFFORE-  pletely  fused  into  a  single  rod-like  bone,  corresponding  in  function 
OF  with  the  canon  bone  of  the  horse,  and  generally  known  by  the  same 
name.  The  dual  origin  of  this  canon  bone  is,  however,  proclaimed 
by  the  formation  of  its  lower  extremity,  which  carries  two  pulley-like  surfaces,  with 

which  the  bones  of  the  two  functional  toes  (the  third  and 
fourth)  articulate. 

Since  all  the  Ungulates  displaying  this  second  modi- 
fication of  foot  structure  agree  in  having  the  third  and 
fourth  toes  arranged  symmetrically  to  a  line  drawn  be- 
tween them,  they  are  collectively  termed  the  Kven-Toed 
Ungulates. 

It  is  accordingly  evident  that  although  a  few  living 
Ungulates,  like  the  elephant  and  the  hyrax,  retain  a  gen- 
eralized type  of  foot,  the  greater  number  of  the  living 
representatives  of  the  order  are  characterized  by  their 
more  or  less  markedly  specialized  feet. 

As  regards  their  teeth,  the  Ungulates  are 
characterized  by  those  of  the  cheek  series 
having  broad  crowns,  surmounted  either  by  columns  or 
transverse  ridges,  and  adapted  for  grinding  and  masti- 
cating vegetable  substances.  In  the  more  specialized 
forms,  like  cattle  and  horses,  these  cheek-teeth  have  their 
columns  or  ridges  of  great  height  and  closely  approxi- 
mated to  one  another,  in  consequence  of  which  the  bases 
of  the  hollows,  or  valleys  by  which  these  columns  or 
ridges  are  separated  from  one  another,  cannot  be  seen 
when  the  tooth  is  unworn;  while  the  pattern  produced 
on  the  crown  by  the  wearing  down  of  these  columns  or 

HIND-FEET   OF  AN  EX-  ridges  is  complex.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the  more  prim- 
itive  tyPes>  sucn  as  pigs  and  tapirs,   the  crowns  of  the 


Teeth 


BONES    OF    THE     FORE    AND 


*  Figures  of  the  bones  of  the  feet  of  these  animals  are  given  under  their  respective  headings. 


THE  HOLLOW-HORNED   RUMINANTS 


A   LEFT    UPPER    MOLAR    TOOTH  OF  THE 
NYLGHAU,  SEEN  FROM  THE  INNER 
AND  OUTER  SIDES. 


cheek-teeth  have  low  columns,  or  ridges,  so  that  the  bases  of  the-intervening  valleys 
can  be  distinctly  seen  at  all  stages  of  wear.  This  will  be  apparent  from  a  comparison 
of  the  accompanying  figures,  the  first  of  which  shows  a  tall-crowned  tooth  viewed 
from  the  inner  and  outer  sides,  while  the  second  shows  a  short-crowned  tooth  seen 
directly  from  above. 

In  the  former  the  valleys  between  the 
four  crescent-shaped  columns  form  deep  pits, 
penetrating  the  whole  extent  of  the  crown  of 
the  tooth,  while  in  the  latter  they  are  mere 
shallow  channels.  It  will  be  found  that  while 
all  the  earlier  Ungulates  have  short-crowned 
cheek-teeth,  the  greater  number  of  living 
species  have  high-crowned  ones;  and  it  will 
also  be  observed  later  on  that  the  develop- 
ment of  high-crowned  teeth  has  taken  place 
independently  in  each  of  the  four  great 
groups  into  which  existing  Ungulates  are  di- 
vided. It  should  also  be  mentioned  that 
whereas  in  Carnivores  the  upper  molar  teeth 
are  generally  of  the  primitive  triangular  type, 
in  all  existing  Ungulates  they  have  assumed 

the  quadrangular  form.  The  food  of  the  Ungulates  consisting  in  most  cases  entirely 
of  vegetable  substances  requiring  much  mastication,  is  the  inducing  cause  for  the 
complex  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth  in  the  more  specialized  kinds;  and  to  the  same 
cause  may  be  attributed  the  circumstance  that  Ungulates  always  retain  the  full  num- 
ber of  molar  teeth,  and,  except  in  the  camels,  at  least  three  out  of  the  typical  four 
premolars.  In  this  respect  they  are  in  marked  contrast  to  the  Carnivores,  in  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  a  reduction  in  the 
number  of  the  molar  teeth,  only  one  living  member  of  the  or- 
der (the  long-eared  fox)  having  the  typical  three  molar  teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw.  On  the  other  hand,  among  the  more  specialized 
representatives  of  the  order,  there  is  a  decided  tendency  to  the 
reduction,  either  in  size  or  number,  of  the  front  teeth;  the  tusks 
being  frequently  small  or  absent,  while  the  whole  of  the  incisor 
teeth,  and  sometimes  the  canines  also,  in  the  upper  jaw,  and 
more  rarely  both  incisors  and  canines  in  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws,  maybe  wanting.  All  the  earlier  Ungulates,  as  well  as  the 
modern  pigs,  have,  however,  well-developed  tusks,  as  well  as 
the  full  number  of  front  teeth;  and  it  is  thus  apparent  that  in 
this  respect  also,  the  result  of  specialization  has  been  the  reverse  of  that  in  the  Carni- 
vores, where  the  tusks  have  obtained  extreme  development,  and  the  full  typical 
number  of  incisor  teeth  is  very  generally  retained.  In  both  cases  these  distinctions 
are  due  to  the  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  food  and  habits  of  the  two 
groups  of  animals.  In  addition  to  these  characteristics  of  their  feet  and  teeth, 
the  Ungulates  of  the  present  day  are  characterized  by  the  total  absence  of  collar 


A  RIGHT  UPPER  MO- 
LAR TOOTH  OF  THE 
EXTINCT  MERYCO- 
POTAMUS,  VIEWED 
FROM  ABOVE. 


746  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

bones  or  clavicles  in  the  adult  condition,  although  traces  of   these  may  occur  in 
the  fetal  state. 

Having  said  thus  much,  it  may  be  well  to  endeavor  to  briefly  sum- 
..       .          marize  the  chief  characteristics  by  which  the  existing  members  of  the 
Ungulate  order  may  be  distinguished  collectively  from  those  of  the 
other  groups  of  Mammals. 

In  the  first  place,  all  Ungulates  are  adapted  for  a  life  on  land;  while,  with  the 
exception  of  some  species  of  hyrax,  none  of  them  are  arboreal.  Then,  whereas  some 
of  the  more  generalized  forms  are  omnivorous,  all  the  more  specialized  kinds  are 
strictly  vegetable  feeders.  In  all  cases  the  cheek-teeth  have  broad  crowns,  furnished 
with  columns  or  ridges  of  greater  or  less  complexity;  and  there  are  never  less  than 
three  pairs  of  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw.  Collar  bones  are  invariably  absent;  and  the 
limbs  are,  as  a  rule,  restricted  entirely  to  a  backward  and  forward  motion,  there  be- 
ing in  no  case  any  power  of  rotating  the  fore-foot  or  the  fore-leg.  The  upper  end 
of  the  radius,  or  smaller  bone  of  the  fore-limb,  instead  of  being  rounded,  is  accord- 
ingly elongated  transversely  in  the  typical  Ungulates.  The  terminal  joints  of  the  toes 
are  generally  invested  in  solid  horny  hoofs,  although  in  some  cases  furnished  with  broad 
and  blunt  nails,  but  never  with  claws.  Moreover,  the  number  of  toes  is  but  very  rarely 
five,  and  may  be  reduced  to  three,  two,  or  one;  while  in  a  large  number  of  instances, 
where  four  toes  are  present,  only  a  single  pair  are  of  any  functional  importance. 

When,  however,  we  have  to  take  fossil  species  into  consideration,  many  of  these 
characteristic  features  will  not  hold  good;  certain  extinct  Mammals,  which  it  is  very 
difficult  to  separate  satisfactorily  from  the  Ungulates,  having  either  collar  bones,  or 
claws,  or  perhaps  both  together.  In  others,  again,  the  upper  molar  teeth,  instead 
of  having  square  crowns,  show  the  triangular  shape  found  in  many  Carnivores. 
Indeed,  strange  though  it  may  seem,  the  connection  between  the  early  Carnivores 
and  the  early  Ungulates  is  so  close  that  it  is  frequently  a  matter  of  some  difficulty 
to  determine  to  which  group  an  extinct  form  should  be  referred;  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  Ungulates  are  really  a  side  branch,  descended  from  the  same  stock 
which  gave  rise  to  the  Carnivores.  This  difficulty,  or  rather  impossibility,  of  defin- 
ing groups  of  animals,  when  we  have  to  take  into  consideration  their  extinct  rela- 
tives, is  merely  what  must  of  necessity  be  the  case  if  the  doctrine  of  evolution  be  the 
true  explanation  of  their  mutual  relationship. 

As  a  rule,  existing  Ungulates  are  characterized  by  their  relatively- 
large  size;  and  among  the  order  are  included  the  most  bulky  of  all  land 
Mammals.    There  is,  however,  a  great  variation  in  point  of  size  among  the  order;  the 
smallest  forms  being  the  pigmy  hog,  the  royal  antelope,  the  chevrotains,  and  the  hyrax; 
while  the  largest  are  the  elephants,  the  hippopotamus,  the  rhinoceroses,  and  the  giraffe. 
A  frequent,  although  by  no  means  general,  peculiarity  of  the  Ungu- 
lates is  the  tendency  to  the  development  of  horns  of  some  kind  or  other 
on  the  head;  the  nature  of  these  horns,  as  we  shall  show  later  on,  varying  greatly  in 
the  different  groups. 

The  order  is  well  represented  on  all  the  continents  of  the  globe,  with 

the  exception  of  Australia,  but  at  the  present  day  it  has  a  far  larger 

number  of  species  in  the  Old  World  than  in  the  New ;  many  of  those  from  the 


THE  HOLLOW  HORNED  RUMINANTS  747 

former  area  belonging  to  groups  quite  unknown  in  the  latter.  Although  repre- 
sented in  the  Arctic  regions  only  by  the  reindeer  and  the  musk  ox,  Ungulates  are 
found  alike  in  the  coldest  and  the  hottest  regions  of  the  globe.  The  maximum 
number  of  peculiar  forms,  as  well  as  those  of  greatest  corporeal  bulk,  are,  however, 
inhabitants  of  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  ;  and  it  is  also  in  the  warmer 
regions  that  the  greatest  number  of  species  occur.  As  regards  the  number  of  indi- 
viduals of  particular  species,  many  Ungulates  far  exceed  any  other  of  the  larger 
Mammals;  this  being  especially  the  case  with  the  bisons,  that  but  a  few  years  ago 
roamed  in  countless  thousands  over  the  prairies  of  North  America,  and  with  the 
myriad  hosts  of  springboks  in  the  South-  African  veldt.  Through  the  advance  of 
civilization  and  the  incessant  persecution  of  both  the  sportsman  and  the  trader, 
these  wonderful  instances  of  the  profusion  of  animal  life  have,  however,  been  swept 
away  forever. 

Not  only  are  the  Ungulates  widely  distributed  in  longitude  and  latitude,  but 
they  are  also  found  at  all  elevations  suitable  for  the  existence  of  animal  life  ;  some 
of  the  wild  sheep  of  the  Himalayas  ranging  to  elevations  of  fully  twenty  thousand 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  time  the  order  is  an  ancient  one,  being  repre- 
sented in  the  earliest  stages  of  the  Eocene  division  of  the  Tertiary  period,  although 
the  species  were  mostly  small,  and  in  all  cases  widely  different  from  any  now 
living. 

THE  HOLLOW-  HORNED  RUMINANTS 
Family 


Unfortunately  we  have  no  concise  English  term  to  designate  collectively  the  ani- 
mals commonly  known  as  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  antelopes,  and  we  are  hence  com- 
pelled to  allude  to  them  by  the  periphrasis  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  unless 
we  prefer  to  call  them  by  their  scientific  title,  Bovida.  This  is  the  more  to  be  re- 
gretted, since  the  term  hollow-horned  Ruminants  will  likewise  include  the  Ameri- 
can prongbuck,  which  is  the  representative  of  a  family  by  itself. 

Taking,  then,  the  term  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  for  want  of  a  better,  to  des- 
ignate the  animals  mentioned  above,  we  have  in  this  family  our  first  representative 
of  the  Ungulate  order.  But  before  entering  into  the  consideration  of  the  especial 
characteristics  of  this  family,  it  is  necessary  to  point  out  those  distinctive  of  the 
great  group  of  even-toed  Ungulates,  under  which  title  are  included  not  only  the 
hollow-horned  Ruminants,  but  likewise  deer,  camels,  swine,  and  many  other  living 
and  extinct  types. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  even-toed  Ungulates   (or 

„       .  Artiodactyles,   as  they  are  technically  termed),  are  distinguished  by 

the  third  and  fourth  toes  being  almost  equally  developed,  and  arranged 

symmetrically  on  either  side  of  a  vertical  line  drawn  between  them  ;    this  line  being 

continued  upward  to  the  wrist  or  ankle,  and  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones 

similarly  arranged  in  respect  to  it.     As  a  consequence  of  this  it  results  that  in  the 

typical  members  of  the  group  the  hoofs  are  of  the  so-called  "cloven"   type.     This 

characteristic  is  alone  sufficient  to  distinguish  all  the  members  of  the  group;  but 


748 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 


there  are  a  few  others  which  it  is  advisable  to  mention.  One  of  these  characteristics 
is  afforded  by  the  cheek-teeth,  in  which  the  molars  are  almost  always  more  complex 
than  the  premolars.  This  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  where  the  first  of 
the  three  upper  molar  teeth  is  shown  on  the  left  side,  and  is  seen  to  consist  of  two- 
lobes,  while  the  adjacent  premolar  has  but  a  single  lobe.  Another  feature  connected 

with  the  teeth  is  exhibited  by  the  last  molar  in  the 
lower  jaw,  which  almost  invariably  consists  of  three 
lobes;     whereas   in    the   living    representative   of   the 
odd-toed  Ungulates  it  has  only  two  lobes.     In  their 
THE    FIRST    MOLAR    AND    THE  smgle-lobed     upper     premolar     teeth    the    even-toed 
'    ?HE  R^HT^ToK  THE^PPER  Ungulates  show  a  retention  of  the  primitive  triangular 
JAW  OF  THE  FOUR-HORNED  AN-  type  of  tooth,  which  has  been  lost  in  the  molar  teeth. 
TELOPE.  Then  again  the  thigh  bone,  or  femur,  in  all  the  mem- 

bers of  the  present  group  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  any  projecting  process 
on  the  hinder  surface  of  the  shaft. 


SKELETON    OF    THE    EUROPEAN    BISON. 

There  are  other  less  obvious  distinctive  features  of  the  even-toed  Ungulates, 
but  the  above  are  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose.  It  must  be  added,  however, 
that  both  in  this  group  and  in  the  odd-toed  Ungulates  there  are  never  more  than  four 
toes  to  each  foot;  and  that  all  the  members  of  both  groups  walk  on  their  toes  alone. 
We.  are  now  in  a  position  to  consider  somewhat  more  closely  the 
characteristics  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants,  but  we  have  still  to 
notice  that  these,  together  with  the  giraffe,  the  prongbuck,  and  the  deer,  form  a 
group  distinguished  from  all  the  other  even-toed  Ungulates  by  certain  important 


Ruminants 


THE   HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS 


749 


characteristics.  In  all  the  members  of  this  assemblage  of  four  families  there  are  no 
front  (or  incisor)  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw;  and  the  upper  tusks  or  canines  are  generally 
small  or  absent.  In  the  lower  jaw,  on  the  other  hand,  all  the  incisor  teeth  are  pres- 
ent, while  the  canine  tooth  on  each  side  is  in  immediate  contact  with  the  outermost 
incisor;  and  since  all  the  three  pairs  of  incisors  and  the  single  pair  of  canines  have 
nearly  similar  spatulate  crowns,  they  appear  to  form  a  single  series  of  four  pairs  of 
teeth.  This  may  be  easily  verified  by  examining  the  lower  jaw  of  a  sheep  or  an  ox. 
The  six  cheek-teeth  on  either  side  of  both  jaws  are  placed  close  together;  those  of  the 
lower  jaw  being  separated  by  a  long  space  from  the  four  pairs  of  spatulate  teeth.  In 
the  fore-feet  the  third  and  fourth  metacarpal  bones,  and  in  the  hind-feet  the  metatar- 
sal  bones,  are  respec- 
tively fused  into  single 
' '  canon  bones, ' '  as 
shown  in  the  two  fig- 
ures given  on  p.  744; 
while  the  two  lateral 
pairs  of  toes  are 
always  small  and  rudi- 
mentary, and  may  be 
completely  absent;  the 
toes  themselves  being 
incased  in  complete 
hoofs.  Another  pe- 
culiarity of  this  group 
is  that  the  stomach  is 
divided  into  four  com- 
plete cavities,  into  the 
first  of  which  the  food 
is  temporarily  re- 
ceived, until  it  is  re- 
gurgitated into  the 
mouth,  when  it  is 
completely  masticated 
and  afterward  con- 
veyed to  the  true 
digesting  stomach. 
This  process  is  known 

as  the  function  of  "chewing  the  cud,"  or  ruminating;  and  the  Ungulates  in  which 
it  occurs  are  consequently  termed  Ruminants.  The  ruminating  function  is,  how- 
ever, developed  in  the  camels  and  chevrotains,  as  well  as  in  the  assemblage  of 
four  families  constituting  the  present  group;  but  as  the  camels  and  chevrotains 
differ  in  several  important  respects,  it  is  convenient  to  designate  the  group  under 
consideration  as  the  true  Ruminants,  or  technically,  the  Pecora. 

It  has  yet  to  be  mentioned  that  all  the  ruminating  even-toed  Ungulates  are 
characterized  by  the  peculiar  structure  of  their  cheek-teeth.     It  will  be  observed 


SKULI,    OF    SWAYNE'S    HARTEBEEST,   TO    SHOW    HORNS. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1892.) 


750  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

from  the  figure  of  the  upper  molar  tooth  of  the  nylghau  given  on  p.  745,  and  also 
from  that  or  the  four- horned  antelope  on  p.  748,  that  these  teeth  consist  of  four 
distinct  columns,  of  which  the  innermost  pair  are  crescent  shaped,  with  the  horns 
of  the  crescents  turned  outwardly.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  molars  are  narrower,  and 
with  a  reverse  structure;  that  is  to  say,  the  crescents  are  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  tooth,  with  their  horns  turned  inwardly.  Accordingly  the  name  of  crescent- 
toothed  (selenodont}  Ungulates  is  applied  to  all  the  ruminating  members  of  the 
group. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  true  Ruminants  are  alone  characterized  by 
the  whole  of  the  four  under-mentioned  features,  viz.,  no  front  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw,  a  four-chambered  stomach,  complete  canon  bones,  and  the  feet  incased  in 
hoofs.  Moreover,  it  is  only,  in  the  members  of  this  group  that  horns  are  ever 
met  with;  these  appendages  being  always  arranged  as  a  symmetrical  pair  (occasion- 
ally two  pairs)  on  either  side  of  the  middle  line  of  the  skull. 

The   hollow-horned  Ruminants,  or  Bovida,  are   distinguished  from 
Hollow-Horned,,  n.      ,        ,  r  ,  . 

.  their  allies  by  the  presence  of  true  horns;    that  is  to  say,  of  hollow 

and  unbranched  sheaths  of  horn  growing  upon  bony  protuberances, 
or  cores,  arising  from  the  frontal  bones  of  the  skull,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on 
p.  749;  neither  the  horny  sheaths  nor  the  bony  cores  being  shed  at  any  period  of 
existence.  In  all  existing  wild  species  these  horns  are  present  at  least  in  the  male 
sex;  but  in  many  domesticated  races  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  they  are  absent  in 
both  sexes;  and  the  same  holds  good  for  certain  extinct  members  of  the  family. 
Usually  the  molar  teeth  of  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants  are  characterized  by  the 
great  relative  height  of  their  crowns,  as  shown  in  the  figures  of  the  molar  teeth  of 
the  nylghau  given  on  p.  745 ;  and  in  all  cases  there  is  no  tusk  or  canine  tooth  in  the 
upper  jaw.  In  some  few  instances  the  small  lateral  toes  may  be  completely 
absent,  but  they  are  generally  represented  merely  by  the  small  spurious  hooflets 
alone,  which  may  be  supported  internally  by  minute  and  irregularly-shaped  nodules 
of  bone. 

The  hollow-horned  Ruminants  are  chiefly  Old-World  forms,  although  they  are 
represented  in  North  America  by  the  musk  ox,  the  American  bison,  the  Rocky 
mountain  goat,  and  the  bighorn  sheep.  They  are  quite  unknown  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  New  World. 

THE  OXEN 
Genus  Bos 

The  oxen  include  the  largest  and  most  massively-formed  members  of  the 
hollow-horned  Ruminants,  and  comprise  not  only  the  animals  thus  commonly  desig- 
nated, but  likewise  the  bisons,  yak,  and  buffaloes.  As  a  rule,  they  are  large  and 
heavily-built  animals,  with  very  short  and  thick  necks,  and  the  massive  and  rela- 
tively-short head  carried  nearly  in  the  line  of  the  back;  the  males  generally  being 
provided  with  a  large  dewlap,  running  along  the  throat  from  the  chin  to  between 
the  fore-legs.  The  tail  is  always  long,  and  is  generally  thinly  haired  throughout  the 


THE    OXEN  75  r 

greater  part  of  its  length  and  tufted  at  the  extremity,  but  in  the  yak  it  is  thickly 
haired  throughout.  The  muzzle  is  broad,  naked,  and  moist;  and  there  are  never 
any  ' '  tearpits ' '  or  glands  below  the  eye,  which  are  so  frequently  present  in  the 
antelopes;  and  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  these  tearpits  there  are  no  depres- 
sions in  the  skull  immediately  below  the  eyes  for  their  reception.  The  horns,  which 
are  present  in  both  sexes  and  of  nearly  equal  dimensions  in  both,  may  be  either 
cylindrical  or  more  or  less  markedly  angulated;  and  are  usually  situated  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  of,  or  actually  upon,  the  summit  of  the  skull,  whence  they 
generally  sweep  in  a  more  or  less  outward  direction,  and  then  curve  upward,  and 
sometimes  inward,  at  their  extremities.  They  are  never  spirally  twisted,  or  orna- 
mented with  prominent  transverse  knots  or  wrinkles.  If  the  horn  cores  be  cut 
through,  they  will  be  found  to  be  completely  honeycombed  by  a  number  of  irregulai 
cavities  of  large  size.  The  upper  molar  teeth  are  very  tall  and  broad,  and  are  pro 
vided  with  an  additional  column  on  the  inner  side,  as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the 
tooth  of  the  nylghau  on  p.  745. 

With  the  exception  of  the  American  bison,  the  whole  of  the  exist- 
ing species  of  oxen  are  confined  to  the  Old  World,  where  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  species  are  continental.  There  is,  however,  one  species,  of 
smaller  size  than  any  of  the  rest,  confined  to  the  island  of  Celebes;  and  another 
which  may,  however,  have  been  introduced,  in  the  Philippines.  Domesticated  races 
are  spread  over  nearly  all  the  globe.  The  wild  species  inhabit  either  open,  grassy 
plains  or  dense  forests,  while  one  of  them  is  confined  to  the  higher  regions  of  the 
Himalayas  and  Tibet.  All  of  them  live  in  herds  of  larger  or  smaller  size,  which  are 
protected  by  the  bulls;  the  number  of  individuals  in  these  herds  being  in  some  cases 
reckoned  by  thousands,  only  the  old  bulls  becoming  solitary  in  their  habits. 

All  cattle  can  swim  readily,  and  some  species  will  cross  rivers  of 
considerable  breadth  without  the  slightest  hesitation.  They  are  re- 
markable for  their  strength  and  endurance;  and  as  beasts  of  draught  oxen  are  supe- 
rior to  horses  for  dragging  heavy  vehicles  through  soft  and  yielding  ground.  The 
usual  pace  of  these  animals  is  a  walk,  but  when  excited  they  break  into  a  heavy  and 
awkward  gallop.  Their  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  are  acute,  but  their  sight  does 
not  appear  to  be  particularly  keen.  Their  food  may  consist  either  of  leaves  and  the 
tender  shoots  of  trees,  grass,  mosses,  or  various  kinds  of  marsh  and  water  plants; 
and  all  the  species  display  a  marked  partiality  for  salt. 

Usually  but  one  calf  is  produced  at  a  birth,  but  there  may  be  occasionally  two. 
As  is  the  case  with  other  Ruminants,  the  calf  is  born  in  a  highly-developed  state, 
and  is  soon  able  to  run  by  the  side  of  its  parent. 

.,      .....  In  most  of  their  structural  peculiarities  the  oxen  appear  to  be  among 

Specialization 

the  most  highly  specialized  of  all  the  hollow-horned  Ruminants;  and 

this  is  confirmed  by  the  lateness  of  their  appearance  in  the  geological  series,  the 
group  being  quite  unknown  before  the  Pliocene  period  and  attaining  its  maximum 
development  in  the  Pleistocene  and  present  epochs.  Probably  the  origin  of  the 
group  may  be  traced  to  Ruminants  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  antelopes; 
and  it  is  noteworthy  that  in  some  of  the  extinct  species  horns  were  present  only  in 
the  male  sex. 


752 


THE    UNGULATES.    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


THE   AUROCHS   AND   DOMESTIC  OXEN    (Bos  taurus] 

The  aurochs,  or  ancient  wild  ox  of  Europe,  although  now  quite  extinct  as  a 
wild  species,  is  doubtless  still  represented  by  the  half -wild  cattle  of  some  of  the 
British  parks;  although  the  confined  areas  in  which  they  live  have  caused  them  to  de- 
generate sadly  in  size  from  their  wild  ancestors.  Moreover,  although  there  may  have 
been  a  certain  amount  of  crossing  with  other  species,  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
cattle  is  certainly  to  be  traced  back  to  the  same  wild  ancestor.  + 

The  aurochs  and  the  half-wild  and  domesticated  cattle  of  Europe  are  character- 
ized by  their  horns  being  circular  in  section  and  placed  at  the  very  summit  of  the  skull 
immediately  over  the  occiput,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  woodcut.  Where  they 
first  arise  from  the  skull  the  horns  have  their  upper  border  convex ;  and  the  forehead  of 
the  skull  is  flat  or  slightly  concave,  and  much  longer  than  broad,  so  that  the  sockets 

of  the  eyes  are  separated 
by  a  long  interval  from 
the  bases  of  the  horns. 
The  tail  is  of  great  length. 
The  spines  of  the  verte- 
brae of  the  withers  are  not 
greatly  elongated,  and  thus 
do  not  form  a  distinct 
ridge  in  this  region  of  the 
body. 

That  the  wild  aurochs 
was  an  animal  of  huge 
bulk  is  proved  by  the 
skulls  and  bones  found  in 
the  turbaries,  fens,  and 
brick  earths  of  England 
and  the  continent.  In  the  skull  figured  in  the  woodcut  the  bony  cores  of  the  horn 
have  a  span  of  upward  of  forty-two  inches  from  tip  to  tip,  and  when  these  were 
covered  with  their  horny  sheaths  the  whole  could  not  have  fallen  short  of  fifty 
inches.  This  specimen  was  obtained  from  a  turbary *- that  is  a  peat  bog- — near 
Athol;  but  some  of  the  skulls  found  in  the  brick  earths  at  Ilford  in  Essex,  are 
of  considerably  larger  dimensions,  although  from  the  more  forward  direction  of 
their  horns  the  span  between  their  tips  is  somewhat  less. 

Distributi  nand     ^e  aurochs  was    pursued   and   killed  by  the  prehistoric  hunters 
Extinction  °f  Europe,  as  we  know  from  the  circumstance  that  skulls  have  been 
found  with  the  forehead  pierced  by  flint    hatchets.     The  date  from 
which  it  disappeared  from  Britain  is,  however,  uncertain,  although  it  probably  lin- 
gered longer  in  a  wild  state  in  Scotland  than  in  the  southern  districts  of  England. 
On  the  continent  there  is  evidence  that  in  Julius  Caesar's  time  the  aurochs,  or  urus, 
was  abundant  in  the  Hercynian,  or  Black,  Forest  of  Germany.     Old  chronicles  also 
prove  that  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  these  animals  were  found,  although 
rarely,  in  the  province  of  Maine;  while  there  is  evidence  that  some  of  them  at  least 


SKUI,!,    OF    THE    AUROCHS. 

(About   one-tenth   natural   size.) 
( After  Owen. ) 


THE  AUROCHS  AND  DOMESTIC  OXEN  753 

were  white  in  color.  In  the  ninth  century  Charlemagne  hunted  the  aurochs  in  the 
forests  near  Aix-la-Chapelle;  while  at  the  close  of  the  following  century  we  find 
the  flesh  of  these  animals  alluded  to  in  the  rolls  of  an  abbey  in  Switzerland.  The 
aurochs  was  met  with  during  the  route  taken  through  Germany  by  the  first  crusade, 
in  the  eleventh  century;  and  that  it  still  lingered  in  the  neighborhood  of  Worms 
during  the  twelfth  century  is  indicated  by  the  mention  of  the  slaughter  of  four  in- 
dividuals in  the  Nibelungen- Ivied.  The  accounts  of  conflicts  with  gigantic  wild 
oxen,  so  rife  in  classic  literature,  doubtless  refer  to  the  aurochs;  and  thus  indicate 
that  the  range  of  the  animal  extended  as  far  southward  as  Greece.  Bones  of  the 
aurochs  have  been  obtained  from  England  and  Scotland,  but  are  unknown  in  Ireland. 
On  the  continent  they  occur  in  France,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Scandinavia,  Germany, 
and  Austria;  while  it  may  be  taken  as  certain  that  the  species  roamed  over  Russia, 
although  its  exact  eastern  and  northern  limits  are  not  ascertained.  Southward  the 
aurochs  ranged  as  far  as  Algeria. 

The  mention  of  a  white  aurochs,  which  may,  however,  have  been  a  tamed  in- 
dividual, in  one  of  the  chronicles  referred  to  above,  coupled  with  the  coloration  of 
the  Chillingham  cattle,  renders  it  probable  that  the  color  of  the  aurochs  was  white, 
more  or  less  mingled  with  dun  and  red;  this  inference  being  confirmed  by  the 
prevalence  of  these  colors  in  so  many  of  our  domestic  breeds  of  cattle. 

It  is  probable  that  the  aurochs  was  the  direct  ancestor  of  our  largest 
n  breeds  of  domestic  cattle.  At  a  very  early  period  (although  later 
than  the  epoch  of  the  brick  earths;  when  the  aurochs  first  existed)  the  inhabitants 
of  Europe  had  succeeded  in  domesticating  a  small  variety  of  ox,  known  as  the  long- 
fronted  ox  (Bos  longifrons),  from  which  it  is  considered  probable  that  the  small 
Welsh  and  Highland  breeds  of  cattle  are  descended.  If,  however,  we  are  right 
in  our  view  that  the  whole  of  the  cattle  of  Europe  belong  to  one  species,  it  is 
evident  that  the  long-fronted  ox  itself  must  likewise  have  been  originally  derived 
from  the  aurochs. 

Having  said  thus  much  as  to  the  extinct  wild  cattle  of  Europe,  we 
proceed  to  notice  the  half -wild  races  preserved  in  certain  English  and 
Scottish  parks,  after  which  we  shall  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  chief  domes- 
tic breeds.  It  may  be  premised  that  while  several  of  the  former  are  probably  much 
closer  to  the  aurochs  than  are  any  of  the  latter,  there  seems  but  little  doubt  that  in 
all  cases  these  half-wild  cattle  are  descended  from  more  or  less  completely  domesti- 
cated early  breeds,  and  are  not  directly  derived  from  the  wild  aurochs.  The  British 
park  cattle,  when  pure  bred,  are  white  in  color,  with  the  exception  of  the  ears  and 
muzzle,  and  sometimes  the  front  of  the  legs,  which  may  be  either  red  or  black;  the 
horns  being  white  with  black  tips.  In  size  these  cattle  are  small;  but  their  propor- 
tions are  well-nigh  perfect,  their  heads  being  small,  their  backs  straight,  and  their 
legs  short.  According  to  Mr.  J.  E.  Harting,  herds  of  these  cattle  were  for- 
merly kept  at  all  of  the  following  parks,  viz.,  Auchencruive  (in  Ayrshire), 
Barnard  Castle  (Durham),  Bishop  Auckland  (Durham),  Blair  Athol  (Perth- 
shire), Burton  Constable  (Yorkshire),  Cadzow  Castle  (Lanarkshire),  Chartley 
Park  (Staffordshire),  Chillingham  Castle  (Northumberland),  Ewelme  Park 
(Oxfordshire),  Gisburne  Park  (Yorkshire),  Hoghton  Tower  (Lancashire),  Hold- 


754  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

enby  Park  (Northamptonshire),  Kilmory  House  (Argyleshire),  Leigh  Court 
(Somersetshire),  Lyme  Park  (Cheshire),  Middleton  Park  (Lancashire),  Naworth 
Castle  (Cumberland),  Somerford  Park  (Cheshire),  Whalley  Abbey  (Lancashire), 
and  Wollaton  Park  (Nottinghamshire).  Of  these  numerous  herds  the  only  ones 
now  remaining  are  those  at  Cadzow,  Chartley,  Chillingham,  Kilmory,  Lyme,  and 
Somerford. 

The  best  known  of  all  is  the  famous  Chillingham  herd.     There  is- 
C^fl  S        sonte  doubt  as  to  the  date  of  the   inclosure  of   Chillingham   Park, 

which,  however,  very  probably  took  place  early  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury ;  and  there  is  undoubted  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  herd  rather  more  than 
two  hundred  years  ago.  The  Chillingham  cattle  are  small,  with  moderately-rough 
and  curly  hair,  and  short  upwardly-directed  horns.  At  the  present  day  the  insides 
of  the  ears  and  the  muzzles  are  red;  but  it  appears  that  in  1692,  black  ears  were 
more  numerous  than  red,  and  that  the  present  coloration  has  been  produced  by 
selection.  Mr.  J.  Hindmarsh,  writing  in  the  year  1838,  states  that  the  Chillingham 
cattle  ' '  have  pre-eminently  all  the  characteristics  of  wild  animals,  with  some  pe- 
culiarities which  are  very  curious  and  amusing.  They  hide  their  young,  feed  in 
the  night,  basking  or  sleeping  during  the  day;  they  are  fierce  when  pressed,  but 
generally  speaking  very  timorous,  moving  off  on  the  appearance  of  anyone,  even  at, 
a  great  distance."  The  following  statement  of  the  numbers  of  the  Chillingham 
herd  at  different  periods  is  compiled  by  Mr.  Harting  from  numerous  accounts  which 
have  from  time  to  time  appeared.  "In  1869,  according  to  the  steward's  account, 
the  herd  consisted  of  only  fourteen  breeding  animals,  bulls,  and  cows,  and  calves  of 
both  sexes,  and  twelve  steers;  in  all  twenty-eight.  In  1838,  according  to  Mr. 
Hindmarsh,  there  were  about  eighty,  comprising  twenty-five  bulls,  forty  cows,  and 
fifteen  steers  of  various  ages.  In  May  1861,  Mr.  Darwin  was  informed  by  the 
agent  that  they  numbered  about  fifty.  This  was  about  the  number  we  saw  when 
visiting  the  park  in  May  1863.  In  August  1873,  the  herd  consisted  of  sixty-four 
head,  seventeen  bulls  of  all  ages  from  calves  upward,  nineteen  steers,  and  twenty- 
eight  cows,  heifers,  and  female  calves.  In  October  1874,  according  to  Lord  Tan- 
kerville  (the  owner),  the  herd  numbered  seventy -one.  In  March  1875,  the  number 
had  again  decreased,  amounting  to  sixty-two  only,  viz.,  fourteen  bulls  and  bull 
calves,  thirty -one  cows,  and  cow  calves,  and  seventeen  steers.  In  July  1877,  there 
were  still  fewer  —  fifty -one  only  —  consisting  of  eight  bulls,  twenty-seven  cows  and 
heifers,  and  sixteen  steers.  Lord  Tankerville  says  they  increase  slowly,  several  dy- 
ing each  year  by  accidents  or  by  overrunning  their  calves  when  disturbed;  and  the 
cows  breed  slowly,  owing  to  having  frequently  the  calves  still  sucking  in  the  second 
year. ' ' 

The  Cadzow  cattle,  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  of  which  a. 

group  is  represented  in  our  illustration,  differ  from  the  Chillingham 
breed  in  having  the  ears  and  muzzles  black,  while  there  is  also  a  greater  or  smaller 
amount  of  black  on  the  front  of  the  fore-legs.  Their  heads  are  also  more  rounded, 
and  their  limbs  stouter;  and  very  generally  the  cows  are  devoid  of  horns.  This 
herd  is  a  very  ancient  one,  and  in  1874  numbered  forty-five  head,  which  in  1877 
had  increased  to  fifty-six. 


756 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


Very  different  in  appearance  to  either  of  the  above  are  the  Chartley 

cattle,  the  property  of  Earl  Ferrers.     It  is  known  that  these  cattle 

are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  wild  cattle  which  roamed  at  large  in  the  forest  of 

Needwood  at  the  date  of  the  inclosure  of  Chartley  Park  in  1248.     In  this  breed  the 

ears  are  black,  and  the  horns  are  longer  and  directed  much  more  outwardly  than  in 

the  Chillingham  breed,  resembling  in  these  respects  much  more  closely  those  of 

our  domestic  "  longhorns."     In  1877,  this  herd  comprised  only  twenty  individuals. 

The  Kilmory  breed  is  derived  from  the  one  which  formerly  existed 

at  Blair  Athol.      The  Lyme  Park  breed  is  interesting  as  being  of 

larger  size  than  any  of  the  others.     The  hair  is  remarkable  for  its  length  and  curli- 


DURHAM  SHORTHORN. 

(One-thirtieth  natural  size.) 

ness,  more  especially  on  the  shoulders;  the  ears  are  generally  red,  although  oc- 
casionally black  or  bluish  black;  and  Mr.  Harting  describes  the  horns  as  intermedi- 
ate between  those  of  the  Chillingham  and  Chartley  breeds.  In  1875  this  herd  was 
reduced  to  four  individuals,  but  had  increased  in  1877  to  six,  although  one  of  the 
four  cows  was  parti-colored. 

Of  the  breed  at  Somerford  Park,  situated  in  the  heart  of  what  was  formerly 
Maxwell  Forest,  Mr.  Harting  writes  that  ' '  an  ancient  herd  of  white  cattle,  resem- 
bling those  at  Chartley,  but  polled,  still  exists  here;  and  these  animals  are  consid- 
ered to  be  the  best  surviving  representatives  of  the  hornless  and  tame  variety  of  the 


757 

original  wild  white  breed.  The  color  is  pure  white;  the  ears,  rirris  of  the  eyes,  muz- 
zle, and  hoofs  being  quite  black.  Like  all  other  herds  of  the  forest  breed  they  have 
a  strong  tendency  to  produce  small  black  spots  on  the  neck,  sides,  and  legs." 

It  may  be  added  that  all  these  various  herds  of  white  cattle  are  doubtless  de- 
rived from  the  half-wild  cattle  which,  as  we  learn  from  the  writings  of  Fitz-Stephen, 
dating  from  about  the  year  1174,  were  common  in  the  forests  around  London,  and 
probably  therefore  in  other  parts  of  England.  When  the  various  parks  were  in-! 
closed  a  certain  number  of  these  cattle  were  driven  in,  and  the  herds  thus  obtained 
have  been  preserved  with  more  or  less  care  by  their  subsequent  owners. 

Our  notice  of  the  domestic  breeds  of  European  cattle  will  be  brief,  and  chiefly 
confined  to  those  met  with  in  the  British  Islands. 

First  of  all  we  have  the  small  Shetland  cattle,  inhabiting  the  islands 
c     .          from  which  they  take  their  name,  but  also  extending  to  the  Orkneys 

and  Iceland.  These  cattle,  although  of  small  size,  are  esteemed  on  ac- 
count of  their  milk-yielding  qualities,  and  the  readiness  with  which  they  fatten. 
They  have  short  horns,  and  are  generally  parti-colored,  with  lighter  shades  of  color 
than  the  Highland  breeds. 

The  well-known  Highland  cattle,  of  which  there  are  several  strains, 

are  characterized  by  their  small  size,  the  presence  of  horns,  directed 

more  or  less  upwardly,  in  both  sexes,  their  short  and  sturdy  limbs, 
and  their  rough  and  generally  uniformly-colored  coats,  which  are  greatly  developed 
in  the  region  of  the  neck.  Generally,  the  muzzle  is  black;  but  the  color  of  the  hair 
may  be  either  black  or  brown,  or  a  mixture  of  these  two,  and  sometimes  of  mouse 
dun.  These  cattle  are  remarkable  for  their  hardy  habits,  and  vary  in  size  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  pasture  of  their  native  districts.  Although  far  from  good  milk- 
ers, when  brought  down  to  the  rich  pastures  of  England  they  fatten  readily.  The 
West  Highland  breed  is  the  finest,  that  of  the  Central  Highlands  the  smallest,  and 
that  of  the  eastern  coasts  near  the  Lowlands  the  largest. 

The  Welsh  cattle  are  best  known  by  the  Pembroke  breed,  and  are 

generally  of  rather  larger  size  than  the  Highland  races,  with  yellow  or 
orange-colored  unctuous  skins;  the  hair  being  generally  black.  They  are  quite  as 
hardy  as  the  Highland  cattle,  and  will  thrive  on  very  scanty  nutriment,  while  they 
have  the  advantage  of  being  much  better  milkers. 

The  Kerry  breed  is  a  well-known  strain  of  hardy  mountain  cattle, 

agreeing  in  the  color  of  their  skins  with  the  Pembroke  breed. 
The  hair  is  generally  black  with  a  white  streak  down  the  back,  and  sometimes  an- 
other along  the  belly;  but  it  may  be  pure  black  or  brown,  black  and  white,  or  black 
and  brown.  The  horns  are  long,  tapering,  and  directed  upward.  These  cattle  are 
valued  for  the  good  milking  qualities  of  the  cows,  even  when  nourished  upon  infe- 
rior pasture. 

The  polled  Angus  breed,  produced  on  the  Devonian  rocks  of  Forfar 

ngus    and  Kincardine,  are  larger  than  the  Highland  cattle,  from  which  they 

are  readily  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  horns  in  both  sexes.     They  are  mostly 

black  with  white  markings,  but  may  be  brindled  black  and  brown;  the  skin  being 

dark  colored.     This  breed  has  in  all  probability  been  derived  from  the  Highland 


758  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

cattle,  and  has  attained  its  superior  size  and  excellent  milk-yielding  qualities  from  hav- 
ing been  reared  on  the  richer  pastures  of  the  Lowlands.  The  polled  Aberdeenshire 
breed  is  another  strain  of  hornless  cattle  of  mixed  origin,  bred  in  the  lower  districts 
of  the  county  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

The  Galloway  breed  is  also  a  hornless  one,  and  is  of  great  antiquity, 
having  been  in  existence  at  least  since  the  sixteenth  century.  They 
inhabit  a  district  underlaid  by  Silurian  and  Cambrian  rocks  in  the  southwest  of  Scot- 
laud;  and  are  essentially  a  mountain  breed,  being  inferior  in  size  to  the  polled  An- 
gus, although  superior  to  the  Highland  breed.  The  skin  is  dark  colored,  and  the 
hair  generally  black;  while  the  great  depth  of  the  body  will  always  suffice  to  distin- 
guish this  breed  from  all  other  polled  strains.  Mr.  D.  Low  states  that  "  these  cattle 
are  hardy,  exceedingly  docile,  sufficiently  good  feeders,  when  carried  to  suitable  pas- 
tures, and  weigh  well  in  proportion  to  their  bulk." 

The  polled  Suffolk  is  a  less  important  hornless  breed  from  the  east- 
Polled  Suffolk  ,  ^     .      ,      ,.  ,  ...... 

ern  counties  of  England,  which  was  originally  of  a  mouse  dun,  or  some 

nearly  similar  shade  of  color,  and  is  of  small  size,  and  somewhat  defective  form. 
There  is  also  a  polled  Irish  breed,  which  includes  animals  of  large  size,  but  fre- 
quently more  or  less  crossed  with  other  races. 

The  three  nearly-allied  strains  from  the  Channel  islands,  respec- 
Terse  s       tively  termed  Al'derney,  Jersey,  and  Guernsey,  are  now  so  well  known 

in  England,  and  are  so  easily  distinguished  from  all  others,  that  they 
require  but  scant  notice.  They  are  characterized  by  the  bulls  being  considerably 
larger  than  the  cows,  by  their  small  size,  their  short,  thin,  and  often  crumpled  in- 
turning  horns,  and  their  delicate  and  (from  the  butcher's  point  of  view)  somewhat 
"ragged"  build.  The  head  is  delicately  formed,  with  very  prominent  eyes,  and  a 
narrow  muzzle,  but  may  be  either  very  short  or  somewhat  elongated;  the  bones  of 
the  pelvis  are  very  prominent;  and  the  limbs  are  slender  and  deer  like.  The  color 
of  the  short  and  glossy  hair  is  generally  some  shade  of  rufous  or  fawn,  mingled 
with  white;  but  it  may  be  black,  mixed  with  white  or  dun,  and  is  more  rarely 
cream;  the  skin  being  thin  and  orange  colored.  Although  of  delicate  constitution, 
the  Channel  island  breeds  are  esteemed  for  their  elegant  appearance,  and  the  rich- 
ness and  yellow  color  of  their  cream  and  butter. 

The   Ayrshire  breed,   whose  proper  home  is  the  county  of  Ayr, 

although  it  is  now  widely  spread  over  Scotland  and  some  parts  of 
Ireland,  is  another  race  bred  exclusively  for  the  purposes  of  the  dairy.  They  are  of 
medium  size,  with  short  horns  curving  inward  in  the  Alderney  manner;  and  the 
fore-quarters  are  light,  the  loins  broad  and  deep,  the  neck  and  head  small,  and  the 
limbs  slender.  The  color  of  the  skin  is  yellowish  orange,  and  the  prevailing  tint  of 
the  hair  reddish  brown,  more  or  less  mixed  with  white. 

The  rich  red  soil  of  Devonshire  is  tenanted  by  a  breed  of  cattle 

readily  distinguished  by  the  deep-red  color  of  their  hair.  They  have 
orange-yellow  skins  and  fine  tapering  horns.  Mr.  Low  describes  them  as  "of  a 
light  and  graceful  form,  agile,  and  suited  for  active  labor.  They  fatten  with  suffi- 
cient facility  in  good  pastures,  and  in  a  temperate  climate;  but  they  are  inferior  in 
hardiness  and  the  power  of  subsisting ,  on  scanty  herbage  to  the  mountain  cattle  of 


THE  AUROCHS  AND  DOMESTIC  OXEN 


759 


Scotland  and  Wales."     The  cows  are  relatively  small,  and  their  yield  of  milk  not 
great,  although  excellent  in  quality  and  rich  in  cream. 

Heref  rd  Omitting    mention   of   the   Sussex   and  Glamorganshire  breeds,  as 

being  of  minor  importance,  we  pass  on  to  the  well-known  Herefords, 
•easily  recognized  by  their  large  size,  white  faces,  and  dark  red  or  reddish-brown 
color,  marked  more  or  less  with  white  on  the  back  and  under  parts.  Mr.  Low  con- 
siders this  breed  remotely  related  to  the  Devon;  and  it  exhibits  the  same  inferiority 
in  the  size  of  the  cows,  and  a  similar  deficiency  in  the  yield  of  milk.  The  breed 
is,  however,  an  excellent  one  for  fattening,  and  is  hence  in  much  favor  in  the  West 
of  England. 


THE    FREIBURG    BTTU,. 
.    (One-twenty-fifth  natural   size.) 

The  longhorned  breed,  which  is  likewise  from  the  West  of  England 
and  is  also  largely  reared  in  Ireland,  is  one  which  has  of  late  years 
steadily  declined  in  favor  in  this  country.  The  original  breed  of  longhorns  was  sub- 
ject to  considerable  variation  in  size;  but  the  prevailing  color  of  the  hair  was  either 
black  or  brown,  with  a  white  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  more  or  less 
white  on  the  body.  The  hair  was  abundant  and  the  skin  thick  and  dark.  The  long 
horns  generally  curved  downward  at  the  tips;  but  in  southern  and  eastern  England 
they  often  turned  up.  Ultimately  great  improvements  were  effected  in  the  breed, 
and  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  paved  the  way  for  the  gradual  development  of 
the  shorthorns,  by  which  the  longhorns  have  been  so  largely  supplanted. 


760  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  shorthorn  breed  was  originally  an  East  Anglian  race  of  cattle, 
but  was  modified  into  its  present  perfection  in  Durham,  whence  it  is 
often  known  by  the  name  of  Durham  shorthorn.  The  illustration  on  p.  756  repre- 
sents an  ox  of  the  best  strain  of  this  breed.  In  these  animals  the  height  of  the 
body  is  comparatively  low,  but  there  is  great  depth,  and  the  chest,  back,  and  loins 
are  remarkable  for  their  width.  The  skin  is  light  colored,  and  the  hair  either 
reddish  brown  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two,  or  the  well-known  strawberry 
color.  The  muzzle  should  be  flesh  colored;  and  the  horns  are  short,  curving 
inward,  light  in  color,  and  frequently  somewhat  compressed.  The  skin  is  soft  and 
yielding,  and  the  general  form  of  the  body  square  and  massive,  with  upright  shoul- 
ders and  roomy  hind-quarters.  The  great  advantages  of  the  shorthorns  are  that 
they  are  hardy  and  good-tempered  animals,  of  large  size  and  eminently  distin- 
guished by  the  rapidity  with  which  they  reach  maturity  of  flesh  and  muscle.  Al- 
though inferior  in  their  yield  of  milk  to  the  Suffolk  and  Ayrshire  breeds,  shorthorns 
are  now  more  widely  spread  over  England,  both  as  dairy  and  fatting  cattle,  than 
any  other  kind. 

On  the  Continent  there  are  likewise  numerous  breeds  of  cattle,  but 

only  a  few  of  these  can  be  even  mentioned.     One  of  the  most  esteemed 
creeds 

is  the  Freiburg  breed  of  which  a  bull  is  represented  in  the  illustration 
on  p.  759.  This  breed  seems  to  be  allied  to  the  English  shorthorns,  but  has  a 
longer  body  and  neck.  The  horns  are  short  but  sharp,  and  the  color  is  a  mixture 
of  black  or  reddish  brown  with  white.  These  cattle  are  largely  bred  in  Switzerland, 
and  are  considered  to  be  the  parent  stock  from  which  several  other  breeds  have 
originated.  The  Dutch  breed,  as  represented  by  the  cow  figured  in  the  accompany- 
ing woodcut,  was  originally  a  native  of  the  Lowlands  of  Holland,  but  has  now  spread 
over  a  large  part  of  Germany.  Fitzinger  regards  the  Dutch  cattle  as  the  direct 
descendants  of  the  aurochs,  and  they  seem  to  approximate  to  the  Ayrshire  breed. 
They  are  of  large  size,  with  long  necks  and  pointed  muzzles,  and  moderately-sized 
horns,  directed  forward  and  inward.  The  usual  color  is  black  upon  a  white  or 
grayish-white  ground,  but  the  dark  markings  may  be  brown  or  reddish. 

Very  different  from  all  others  are  the  large  Hungarian  cattle,  characterized  by 
their  uniform  pale  fawn  color,  their  enormous,  slender,  outspreading  horns,  and  their 
free,  light  step.  The  horns  may  measure  as  much  as  five  feet  from  tip  to  tip,  and  are 
black  at  the  extremities,  but  grayish  throughout  the  rest  of  their  length.  This 
breed  ranges  through  Hungary  into  Turkey  and  Western  Asia.  The  Podolian  cat- 
tle constitute  another  well-marked  breed  characterized  by  the  great  relative  height 
of  the  fore-quarters. 

In  Northern  India  many  of  the  breeds  of  domestic  cattle  appear  to 
be  a  cross  between  the  ordinary  European  cattle  and  the  humped  In- 
dian cattle,  showing  the  general  shape  of  the  former  but  the  white  rings  on  the  fet- 
locks characteristic  of  the  latter.  In  Africa  there  are  several  kinds  of  humpless  cat- 
tle, among  which  the  Namaqualand  breed  most  nearly  resembles  ordinary  European 
cattle,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Damara  breed  is  distinguished  by  the  large  size  of  the 
bones,  the  small  feet,  slender  legs,  the  long  tuft  of  bushy  hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail, 
and  the  extraordinary  length  of  the  horns.  The  horns  are,  however,  even  still  larger 


THE  AUROCHS  AND  DOMESTIC   OXEN 


761 


in  the  cattle  of  Bechuanaland,  Mr.  Darwin  mentioning  a  skull  iiT  which  the  span  of 
the  horns  is  eight  feet  eight  inches  in  a  straight  line,  while  the  measurement  from  tip 
to  tip  along  the  curve  is  upward  of  thirteen  feet  five  inches. 

In  certain  parts  of  America,  the  Falkland  islands,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  other  countries,  the  cattle  introduced  from  Europe  have 
run  wild,  and  form  vast  herds.  Those  found  in  Texas  and  on  the 
Argentine  pampas  have  become  of  a  nearly  uniform-  dark  brownish-red  color;  while 
in  the  L,adrone  or  Mariana  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  all  the  wild  cattle  are  white 
with  black  ears.  When  Lord  Anson  visited  the  Ladrones  in  the  year  1742,  the 
number  of  these  cattle  was  estimated  at  upward  of  ten  thousand.  In  the  Falkland 


America  and 
Australia 


DUTCH    COW. 

(One-twenty-fifth  natural  size.) 

islands  it  is  stated  by  Admiral  Sullivan  that  those  in  the  southern  districts  are 
white,  with  the  feet,  ears,  or  the  entire  head  black;  but  in  other  parts  they  were 
either  brown  or  mouse  colored.  The  wild  cattle  of  New  Zealand,  according  to  Herr 
von  Lendenfeld,  are  white  spotted  with  brown.  In  Australia  the  herds  are  of  great 
extent,  and  are  difficult  to  approach  within  shooting  distance,  on  account  of  the  wari- 
ness of  the  animals.  In  Argentina  the  cattle  are  very  wild,  but  take  little  notice  of 
a  mounted  man.  If,  however,  as  is  seldom  the  case  in  a  country  where  everybody 
rides,  they  are  approached  by  a  person  on  foot,  they  gallop  around  him  in  circles, 
with  threatening  gestures,  looking  every  moment  as  if  about  to  make  a  charge, 
although  it  does  not  appear  that  they  ever  do  so.  In  company  with  two  ladies,  the 


762  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

writer  has  often  wandered  among  such  herds,  without  any  harm,  except  some  alarm 
on  the  part  of  one  of  his  companions.  In  Columbia  wild  cattle  are  found  not  only 
on  the  plains,  but  likewise  high  up  in  the  Cordilleras,  and  herds  of  considerable  size 
have  been  met  with  in  the  Highlands  of  Central  Asia.  Here  may  be  mentioned  the 
curious  monstrous  cattle  found  in  Argentina  and  known  as  niatas  or  natas.  This 
breed,  which  has  existed  for  more  than  a  century,  bears  the  same  relation  to  other 
races  as  is  presented  by  pug-dogs  to  ordinary  dogs.  According  to  Mr.  Darwin,  "the 
forehead  is  very  short  and  broad,  with  the  nasal  end  of  the  skull,  together  with  the 
whole  plane  of  the  upper  molar  teeth,  curved  upward.  The  lower  jaw  projects  be- 
yond the  upper,  and  has  a  corresponding  upward  curvature.  The  upper  lip  is  much 
drawn  back,  the  nostrils  are  seated  high  and  are  widely  open,  the  eyes  project  out- 
ward, and  the  horns  are  large.  The  neck  is  short,  and  in  walking  the  head  is  carried 
low.  The  hind-legs  appear  to  be  longer,  compared  with  the  front-legs,  than  is 


HIND  VIEW  OF  SKULL  OF  GAU,A  OX,   WITH  THE  HORN   SHEATHS  REMOVED. 

(One-sixth  natural  size.) 

(After  Rtitimeyer.) 

usual.  The  exposed  incisor  teeth,  the  short  head  and  upturned  nostrils,  give  these 
cattle  the  most  ludicrous,  self-confident  air  of  defiance."  Niatas  appear  to  be  very 
rare;  but  the  writer  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  a  pair  of  them  kept  in  the  grounds 
of  the  museum  at  La  Plata  in  1893.  These  were  black  and  white  in  color;  and  the 
characteristic  features  of  the  breed  were  much  more  strongly  displayed  in  the  bull 
than  in  the  cow. 

HUMPED  CATTLE  (Bos  indicus} 

The  common  domesticated  cattle  of  India  are  distinguished  from  those  of  Eu- 
rope, not  only  by  the  presence  of  the  hump  on  the  withers,  but  likewise  by  other 
structural  features,  as  well  as  by  their  general  coloration,  their  voice,  and  their  hab- 
its. Hence,  although  they  are  only  known  in  the  domestic  state,  there  can  be  no 


HUMPED    CATTLE 


763 


"hesitation  in  regarding  these*  humped  cattle  as  constituting  a' perfectly  distinct 
species.  In  Europe  these  animals  are  generally  called  zebu,  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  any  such  name  is  known  in  India. 

In  addition  to  the  enormous  hump  on  the  withers,  the  Indian  humped  cattle  are 
characterized  by  a  certain  degree  of  convexity  of  the  forehead,  by  the  upper  border 
of  the  short  horns  being  uniformly  concave  (as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  skull  of 
the  African  variety),  by  their  large  drooping  ears,  and  also  by  the  enormous  dew- 
lap which  hangs  in  folds  along  the  whole  length  of  the  neck.  In  size  and  color 
these  cattle  are  subject  to  a  considerable  amount  of  variation,  but  they  are  very  gen- 


INDIAN    HUMPED   BULL 

(One-twenty-fourth  natural  size.) 

•erally  characterized  by  a  distinct  white  ring  round  the  fetlocks.  While  the  largest 
individuals  stand  as  high  as  a  buffalo,  the  smallest  are  but  little  taller  than  a  calf  of 
a  month  old.  The  most  common  color  is  a  light  ashy  gray,  which  may  shade  off 
into  cream  color,  or  even  milk  white;  but  various  tints  of  red  or  brown  are  often 
•met  with,  and  occasionally  black  individuals  are  seen.  In  disposition  these  cattle 
are  always  gentle,  and  the  larger  varieties  are  employed  in  India  for  drawing  native 
carriages.  The  voice  of  the  humped  cattle  is  more  of  a  grunt  than  a  low ;  and  these 
animals  differ  from  European  cattle  in  habits,  insomuch  as  they  but  seldom  seek  the 
shade,  and  never  stand  knee-deep  in  water.  It  need  hardly  be  mentioned  that  a 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

certain  number  of  privileged  bulls  are  specially  protected  by  the  Hindoos,  and  are  al- 
lowed to  perambulate  the  bazaars  of  the  Indian  towns  at  will.  In  certain  parts  of 
India  humped  cattle  have  run  wild;  those  found  on  the  seacoast  near  Nellore,  in  the 
Carnatic,  have  been  in'  this  state  for  a  long  period,  and  Jerdon  describes  them  as  be- 
ing extremely  shy  and  wild,  their  size  being  large  and  their  horns  long. 


Galla  Cattle 


GAU.A    BULI,. 
(One-twenty-second  natural  size.) 

Humped  cattle  are  also  found  in  China,  Africa,  and  Madagascar; 
and  Blyth  was  of  opinion  that  the  group  might  have  had  an  African 
origin.  In  Central  Africa  the  humped  cattle  are  represented  by  the  Galla  ox  or 
sunga,  characterized  by  the  enormous  size  and  thickness  of  the  horns,  as  shown  in 
the  figure  of  the  back  of  the  skull  on  p.  762.  In  this  breed  the  forehead  of  the  skull 
lacks  the  convexity  characteristic-of  the  Indian  humped  cattle;  and  as  the  curvature 
of  the  horns  is  somewhat  similar,  Professor  Rutimeyer  believes  that  the  Galla  ox  is 
most  nearly  related  to  the  Asiatic  banteng  mentioned  later  on. 


THE   GAUR  765 

In  concluding  our  notice  of  the  typical  oxen  it  anay  be  mentioned 

that  several  species  occur  fossil  in  India.     Among  these  is  the  magnif- 
Species 

icent  Narbada  ox  (B.  namadicus) ,  of  the  gravels  of  the  valley  of  the 

Narbada,  which  was  fully  equal  in  size  to  the  aurochs,  and  in  the  typical  form  had 
horns  with  a  cylindrical  section.  It  is,  however,  noteworthy  that  in  one  race  of  this 
species  the  horns  were  somewhat  flattened,  and  thus  approximate  to  those  of  the  liv- 
ing wild  cattle  of  India.  In  the  somewhat  older  deposits  of  the  Siwalik  hills  there 
occurs  the  gigantic  sharp-fronted  ox  (B.  acutifrons),  distinguished  by  the  sharp 
ridge  running  down  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and  the  enormous  length  of  the 
horns,  which  swept  upward  and  outward  in  a  bold  curve,  and  were  probably  but  lit- 
tle short  of  ten  feet  in  span. 

THE   GAUR    (Bos  gaurus) 

With  the  magnificent  animal  known  as  the  gaur,  but  generally  misnamed  by 
Indian  sportsmen  the  bison,  we  come  to  the  first  of  three  species  from  Southeastern 
Asia,  nearly  allied  to  one  another,  and  broadly  distinguished  from  those  already 
noticed.  These  animals,  which  include  the  handsomest  existing  representatives  of 
the  genus,  are  collectively  characterized  by  the  following  features.  The  horns  are 
flattened  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  from  front  to  back,  more  especially  at  their 
bases,  where  they  present  an  eliptical  cross-section;  this  characteristic  being  more 
strongly  marked  in  the  bulls  than  in  the  cows.  The  tail  is  shorter  than  in  the 
typical  oxen,  and  reaches  but  little  if  at  all  below  the  hocks.  A  third  feature  is 
presented  by  the  distinct  ridge  running  from  the  shoulders  to  the  middle  of  the 
back,  where  it  ends  in  an  abrupt  drop,  which  may  be  as  much  as  five  inches  in 
lieight.  This  ridge  is  caused  by  the  great  height  of  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae  of 
the  fore  part  of  the  trunk  as  compared  with  those  of  the  loins;  but  it  is  a  character- 
istic much  less  developed  in  the  banteng  than  in  either  of  the  other  two  species. 
The  three  species  have  also  a  characteristic  coloration,  the  adult  males  being  dark 
brown  or  nearly  black,  the  females  and  young  males  being  either  paler  or  reddish 
brown,  while  in  both  sexes  the  legs  from  above  the  knees  and  hocks  to  the  hoofs 
are  white  or  whitish.  The  hair  is  short,  fine,  and  glossy,  and  the  hoofs  are  nar- 
row and  pointed. 

The  gaur  is  a  strong  and  massively-built  species,  easily  recognized  by  the  high 
convex  ridge  on  the  forehead  between  the  horns,  which  bends  forward,  and  thus 
causes  a  deep  hollow  in  the  profile  of  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  The  ridge  on  the 
back  is  very  strongly  marked,  and  there  is  no  distinct  dewlap  on  the  throat  and 
•chest.  The  flattening  of  the  horns  at  the  base  is  very  decided,  and  the  horns  are 
regularly  curved  throughout  their  length,  and  are  bent  inward  and  slightly  back- 
ward at  their  tips.  The  ears  are  very  large,  the  tail  only  just  reaches  the  hocks, 
and  in  old  bulls  the  hair  becomes  very  thin  on  the  back. 

In  color  the  adult  male  gaur  is  dark  brown,  approaching  black  in  very  old  in- 
dividuals; the  upper  part  of  the  head,  from  above  the  eyes  to  the  nape  of  the  neck, 
is,  however,  ashy  gray,  or  occasionally  dirty  white;  the  muzzle  is  pale  colored,  and 
the  lower  part  of  the  legs  pure  white.  The  cows  and  young  bulls  are  paler,  and  in 


;66 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


some  instances  have  a  rufous  tinge,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  is  most 
marked  in  individuals  inhabiting  dry  and  open  districts.  The  color  of  the  horns  is 
some  shade  of  pale  green  or  yellow  throughout  the  greater  part  of  their  length,  but 
the  tips  are  black. 

The  gaur  appears  to  be  the  tallest  of  all  the  oxen,  old  bulls  sometimes  reaching 
as  much  as  six  feet  (eighteen  hands)  at  the  shoulder,  or  even,  it  is  said,  exceeding 
these  dimensions  by  an  inch  or  more.  The  more  usual  height  is,  however,  from  five 
feet  eight  inches  to  five  feet  ten  inches;  while  the  cows  do  not  exceed  five  feet.  Mr. 


BULL    GAUR. 
(One-twenty-first   natural   size.) 

Blanford  gives  the  average  size  of  the  horns  of  bull  gaur  as  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
four  inches  along  the  outer  curve;  but  specimens  have  been  recorded  with  a 
length  of  thirty-nine  inches  and  a  basal  girth  of  nineteen  inches.  The  girth  has, 
however,  been  exceeded  by  horns  of  which  the  length  was  less,  a  pair  from  the 
Malay  Peninsula  having  a  circumference  of  twenty-two  inches,  with  a  length  of 
thirty-two  inches.  The  horns  of  the  cows  are  smaller,  measuring  in  large  examples, 
from  twenty-three  to  twenty-four  inches  above  the  curve,  with  a  girth  of  about 
thirteen  inches. 


THE    GAUR  767 

Distribution  ^e  geographical  range  of  the  gaur  is  extensive,  Comprising  all  the 
larger  forest  regions  of  India  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the  foot  of  the 
Northeastern  Himalayas,  but  excluding  Ceylon.  To  the  northwest  its  limits  in 
India  are  marked,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  by  the  valley  of  the  Narbada  river; 
while  in  the  grass  jungles  of  the  Ganges  valley  the  gaur  is  met  with  only  along  the 
skirts  of  the  Himalayas.  Eastward  the  range  of  the  gaur  extends  from  Nipal 
through  the  hilly  districts  on  the  south  of  Assam  into  Burma,  and  thence  as  far 
south  as  the  Malay  Peninsula,  where  it  is  known  to  the  natives  as  the  sladong.  It 
has  been  stated  that  the  gaur  occurs  in  Siam,  but  this  requires  confirmation. 

The  gaur  prefers  hilly  districts  to  the  plains,  and  in  India  is  more 
generally  found  at  elevations  of  from  two  thousand  to  five  thousand 
feet  than  in  the  low  country.  While  aged  bulls  are  generally  or  invariably  solitary 
in  their  habits,  guar,  as  a  rule,  collect  together  in  small  herds  of  about  a  dozen  in- 
dividuals, although  the  number  may  be  increased  to  twenty  or  thirty,  and  one 
instance  is  recorded  where  the  number  in  a  herd  was  estimated  at  not  less  than  one 
hundred  head.  Such  an  unusual  gathering  was,  however,  probably  but  temporary, 
and  due  to  the  scarcity  of  pasture.  Each  herd  is  governed  by  an  old  bull;  the  other 
members  of  that  sex  present  being  always  younger  animals.  The  best  account  of 
the  habits  of  the  gaur  is  by  G.  P.  Sanderson,  from  whose  work  the  following  ex- 
tracts are  taken,  with  the  substitution  of  the  word  gaur  for  bison. 

The  gaur  living  in  herds  ' '  are  shy  and  retiring  in  their  habits,  and  retreat  at 
once  if  intruded  upon  by  man.  They  avoid  the  vicinity  of  his  dwellings,  and  never 
visit  patches  of  cultivation  in  the  jungle.  The  gaur  is  thus  an  animal  which  would 
soon  become  extinct  before  the  advance  of  civilization  were  the  latter  rapid,  or  were 
the  jungles  in  which  he  roams  limited  in  extent;  but  his  exemption  from  serious 
diminution,  except  in  isolated  positions,  is  secured  by  the  existence  of  the  continu- 
ous jungles  of  the  Western  Ghats  and  other  forest  ranges.  Gaur,  though  found  in 
the  low-country  jungles,  are  very  partial  to  high  and  well-wooded  tracts  and  their 
activity  in  hilly  ground  is  astonishing.  A  herd  scrambles  up  a  steep  hillside 
almost  with  the  facility  of  a  troop  of  deer,  or  thunders  down  a  slope  into  the  thicker 
cover  of  a  valley  when  alarmed,  at  a  rapid  trot  or  free  gallop." 

The  food  of  the  gaur,  according  to  the  same  writer,  consists  mainly  of  grass, 
but  also  comprises  the  leaves  and  young  shoots  of  bamboo,  as  well  as  the  bark  of  cer- 
tain trees.  Gaur  ' '  feed  till  about  nine  in  the  morning,  or  later  in  cloudy  and  rainy 
weather;  they  then  rest,  lying  down  in  bamboo  cover  or  light  forest  till  the  after- 
noon, when  they  rise  to  graze  and  drink;  they  also  invariably  lie  down  for  some 
hours  during  the  night.  Although  certainly  quick  in  detecting  an  intruder,  gaur 
can  scarcely  be  considered  naturally  wary  animals,  as  they  seldom  encounter  alarms 
in  their  native  haunts.  Unsophisticated  herds  will  frequently  allow  several  shots  to 
be  fired  at  them  before  making  off,  and  even  then  probably  will  not  go  far.  But  if 
subjected  to  frequent  disturbance  they  quickly  become  as  shy  as  deer,  and  if  alarmed 
by  the  approach  of  man  they  retreat  without  loss  of  time."  Except  when  wounded 
and  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  unable  to  escape,  Sanderson  states  that  he  has  never 
known  gaur  belonging  to  a  herd  to  attack  human  beings.  Gaur  are  very  similar  in 
their  general  habits  to  elephants,  and  herds  of  both  may  at  times  be  found  feeding  in 


768  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

proximity.  ' '  Both  seek  the  deep  and  ever-verdant  valleys,  watered  by  perennial 
streams,  during  the  hot  months,  or  from  January  to  May,  where  they  are  safe  from 
the  jungle  fires  which  sweep  the  drier  localities.  With  the  early  rains  of  April  and 
May  a  plentiful  crop  of  succulent  young  grass  springs  from  beneath  the  black  ashes, 
and  the  gaur  and  elephants  then  roam  forth  to  feed  and  enjoy  their  emancipation  from 
the  thraldom  of  the  season  of  scarcity.  About  September  the  grass  in  the  hill 
ranges  has  become  so  coarse,  and  the  annoyance  from  insects  during  continued 
rain  so  great,  that  the  herds  move  into  more  open  country,  and  especially  into  forest 
tracts  at  the  foot  of  hill  ranges  where  suitable  cover  exists. ' '  In  such  localities  the 
grass  is  not  more  than  a  yard  high  at  the  most,  and  insects  are  comparatively  few. 
In  contradistinction  to  elephants,  gaur  never  forsake  the  forest  districts  for  the  open 
plains;  but  when  in  the  lowland  districts  are  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  numerous 
salt  licks. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  foregoing  description  applies  solely  to  the  gaur 
of  Southern  India,  and  that  in  the  more  northern  portions  of  their  range,  where  the 
seasons  are  different,  there  is  a  corresponding  alteration  in  their  habits.  When  in 
the  lowlands,  gaur  are  apt  to  catch  various  diseases  prevalent  among  domestic  cattle, 
and  sometimes  the  herds  are  decimated  from  this  cause.  In  Peninsular  India  the 
calves  are  generally  born  during  August  and  September,  although  a  few  are  pro- 
duced from  April  to  June. 

The  cries  of  the  gaur  are  three  in  number.  The  first  is  a  loud  reverberating 
bellow,  used  as  a  call;  the  second  a  low  mooing  cry,  uttered  when  in  alarm,  or 
when  the  curiosity  of  the  animals  is  excited;  while  the  third  is  a  kind  of  whistling 
snort,  heard  when  the  frightened  creatures  dash  off  into  thicker  cover.  In  India 
proper  the  gaur  has  never  been  domesticated;  and  it  is  but  recently  that  a  living 
example  —  a  young  one  —  has  been  exhibited  alive  in  England.  The  hill  tribes  of 
the  northeastern  portion  of  India  have,  however,  succeeded  in  taming  these  animals. 

Solitary  gaur  are  always  very  old  bulls,  which  have  been  driven  from  the  herds 
by  their  younger  rivals  after  deadly  combats,  the  marks  of  which  are  to  be  seen  on 
their  scored  and  seamed  flanks,  as  well  as  in  their  slit  and  frayed  ears  and  their  bat- 
tered horns.  Mr.  Sanderson  says  that  these  solitary  bulls  always  have  the  finest 
heads  and  horns,  and  offer  the  most  noble  object  of  pursuit  to  the  sportsman.  The 
morose  and  savage  disposition  commonly  attributed  to  these  outcasts  is  regarded  by 
the  same  writer  as  not  altogether  authenticated.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  men  are 
sometimes  killed  by  a  sudden  rush  from  one  of  these  solitary  bulls,  but  that  this  is 
generally  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  the  animal  has  been  suddenly  surprised, 
and  thereupon  starts  up  and  rushes  forward  without  considering  what  may  be 
in  its  path. 

Gaur  shooting,  from  the  nature  of  the  ground,  is  invariably  under- 
taken on  foot,  and,  next  to  elephant  shooting,  is  considered  to  be  the 
finest  sport  with  the  rifle  in  India.  Good  trackers  are  essential  to  its  success;  but 
these  are  fortunately  to  be  found  among  the  non-Aryan  hill  tribes  of  Southern  India, 
who  are  unsurpassed  in  the  keenness  and  accuracy  with  which  they  follow  a  trail. 
The  emergence  of  an  old  solitary  bull  gaur  on  an  open  glade,  among  the  tall  bamboo 
forests  of  the  hills  of  Southern  India,  is  described  as  being  one  of  the  finest  sights 


THE   GAYAL 


769 


with  which  the  toils  of  the  sportsman  can  be  rewarded.    When  killed,  the  gaur  affords 
excellent  meat,  the  great  delicacy  being  the  marrow  bones  roasted  on  the  camp  fire. 

THE  GAYAL  (Bos  frontalis} 

Well  known  for  many  years  as  existing  in  a  semi-domesticated  condition  in  the 
hilly  districts  of  Northeastern  India,  it  is  but  recently  that  the  gayal  has  been  deter- 


•&W$t*V^  ^r^S^cr' 
wttMittf.  vr^ATx^S^ 


COW     GAYAL. 

(One-twenty-second  natural  size.) 

mined  to  be  a  truly  wild  species,  although  we  have  yet  no  definite  information  of 
its  habits  or  the  limits  of  its  range  in  this  condition. 

The  gayal,  or  as  it  is  frequently  termed  the  mithan,  is  nearly  allied  to  the  gaur, 
from  which,  however,  it  differs  in  several  important  particulars.     In  the  first  place, 
it  is  a  somewhat  smaller  animal,  with  proportionately-shorter  limbs,  a  minor  devel- 
49 


770  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

opment  of  the  ridge  on  the  back,  and  a  larger  dewlap  on  the  throat  of  the  bulls. 
The  head  is  also  shorter  and  broader,  with  a  perfectly  flat  forehead  and  a  straight 
line  between  the  bases  of  the  horns.  The  horns,  which  are  very  thick  and  massive, 
are  less  flattened  and  much  less  curved  than  in  the  gaur,  extending  almost  directly 
outward  from  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  curving  somewhat  upward  at  the  tips,  but 
without  any  inward  inclination.  Their  extremities  are  thus  much  farther  apart 
than  in  the  gaur.  The  color  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  latter,  the  head  and 
body  being  blackish  brown  in  both  sexes,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  limbs  white 
or  yellowish.  The  horns  are  of  uniform  blackish  tint  from  base  to  tip.  Some 
domesticated  gayal  are  parti-colored,  while  others  are  completely  white. 

The  gayal  stands  much  lower  at  the  withers  than  the  gaur.  In  the  skull  of  an 
old  wild  bull  measured  by  Mr.  Blanford  the  horns  reached  fourteen  inches  both  in 
length  and  basal  girth;  but  these  dimensions  are  exceeded  by  those  of  many 
domesticated  specimens.  The  cow  gayal,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  is  a  much 
smaller  animal  than  the  bull,  and  has  scarcely  any  dewlap  on  the  throat. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  Mr.  Blanford  that  the  gayal  occurs  in  a 
wild  condition  in  Tenasserim;  but  in  a  more  or  less  domesticated  con- 
dition large  herds  of  these  animals  are  kept  by  the  Kuki  tribes  on  the  hill  districts  of 
Tipperah.  It  is,  moreover,  certain  that  some  of  the  domesticated  cattle  kept  by  the 
hill  tribes  on  both  sides  of  the  Assam  valley  in  the  districts  of  Manipur,  Cachar, 
Chittagong,  and  the  Lushai  hills,  are  gayal,  although  others  are  gaur.  From  indi- 
cations afforded  by  certain  skulls  it  is  not  improbable  that  these  tame  gayal  and 
gaur  occasionally  interbreed.  Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  the  tame  herds  of  gayal 
"are  kept  for  food,  and,  according  to  some  authorities,  for  their  milk,  though  this 
is  doubtful,  as  most  of  the  Indo-Chinese  tribes  who  keep  mithans  never  drink  milk. 
The  animals  appear  to  be  never  employed  in  agricultural  labor,  nor  as  beasts  of 
burden.  They  roam  and  feed  unattended  through  the  forest  during  the  day,  and 
return  to  their  owner's  village  at  night." 

the  gaur,  the  gayal  is  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  hill  forests, 


and  the  facility  with  which  it  will  traverse  rocky  country  is  little  short 
of  marvelous  for  an  animal  of  such  bulky  proportions. 

Gayal  have  been  exhibited  in  England  alive,  but  none  of  them  were  fully- 
grown  bulls,  and  consequently  failed  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  magnificent 
proportions  attained  by  that  sex.  Adult  bulls  have,  however,  been  shown  from 
time  to  time  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Calcutta,  and  were  most  splendid  animals, 
with  glossy  coats  of  the  deepest  shade  of  brown.  Gayal  will  breed  with  the  humped 
cattle  of  India,  and  the  product  of  such  a  union  born  in  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens  was  again  crossed  with  a  bull  American  bison.  A  pure-bred  gayal  calf 
produced  in  the  same  menagerie  was  of  a  light  brownish-red  color,  with  the  throat, 
chest,  and  the  inner  sides  of  the  legs  white. 

THE   BANTENG    (Bos  sondaicus} 

The  banteng,  or  Javan  ox,  differs  very  considerably  from  both  the  preceding 
species,  and  serves  to  connect  them  with  the  typical  oxen.  The  most  distinctive 


THE   BANTENG 


771 


feature  of  this  ox  is  the  large  white  patch  on  the  hind-quarters,  which  extends  up- 
ward to  the  root  of  the  tail,  although  not  surrounding  it.  Another  peculiarity  of 
the  banteng  is  that  the  cow  has  the  head,  body,  and  upper  portions  of  the  limbs 
of  the  same  reddish  brown,  almost  chestnut  color  as  the  calves.  The  general  build  of 
the  animal  is  slighter  than  that  of  the  gaur,  the  ridge  on  the  back  is  much  less  de- 
veloped, and  the  legs  are  proportionately  longer.  The  head  is  also  more  elongated 


\ 


THE    BANTENG. 
(One-twentieth  natural    size. ) 

and  pointed;  while  the  horns,  which  are  cylindrical  in  the  young,  are  relatively 
smaller.  In  the  adult  bull  they  are  flattened  at  the  base,  and  are  much  curved,  the 
direction  being  at  first  outward  and  upward,  while  toward  the  tips  they  incline 
inward  and  somewhat  backward.  The  tail  descends  below  the  hocks;  and  the  dew- 
lap is  of  moderate  size.  The  old  bulls  are  black,  with  the  exception  of  the  white 
patch  on  the  buttocks  and  the  legs,  from  the  knees  and  hocks  downward.  The 


772  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

young  calves,  like  those  of  the  gayal,  have  the  whole  length  of  the  outer  surface  of 
the  limbs  chestnut;  and  they  are  also  distinguished  by  a  dark  streak  down  the 
back.  A  full-grown  bull  banteng  from  Java  measured  five  feet  nine  and  one- 
half  inches  at  the  withers;  but  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  the  largest  example  re- 
corded from  Burma  was  only  five  feet  four  inches  in  height. 

The  banteng  is  exclusively  confined  to  the  regions  lying  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  occurring  throughout  Burma,  and  prob- 
ably extending  as  far  north  as  the  hills  to  the  eastward  of  Chittagong,  while  it  also 
inhabits  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  islands  of  Java,  Bali,  Borneo,  and  probably 
Sumatra.  That  it  also  occurs  in  Siam  is  almost  certain,  but  its  exact  range  in  the 
Indo-Chinese  countries  has  still  to  be  determined.  Large  herds  of  domesticated 
banteng  are  kept  by  the  Malays  in  Java,  and  also  in  the  small  island  of  Bali,  lying 
to  the  southeast.  The  herds  in  Bali  are  replenished  by  importation  from  Java. 
The  Malays  speak  of  a  wild  ox  under  the  name  of  the  sapio,  which  may  prove  to  be 
a  variety  of  the  banteng  with  ferruginous  red  instead  of  white  on  the  legs. 

It  has  already  been  noticed  that  the  original  color  of  the  wild  ox  or  aurochs 
of  Europe  was  probably  white  mixed  with  reddish  brown;  and  the  fact  that  the 
calves  of  all  the  three  species  of  the  present  group  are  reddish  brown  points  to 
the  conclusion  that  this  was  the  ancestral  coloration.  Now  the  fact  that  the 
female  banteng  permanently  retains  this  ancestral  coloration  which  is  tran- 
sient in  the  gaur  and  gayal,  indicates  that  the  present  species  is  a  less  specialized 
form  than  either  of  the  other  two;  the  dark  color  being  acquired  only  in  the  male  sex. 
This  is  confirmed  by  the  structure  of  the  banteng,  which  departs  less  widely  from 
that  of  the  typical  oxen  than  is  the  case  with  the  other  two  species  of  this  group. 

Although  the  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  banteng  are  not  very  full, 
yet  it  appears  that  in  these  respects  this  animal  is  very  similar  to  the 
gaur.  Mr.  Blanford  suggests,  however,  that  from  its  relatively-longer  legs  the 
banteng  is  less  addicted  to  climbing  among  rocky  hills  than  are  either  of  the  other 
members  of  the  group,  and  that  it  is  accordingly  more  restricted  to  the  plains  of 
tall  grass.  The  domesticated  race  breeds  freely  with  the  Indian  humped  cattle. 

It  is  stated  by  Blyth  that  in  old  bulls  the  skin  between  the  bases  of  the  horns 
becomes  enormously  thickened,  and  assumes  a  horny  and  rugged  condition.  This 
development  beginning  to  take  place  before  the  coat  has  commenced  to  change  from 
the  light  to  the  dark  color. 

The  extinct  Etruscan  ox  (B.  etruscus)  from  the  Pliocene  of  the  European  con- 
tinent, appears  to  have  been  allied  to  the  banteng,  but  with  the  horns  placed  low 
down  on  the  skull  near  the  eyes. 

THE  YAK  (Bos  grunniens) 

The  yak  is  one  of  the  numerous  Mammals  peculiar  to  the  elevated  plateau  of 
Tibet,  and  differs  markedly  from  all  the  other  members  of  the  ox  tribe,  although  to 
a  certain  extent  it  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  preceding  group  and  the  bi- 
sons. The  most  distinctive  peculiarity  of  the  yak,  so  far  as  external  features  are 
concerned,  is  the  mass  of  long  hair  with  which  the  flanks,  limbs,  and  tail  are 


774  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

clothed,  and  which  makes  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal  so  very  different 
from  that  of  other  oxen.  On  the  head  and  upper  parts  of  the  body  the  hair  is  short 
and  nearly  smooth,  and  the  long  hair  only  commences  on  the  lower  part  of  the  sides 
where  it  forms  a  fringe  of  great  depth,  extending  forward  across  the  shoulders  and 
backward  on  to  the  thighs.  On  the  tail  the  long  hair  is  developed  on  the  lower 
half,  where  it  expands  into  an  enormous  tuft  which  does  not  generally  reach  below 
the  hocks.  There  is  also  a  tuft  of  long  hair  on  the  breast.  The  color  of  the  hair  is 
a  uniform  dark  blackish  brown,  sometimes  tending  to  a  rusty  tint  on  the  flanks  and 
back,  and  with  a  gray  grizzle  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and  neck  in  very  old  in- 
dividuals. Around  the  muzzle  there  is  a  little  white.  We  frequently  find  the  yak 
represented  as  a  brown  and  white,  or  even  a  pure  white  animal,  but  all  such  speci- 
mens are  domesticated,  and  mostly  hybrid  individuals. 

In  build  the  yak  is  massively  formed,  with  short  and  stout  legs.  The  shoulders 
are  high,  but  there  is  not  the  distinct  ridge  on  the  back  characteristic  of  the  gaur, 
and  the  whole  back  is  nearly  straight  throughout,  without  any  falling  away  at  the 
hips.  Both  the  ears  and  the  muzzle  are  small;  and  the  dewlap  is  totally  wanting. 
The  head  is  long  and  narrow,  with  a  nearly  flat  forehead,  and  the  eyes  are  approxi- 
mated to  the  horns.  The  horns,  which  are  very  large  in  the  bull,  are  smooth,  and 
nearly  or  quite  cylindrical,  with  the  first  curvature  of  their  upper  border  concave,  as 
in  the  gaur  and  banteng.  They  curve  at  first  upward  and  outward,  then  sweep 
boldly  forward,  after  which  they  incline  upward  and  inward,  and  in  some  cases 
slightly  backward.  The  hoofs  are  relatively  large  and  rounded.  In  height,  it  is  stated 
that  old  bulls  occasionally  stand  nearly  six  feet  at  the  shoulder;  but  five  feet  six 
inches  may  be  taken  as  the  average.  The  weight  of  bulls  is  said  to  be  about  i ,  200 
pounds.  Average-sized  horns  vary  in  length  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  inches, 
measured  along  the  curve;  but  a  pair  has  been  recorded  measuring  forty  inches  in 
length,  with  a  basal  girth  of  nearly  nineteen  inches.  The  horns  of  the  cows  are  al- 
ways smaller  and  thinner  than  those  of  bulls. 

Such  are  the  leading  external  characteristics  of  the  yak;  but  there  are  also  cer- 
tain features  connected  with  the  skeleton  which  are  worthy  of  notice.  In  the  first 
place,  there  are  fourteen  pairs  of  ribs,  whereas,  in  all  the  other  oxen  hitherto  no- 
ticed, the  number  is  but  thirteen;  and  in  this  respect  a  yak  resembles  the  bisons. 
In  the  skull,  the  region  between  the  eyes  and  the  occiput  is  relatively  shorter  and 
wider  than  in  the  typical  oxen,  and  the  horns  are  set  on  somewhat  below  the  plane 
of  the  extreme  summit.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  front  view  of  a  yak's  skull 
exhibits  a  small  prominence  between  the  horns  formed  by  a  boss  of  bone  at  the  top 
of  the  occiput;  the  crest  or  summit  of  the  occiput  itself  being  invisible  from  the 
front,  and  the  shape  of  the  whole  occiput  forming  an  inverted  V.  The  difference  in 
the  shape  of  the  occiput  from  that  obtaining  in  the  true  oxen  may  be  seen  by  com- 
paring the  accompaning  figure  with  that  of  the  skull  of  the  Galla  ox  given  on  p. 
762.  In  regard  to  the  position  of  the  horns  and  some  other  features  of  the  skull, 
the  yak  approximates  to  the  bison. 

Yak,  as  we  have  said,  inhabit  the  plateau  of  Tibet,  probably  extend- 
ing northward  as  far  as  the  Kuen-L,uen  range,  while  eastward  they 
range  into  the  Chinese  province  of  Kansu,  and  westward  enter  the  eastern  portions 


THE   YAK 


775 


of  Ladakh,  especially  the  regions  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Chang-Chenmo  valley 
and  the  great  Pangong  lake.  The  greater  portion  of  the  country  comprised  within 
this  extensive  area  is  desolate  and  dreary  in  the  extreme,  but  yak  confine  themselves 
to  the  wildest  and  most  inaccessible  portions  of  these  regions,  and  are  found  only  at 
great  elevations,  ranging  in  summer  from  about  fourteen  thousand  to  upward  of 
twenty  thousand  feet,  and  perhaps  even  more,  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They  are 
at  all  times  extremely  impatient  of  heat,  and  delight  in  cold. 

Writing  of  the  yak,  General  Kinloch  observes  that,  "although  so 
large  a  beast,  it  thrives  upon  the  coarsest  pasturage,  and  its  usual  food 
consists  of  a  rough  wiry  grass,  which  grows  in  all  the  higher  valleys  of  Tibet,  up  to 
an  elevation  of  nearly  twenty  thousand  feet.  On  the  banks  of  the  streams  in  many 
places  a  more  luxuriant  grass  is  met  with,  and  it  is  particularly  plentiful  in  the  val- 


Habits 


FRONT  AND   BACK   VIEWS   OF  THE  SKUI.lv  OF  DOMESTICATED   YAK. 
(After  Rutimeyer.; 

leys  of  Chang-Chenmo  and  Kyobrung,  forming  the  attraction  which  entices  the  yak 
from  the  still  wilder  and  more  barren  country  further  north.  Yak  seem  to  wander 
about  a  good  deal.  In  summer  the  cows  are  generally  to  be  found  in  herds  varying 
in  numbers  from  ten  to  one  hundred;  while  the  old  bulls  are  for  the  most  part  soli- 
tary or  in  small  parties  of  three  or  four.  They  feed  at  night  and  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  usually  betake  themselves  to  some  steep  and  barren  hillside  during  the 
day,  lying  sometimes  for  hours  in  the  same  spot.  Old  bulls  in  particular  seem  to 
rejoice  in  choosing  a  commanding  situation  for  their  resting  place,  and  their  tracks 
may  be  found  on  the  tops  of  the  steepest  hills,  far  above  the  highest  traces  of  vege- 
tation. The  yak  is  not  apparently  a  very  sharp-sighted  beast,  but  its  sense  of 
smell  is  extremely  keen,  and  this  is  the  chief  danger  to  guard  against  in  stalking  it. 
In  the  high  valleys  of  Tibet,  where  so  many  glens  intersect  one  another,  and  where 


7/6  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  temperature  is  continually  changing,  the  wind  is  equally  variable.  It  will 
sometimes  shift  to  every  point  of  the  compass  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  and 
the  best-planned  stalk  may  be  utterly  spoiled." 

The  yak  found  in  the  Chang-Chenmo  valley  are  chiefly  or  entirely  stragglers 
from  Chinese  territory,  and,  owing  to  incessant  pursuit,  very  few  are  to  be  met  with 
at  the  present  day  in  these  regions.  Native  travelers  report,  however,  that  on  the 
upper  Indus,  to  the  eastward  of  Ladakh,  yak  are  to  be  found  in  vast  numbers,  and 
that  there  they  do  not  exhibit  the  extreme  wariness  characterizing  those  which 
wander  into  Ladakh.  In  Northern  Tibet  yak  have  been  also  met  with  in  great  num- 
bers by  the  Russian  explorer,  Prejewalski.  Here  the  old  bulls  were  found  alone, 
and  the  cows  and  younger  males  generally  in  small  herds;  although,  where  the 
pasture  was  good,  the  herds  were  sometimes  very  large.  These  herds  wandered 
more  or  less  regularly  over  wide  tracts  of  country,  and,  according  to  native  reports, 
were  found  in  summer  in  grassy  plains,  where  they  were  quite  unknown  in  winter. 
As  in  Southern  Tibet,  they  were  especially  partial  to  the  tracts  bordering  the  streams, 
where  grass  was  more  abundant  than  elsewhere.  On  the  other  hand,  the  solitary 
bulls  were  reported  to  inhabit  the  same  districts  throughout  the  year.  Where  the 
herds  were  largest,  their  numbers  are  said  to  be  reckoned  by  hundreds,  and  even 
thousands.  When  alarmed  or  expecting  danger,  the  cows  and  older  bulls  place 
themselves  in  the  van  and  on  the  flanks  of  the  herds,  with  the  calves  in  the  centre; 
but  on  the  near  approach  of  a  hunter,  the  whole  herd  will  take  to  flight  at  a  gallop, 
with  their  heads  down  and  their  tails  in  the  air.  A  wounded  yak,  whether  cow  or 
bull,  will,  according  to  General  Kinloch,  not  unfrequently  charge. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  yak  is  its  grunting  voice,  from  which  it  derives 
its  Latin  title.  Domestic  yak  are  kept  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
higher  regions  of  Tibet  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh;  and  are 
absolutely  essential  for  crossing  many  parts  of  that  desolate  region.  Some  of  the 
pure-bred  animals  kept  by  the  Tartar  tribes  living  on  the  Rupsu  plateau,  to  the 
south  of  the  Indus  in  Ladakh,  are  magnificent  beasts  of  large  size  and  uniformly-dark 
color.  When  they  have  not  been  used  for  a  considerable  period  the}'  are  very  wild, 
and  apt  to  break  loose  and  throw  their  loads;  but  after  a  few  days'  march  they  sober 
down.  In  other  parts  the  yak  are  smaller,  and  vary  greatly  in  color,  being  some- 
times entirely  white,  while  the  tail  is  very  generally  of  that  hue.  There  are  also 
many  crosses  between  the  yak  and  ordinary  cattle,  some  of  the  breeds  being  without 
horns.  These  half  breeds  have  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  withstand  much 
higher  temperatures  than  the  pure  yak:  and  they  may  be  met  with  carrying  bur- 
dens in  the  hot  valley  of  the  Indus,  between  the  towns  of  Ley  and  Kashmir. 

Although  yak  are  admirable  beasts  of  burden  on  account  of  their  endurance 
and  strength,  and  the  facility  with  which  they  will  traverse  glaciers  and  swim  icy 
torrents,  they  have  the  great  disadvantage  that  they  will  not  eat  corn.  This  fre- 
quently necessitates  the  pushing  on  of  the  party  by  forced  marches  to  prevent  their 
beasts  from  perishing  of  hunger.  The  following  description  of  a  march  with  yak, 
for  the  truthfulness  of  which  the  present  writer  can  vouch  from  his  own  personal 
experience,  is  from  the  pen  of  General  Macintyre.  "For  more  than  six  weary 
hours,"  writes  the  general,  "did  we  toil  up  against  the  almost  blinding  snow  and 


THE  EUROPEAN  BISON  777 

piercing  wind  that  chilled  us  to  the  very  marrow,  although  the  distance  to  the  summit 
was  only  six  or  seven  miles.  It  was  truly  wonderful  to  see  the  way  in  which  the 
yak  struggled  through  the  deep  snow,  and  scrambled  over  places  which  were  often 
difficult  and  sometimes  dangerous  to  traverse.  Nothing  could  have  exceeded  the 
powers  of  endurance  evinced  by  these  animals,  which  were  game  to  the  backbone, 
and  as  sure  footed  as  goats.  One  of  them,  notwithstanding,  lost  its  footing  on  a 
steep  slope  of  w/z>/,  and  went  rolling  and  sliding  down  until  it  was  fortunately 
stopped  by  a  friendly  rock;  otherwise  it  must  have  disappeared  forever  under  the 
glazier.  On  regaining  its  feet  the  creature  merely  shook  itself,  and  on  being  disen- 
tangled from  its  load  soon  clambered  up  again. 

All  who  have  visited  a  Tibetan  monastery,  or  lamasery,  must  have  been  struck 
with  the  number  of  yak  tails  suspended  as  streamers  from  tall  poles  fixed  in  the 
ground  before  the  entrance.  The  more  general  use  of  these  appendages  throughout 
the  East  is,  however,  in  the  form  of  chowris,  or  fly  whisks.  For  this  purpose  pure 
white  tails  are  preferred;  and  they  are  frequently  mounted  with  the  twisted  horn 
of  a  black  buck  as  a  handle.  In  China  yak  tails  dyed  red  are  affixed  to  the  roofs 
of  the  summer  residences  as  pendants. 

THE  EUROPEAN  BISON  (Bos  bonassus) 

The  European  bison,  wisent,  or  zubr  is  one  of  two  species  representing  a  dis- 
tinct and  peculiar  group  of  the  genus  Bos.  These  animals  resemble  the  yak  in 
their  cylindrical  horns  and  the  relative  shortness  of  the  forehead  of  the  skull,  and 
also  in  the  large  number  of  their  ribs,  of  which  there  may  be  fourteen  or  fifteen 
pairs.  They  differ,'  however,  in  having  the  horns  placed  more  below  the  plane  of 
the  occipital  region  of  the  skull,  so  that  in  a  front  view  the  crest  of  the  occiput 
itself  is  seen  at  the  summit  of  the  skull.  A  further  distinctive  feature  is  to  be  found 
in  the  extreme  convexity  of  the  forehead  of  the  skull;  while  the  sockets  of  the  eyes 
are  very  prominent,  and  assume  a  tubular  form.  Moreover,  the  premaxillary 
bones,  forming  the  extremity  of  the  skull,  are  separated  from  the  very  short  nasal 
bones  by  a  much  longer  interval  than  in  the  yak  and  the  gaur;  and  are  thus  very 
widely  different  from  those  of  the  typical  oxen,  which  are  prolonged  upward  to  join 
the  elongated  nasals. 

Bison  are  further  characterized  by  the  great  excess  in  the  height  of  the  withers 
over  the  hind-quarters,  owing  to  the  great  length  of  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae  in 
the  fore-part  of  the  trunk,  as  displayed  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  on  p.  748.  This 
produces  a  distinct  hump  on  the  shoulders,  which  passes,  however,  gradually  into 
the  line  of  the  back  without  the  sudden  descent  characterizing  the  gaur.  The  great 
development  of  the  fore-quarters  appears  to  be  intensified  by  the  mass  of  dark-brown 
hair  with  which  the  back  of  the  head,  neck,  shoulders,  and  chest  are  covered,  and 
which  extends  far  down  on  the  fore-limbs.  The  long  hair  is  likewise  continued  as 
a  kind  of  crest  along  the  middle  of  the  back  nearly  to  the  root  of  the  tail;  the  tail  it- 
self being  tufted  at  the  end,  and  reaching  some  distance  below  the  hocks.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  body  is  covered  with  short  curly  hair  of  a  somewhat  lighter  tint  than 
that  clothing  the  fore-quarters.  In  summer  the  long  hair  over  all  the  body  is  shed 


778  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

in  large  patches,  thus  showing  the  nearly  bare  skin  clothed  with  short  mouse-colored 
hair.  Both  the  European  and  the  American  bison  are  very  closely  allied,  and  we 
shall  reserve  our  notice  of  their  distinctive  differences  till  we  come  to  the  second  of 
the  two  species.  Owing  to  a  confusion  of  terms,  the  name  aurochs,  which  properly 
belongs  to  the  extinct  wild  ox  of  Europe,  has  been  very  generally  applied  to  the 
European  or  true  bison,  but  it  may  be  hoped  that  this  misapplication  will  soon  be  a 
thing  of  the  past. 

The  European  bison  is  a  forest-dwelling  animal,  having  been  always 
absent  from  the  open  plains  of  Southern  Russia,  which  in  many  re- 
spects resembles  the  habitat  of  its  North- American  cousin.  Formerly  this  species, 
as  attested  both  by  historical  documents  and  by  its  semifossilized  remains,  was 
abundant  over  a  large  area  of  Europe,  but  it  is  now  restricted  to  the  forests  of  Bial- 
owitza  in  Lithuania,  to  the  Caucasus,  and,  it  is  said,  to  portions  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia:  Fossil  remains  of  the  bison  are  met  with  in  the  caverns  and  superficial 
deposits  of  England,  France,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Italy;  the  earliest  deposits 
in  which  they  occur  being  the  brick  earths  of  the  Thames  valley,  where  they  are  as- 
sociated with  those  of  the  mammoth,  and  in  the  still  older  "  forest  bed  "  of  the  Nor- 
folk coast.  The  fossil  race  was,  indeed,  of  larger  dimensions,  and  had  longer  and 
rather  straighter  horns  than  its  existing  representative;  but  these  differences  cannot 
well  be  regarded  as  of  specific  importance.  From  Britain  the  bison  disappeared  at  a 
much  earlier  date  than  the  aurochs,  none  of  its  remains  occurring  in  the  fens  and 
turbaries,  where  those  of  the  latter  are  so  common.  Northward  the  range  of  the  bi- 
son formerly  extended  into  Siberia;  while  its  remains  have  also  been  obtained  from 
the  frozen  soil  of  Eschscholtz  bay  in  Alaska. 

The  bison  now  living  in  Lithuania  are  specially -protected  by  the  Rus- 
sian Government  and  are  under  the  charge  of  a  staff  of  keepers,  but 
those  of  the  Caucasus  are  thoroughly  wild.  Although  living  at  a  greater  altitude,  and 
thus  exposed  to  a  more  intense  cold,  the  bison  of  the  Caucasus  are  less  thickly  haired 
than  are  those  of  Lithuania.  Bison  were  abundant  in  the  Black  Forest  in  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  as  late  as  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  were  sufficiently 
numerous  in  parts  of  Switzerland  and  Germany  to  be  used  as  food.  In  a  recent  sum- 
mary of  the  history  of  the  species,  Mr.  F.  A.  Lucas  states  that  "up  to  1500  the 
European  bison  seems  to  have  been  common  in  Poland,  where  it  was  looked  upon  as 
royal  game,  and  hunted  in  right  royal  manner  by  the  king  and  nobility,  as  many  as 
two  thousand  or  three  thousand  beaters  being  employed  to  drive  the  game.  In  1534 
the  animal  was  still  so  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  Girgau,  Transylvania,  that  peas- 
ants passing  through  the  woods  were  occasionally  trampled  to  death  by  startled  bi- 
son, and  hunts  were  undertaken  by  the  nobles  in  order  to  reduce  the  number  of  the 
animals.  In  spite  of  this  local  abundance,  it  is  probable  that  about  this  time  the 
bison  was  in  a  great  measure  restricted  to  Lithuania;  and  although  so  late  as  1555 
one  was  killed  in  Prussia,  it  is  almost  certain  that  this  was  merely  a  straggler  from 
the  main  herd.  In  1752  a  grand  hunt  was  organized  by  the  Polish  king,  Augustus 
III.,  and  in  one  day  60  bison  were  killed.  .  .  .  For  some  time  after  the  above  event 
little  seems  to  have  been  recorded  concerning  the  zubr,  so  that  Desmarest,  writing 
in  1822,  says  that  if  any  remain  in  Lithuania  they  must  be  very  few  in  number. 


THE  EUROPEAN  BISON  779 

There  were,  however,  over  500  bison  in  Lithuania  at  that  time,'  for  in  1820  there 
were  that  number,  this  being  a  considerable  increase  since  1815,  when  there  were 
estimated  to  be  only  300.  About  this  time  active  measures  must  have  been  taken 
for  the  protection  of  the  Lithuanian  herd,  for  in  1830  it  comprised  over  700  individ- 
uals. In  1831  a  local  revolt  occurred,  the  game  laws  were  set  at  naught,  and  the 
number  of  bison  reduced  to  637.  Order  having  been  restored,  the  bison  began  to 
recuperate,  and  according  to  the  official  enumeration  at  the  end  of  each  decade,  there 
were  in  1840,  780;  1850,  1,390;  and  in  1860,  1,700.  Political  troubles  were,  however, 
the  bane  of  the  bison;  and  just  as  the  prosperity  of  the  Lithuanian  herd  seemed  as- 
sured, the  Polish  uprising  of  1863  took  place.  Many  bands  of  insurgents  sought 
refuge  in  the  forests;  the  bison  were  left  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  were  so  rap- 
idly killed  off  that  the  next  official  count  showed  only  847.  For  a  short  time  after 
peace  was  restored  the  herd  increased  to  a  slight  extent,  but  later  on  it  began  to  de- 
crease, the  enumeration  of  1880  showing  but  600,  a  number  that  has  since  been  les- 
sened, the  herd  being  still  on  the  wane."  The  herd  is  divided  into  about  a  dozen 
distinct  bands,  inhabiting  different  regions  of  the  forest.  In  the  Caucasus  the  bison 
is  protected  by  the  rugged  nature  of  the  country,  as  well  as  by  special  laws.  Re- 
cently an  English  sportsman —  Mr.  Littledale  —  has  been  bison  shooting  in  the  Cau- 
casus, and  a  male  and  female  which  fell  to  his  rifle  are  now  exhibited  in  the  British 
Museum. 

The  European  bison,  so  far  as  can  now  be  ascertained,  appears  to  have  always 
associated  in  small  bands.  In  Lithuania  these  bands  comprise  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
individuals  during  the  summer,  but  in  winter  two  or  more  of  them  unite  to  form  a 
herd  of  from  thirty  to  forty  head.  The  very  old  bulls  are  solitary.  In  spring  and 
summer  the  bison  seek  the  thickest  and  deepest  portions  of  the  forest,  but  during 
winter  frequent  drier  and  more  elevated  cover.  Whereas  the  nutriment  of  the 
American  species  consists  wholly  of  grass,  the  European  bison  feeds  largely  upon 
the  leaves,  twigs,  and  bark  of  trees.  Although  active  during  both  day  and  night, 
bison  feed  chiefly  during  the  morning  and  evening.  Large  trees  are  stripped  of 
their  foliage  and  bark  as  high  up  as  the  animals  can  reach,  while  smaller  ones  are 
broken  down  or  uprooted. 

In  spite  of  their  size  and  bulk,  bison  are  active  animals,  and  can  both  trot  and 
gallop  with  considerable  speed.  In  galloping  the  head  is  carried  close  to  the 
ground,  and  the  tail  high  in  the  air.  Generally  they  are  shy  and  retiring  in  dispo- 
sition, more  especially  when  young;  but  in  the  Lithuanian  forest  an  old  bull  has 
been  known  to  take  possession  of  a  road  and  challenge  all  comers.  During  the  breed- 
ing season,  which  takes  place  in  August  or  the  early  part  of  September,  the  bison 
are  in  the  best  condition.  At  such  seasons  the  bulls  engage  in  terrific  conflicts, 
which  occasionally  end  fatally,  for  the  leadership  of  the  herd.  These  combats  are 
at  first  entered  upon  somewhat  playfully,  but  soon  take  place  in  earnest.  The 
old  solitary  bulls  then  return  to  the  herds,  and  after  having  either  driven  away 
or  killed  their  younger  rivals,  once  more  resume  the  leadership.  Not  only  are 
the  younger  bulls  sometimes  killed  in  these  conflicts,  but  the  same  fate  occasionally 
overtakes  the  cows.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  breeding  season  the  old  bulls  revert 
to  their  solitary  life.  The  calves  are  born  in  May  or  the  early  part  of  June,  and  are 


;8o  THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 

dropped  in  the  most  secluded  parts  of  the  forest.  The  cows  apparently  do  not  calve 
more  frequently  than  once  in  three  years,  so  that  the  rate  of  increase  is  necessarily 
slow.  In  defending  their  offspring  against  the  attacks  of  bears  and  wolves,  the 
females  display  great  courage,  and  seldom  allow  them  to  be  carried  off  except  at  the 
sacrifice  of  their  own  lives.  Occasionally  when  full-grown  bulls  get  half  buried  in 
deep  snow  they  are  pulled  down  by  wolves. 


THE  AMERICAN  BISON  {Bos  americanus) 

As  the  gaur  in  India  has  usurped  the  name  of  bison,  while  the  European  bison 
has  been  frequently  called  the  aurochs,  so  the  American  bison  is  almost  invariably 
named  the  buffalo. 

The  American  bison,  which  is  now,  unfortunately,  practically  exterminated, 
differs  from  its  European  cousin  not  only  in  certain  structural  features,  but  likewise 
in  habits,  being  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  the  open  plains,  where  it  formerly  con- 
gregated in  vast  herds,  comprising  thousands  of  individuals,  and  living  entirely  on 
grass.  According  to  Mr.  Hornaday,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  full  account  of 
the  species,  the  American  bison  differs  from  the  European  kind  in  the  following 
features.  Firstly,  the  mass  of  hair  on  the  head,  neck,  and  fore-quarters  is  much 
longer  and  more  luxuriant,  and  thus  gives  the  animal  the  appearance  of  possessing 
greater  size  than  is  really  the  case.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  American  species  is 
lower,  and  has  a  smaller  pelvis  and  less  powerful  hind-quarters  than  its  European 
cousin,  although  its  body  is,  on  the  whole,  more  massively  built.  Moreover,  the 
horns  are  shorter  and  more  curved,  while  the  front  of  the  head  is  more  convex,  and 
the  sockets  of  the  eye  less  tubular.  The  tail  is  shorter  and  less  bushy.  An  unusually 
fine  bull  American  bison  measured  five  feet  eight  inches  at  the  withers,  but  the 
average  is  considerably  below  this. 

Mr.  Hornaday  regards  this  species  as  the  finest  and  most  striking  in  appearance 
of  all  the  oxen,  and  remarks  that  "the  magnificent  dark-brown  frontlet  and  beard, 
the  shaggy  coat  of  hair  upon  the  neck,  hump,  and  shoulders,  terminating  at  the  knees 
in  a  thick  mass  of  luxuriant  black  locks,  to  say  nothing  of  the  dense  coat  of  finer 
fur  on  the  body  and  hind-quarters,  give  to  our  species  not  only  an  apparent  height 
equal  to  that  of  the  gaur,  but  a  grandeur  and  nobility  of  presence  which  are  beyond 
all  comparison  among  Ruminants. ' '  Good  horns  measure  from  sixteen  to  seventeen 
inches,  but  a  pair  with  a  length  of  twenty  and  seven-eighths  inches  and  a  girth  of 
fifteen  inches  have  been  recorded. 

The  range  of  the  American  bison  originally  extended  over  about 
one-third  of  North  America.  ' '  Starting  almost  at  tide  water  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,"  writes  Mr.  Hornaday,  "it  extended  westward  through  a  vast  tract 
of  dense  forest,  across  the  Alleghany  mountain  system  to  the  prairies  along  the 
Mississippi,  and  southward  to  the  delta  of  that  great  system.  Although  the  great 
plain  country  of  the  West  was  the  natural  home  of  the  species,  where  it  flourished 
most  abundantly,  it  also  wandered  south  across  Texas  to  the  burning  plains  of 
northeastern  Mexico,  westward  across  the  Rocky  mountains  into  New  Mexico 


THE  AMERICAN  BISON 


781 


Utah,  and  Idaho,  and  northward  across  a  vast  treeless  waste  to  <the  bleak  and  in- 
hospitable shores  of  the  Great  Slave  Lake  itself."  Its  maximum  development  was 
probably  reached  about  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  when  the  greater  part  of  North 
America  was  practically  an  unknown  country  so  far  as  Europeans  are  concerned. 
And  Mr.  Hornaday  is  of  opinion  that,  if  left  to  itself,  the  bison  would  have  crossed 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Range  to  reach  the  Pacific  slopes;  while  it  would  ulti- 


AMERICAN    BISON. 

(One-twenty-seveuth   natural   size.; 

mately  have  developed  into  several  distinct  races  according  to  the  climate  of  the 
different  regions  it  inhabited.  An  example  of  the  formation  of  such  a  race  is 
afforded,  indeed,  by  the  variety  known  as  the  mountain  or  wood  buffalo.  The 
gradual  opening  up  of  the  interior  of  North  America,  with  the  advance  of  civiliza- 
tion, soon,  however,  put  an  effectual  stop  to  further  increase  of  the  species,  and 
eventually  led  to  its  practical  extermination. 


782  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

In  regard  to  its  former  numerical  abundance,  Mr.  Hornaday*  ob- 
Numbers  and  serves  that  ' '  of  all  the  quadrupeds  that  have  ever  lived  upon  the 
earth,  probably  no  other  species  has  ever  marshaled  such  innumerable 
hosts  as  those  of  the  American  bison.  It  would  have  been  as  easy  to 
count  or  to  estimate  the  number  of  leaves  in  a  forest  as  to  calculate  the  number  of 
bison  living  at  any  given  time  during  the  history  of  the  species  previous  to  1870. 
Even  in  South  Central  Africa,  which  has  been  exceedingly  prolific  in  great  herds  of 
game,  it  is  probable  that  all  its  quadrupeds  taken  together  on  an  equal  area  would 
never  have  more  than  equaled  the  total  number  of  buffaloes  in  this  country  forty  years 
ago."  As  an  instance  of  these  enormous  numbers,  it  appears  that,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  year  1871,  Colonel  Dodge,  when  passing  through  the  great  herd  on  the 
Arkansas,  and  reckoning  that  there  were  some  fifteen  or  twenty  individuals  to  the 
acre,  states  from  his  own  observation  that  it  was  not  less  than  twenty-five  miles 
wide  and  fifty  miles  deep.  This,  however,  was  the  last  of  the  great  herds;  and  Mr. 
Hornaday  estimates  that  the  number  of  individuals  comprising  it  could  not  be 
reckoned  at  less  than  four  millions.  Many  writers  at  and  about  the  date  mentioned 
speak  of  the  plains  being  absolutely  black  with  bison  as  far  as  the  eye  could 
reach;  and  Mr.  W.  Blackmore  tells  of  passing  through  a  herd  for  a  distance  of 
upward  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  right  on  end,  in  traveling  on  the 
Kansas  Pacific  Railroad.  Frequently,  indeed,  trains  on  that  line  were  derailed 
in  attempting  to  pass  through  herds  of  bison,  until  the  drivers  learned  it  was 
advisable  to  bring  their  engines  to  a  standstill  when  they  found  the  line  blocked  in 
this  manner. 

Colonel  Dodge,  writing  of  his  experiences  on  the  Arkansas  alluded  to  above, 
observes  that  "  the  whole  country  appeared  one  great  mass  of  bison,  moving  slowly 
to  the  northward;  and  it  was  only  when  actually  among  them  that  it  could  be  ascer- 
tained that  the  apparently  solid  mass  was  an  agglomeration  of  numerous  small  herds, 
of  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  animals,  separated  from  the  surrounding  herds  by 
greater  or  less  space,  but  still  separated.  The  bison  on  the  hills,  seeing  an  unusual 
object  in  their  rear,  started  at  full  speed  directly  toward  me,  stampeding  and  bring- 
ing with  them  the  numberless  herds  through  which  they  passed,  and  pouting  down 
upon  all  the  herds,  no  longer  separated,  but  one  immense,  compact  mass  of  plung- 
ing animals." 

Many  similar  accounts  attesting  the  vast  swarms  of  bison  which  formerly  roamed 
the  prairies  might  be  quoted,  but  the  foregoing  are  sufficient  for  our  purpose.  Evi- 
dence of  the  numbers  of  these  animals  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  huge  stacks  of  skulls 
piled  up  at  many  of  the  railway  stations  awaiting  transport. 

The  main  cause  which  led  to  the  extirpation  of  the  bison  was  the  advance  of 
railways.  With  the  progress  of  civilization  the  bison  was,  indeed,  foredoomed  to 
disappear;  but  its  end  was  hastened  by  the  reckless  way  in  which  the  unfortunate 
animals  were  shot  for  the  sake  of  their  hides  or  tongues;  by  the  want  of  protective 
legislation  on  the  part  of  the  Government;  by  the  preference  for  the  flesh  and  skin 
of  cows,  by  the  marvelous  stupidity  and  indifference  to  man  of  the  animals  them- 
selves, and  by  the  perfection  of  modern  firearms. 

*  When  quoting  from  Mr.  Hornaday  and  other  writers  we  have  substituted  the  word  bison  for  buffalo. 


THE   AMERICAN  BISON 


783 


It  appears  that  although  the  bison  had  for  more  than  a  century  been  subject  to 
a  merciless  persecution,  both  by  Indians  and  Whites,  yet  up  to  the  year  1830, 
beyond  a  certain  restriction  in  its  area  of  distribution  this  desultory  warfare  had  not 
made  any  very  serious  inroads  on  the  numbers  of  the  animals;  and  that  as  late  as 
1870  there  were  certainly  several  million  head  still  living.  During  the  period  from 
1730  to  1830  the  desultory  warfare  had,  however,  completely  driven  away  the  bison 
from  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  also  from  the  districts  to  the 


i 


HEAD    OF    AMERICAN    BISON. 


westward  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  where  they  were  never  very  numerous.  With 
the  year  1830,  Mr.  Hornaday  considers,  began  the  era  of  the  systematic  slaughter 
of  the  bison  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh  and  hides;  and  the  ever-increasing  demand  for 
"buffalo  robes,"  as  the  dressed  skins  are  termed,  soon  began  to  tell  on  its  numbers. 
Up  to  the  year  1869  the  bison  occupied  one  large  and  continuous  area;  but  the  com- 
pletion in  that  year  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  cut  this  area  in  twain,  and  at  the 
same  time  divided  the  great  herd  into  a  northern  and  southern  moiety.  The  head- 


784  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

quarters  of  the  southern  herd  were  somewhere  near  Garden  City,  Kansas.  Al- 
though the  area  occupied  by  this  herd  was  greatly  inferior  in  size  to  that  of 
the  northern  herd,  yet  the  number  of  bison  on  it  was  vastly  greater,  being 
estimated  in  1871  as  at  least  three,  and  probably  nearly  four,  millions.  That 
year  saw  the  completion  of  the  Kansas  branch  of  the  Union  Pacific,  and  the 
great  slaughter  which  thereupon  commenced  attained  its  height  in  1873.  At 
the  latter  date  the  destruction  of  these  animals  was  so  wasteful  and  so  wanton 
that  it  is  believed  every  hide  which  came  into  the  market  represented  four  ani- 
mals killed.  The  destruction  was  of  course  greatest  along  the  lines  of  rail- 
ways, and  on  one  of  the  three  penetrating  the  southern  bison  country,  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  million  skins,  more  than  a  million  and  a  half  pounds  of  meat,  and 
fully  two  and  a  quarter  millions  of  pounds  of  bones,  were  carried  during  the  year  in 
question.  At  this  time  the  whole  country  was  poisoned  with  the  effluvia  from  the 
decaying  carcasses;  and  it  was  a  common  practice  to  drive  away  the  animals  when 
they  came  to  drink  till  they  became  so  maddened  with  thirst  that  they  would  come 
within  easy  shooting  distance.  Mr.  Hornaday  states  that  it  is  probably  a  safe  esti- 
mate to  say  that  not  ' '  fewer  than  fifty  thousand  bison  have  been  killed  for  their 
tongues  alone,  and  the  most  of  these  are  undoubtedly  chargeable  against  white  men, 
who  ought  to  have  known  better."  Over  three  and  a  half  million  animals  are 
estimated  to  have  been  slaughtered  in  the  southern  herd  between  1872  and  1874. 
In  the  latter  year  the  hunters  became  alarmed  at  the  great  diminution  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  bison,  and  by  the  end  of  1875  the  great  southern  herd  had  ceased  to  exist 
as  a  body.  The  main  body  of  the  survivors,  some  ten  thousand  strong,  fled  into 
the  wilder  parts  of  Texas,  where  they  had  been  gradually  shot  down,  till  a  few  years 
ago  some  two  or  three  score  remained  as  the  sole  survivors  of  the  three  or  four  mil- 
lions of  the  great  southern  herd;  and  in  the  year  1880  bison  shooting  was  finally 
abandoned,  as  being  no  longer  a  profitable  trade. 

With  regard  to  the  northern  herd,  of  which  the  number  in  1870  was  approxi- 
mately estimated  at  a  million  and  a  half,  distributed  over  a  very  wide  tract  of 
country,  it  appears  that  the  portion  living  in  British  North  America  was  the  first  to 
be  exterminated.  Before  the  year  1880  the  numbers  of  the  herd  had  been  greatly 
reduced  in  Dakota  and  Wyoming  by  the  Sioux  Indians;  but  the  commence- 
ment of  the  final  destruction  was  heralded  by  the  opening  in  that  year  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway,  which  traversed  the  heart  of  the  bison  country.  The 
herd  was,  indeed,  hemmed  in  on  three  sides  by  Sioux  armed  with  breech-loading 
rifles;  and  the  price  of  robes  having  risen  greatly  in  1881,  a  rush  from  all  sides  was 
made  on  the  devoted  herd,  and  in  the  hunting  season,  commencing  in  October, 
1882,  and  terminating  in  the  following  February,  the  annihilation  of  the  great 
northern  herd  was  practically  completed;  only  some  straggling  bands,  numbering  a 
few  thousands,  surviving.  This  event  appears  to  have  come  like  a  thunder-clap  on 
the  hunters,  who  actually  fitted  out  expeditions  in  the  autumn  of  1884,  only  to  find 
that  their  quarry  had  disappeared  forever.  Mr.  Hornaday  states  that  to  the  south 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway,  a  band  of  about  three  hundred  settled  permanently 
in  and  around  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  but  in  a  very  short  time  every  ani- 
mal outside  of  the  protected  limits  of  the  park  was  killed;  and  whenever  any  of  the 


THE  AMERICAN  BISON  785 

park  buffaloes  strayed  beyond  the  boundary,  they  too  were  promptly  killed  for  their 
heads  and  hides.  Those  remaining  in  the  Yellowstone  are  now  protected  by  the 
•Government,  and  there  are  a  few  scattered  bands  still  lingering  in  the  more  remote 
and  inaccessible  portions  of  the  country,  but  otherwise  the  American  bison  has 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  wild  animal. 

Turning  to  the  development  and  habits  of  the  species,  it  appears 
that  the  breeding  season  is  from  the  beginning  of  July  to  the  end  of 
September,  and  that  the  calves  are  generally  born  from  April  to  June,  although  occa- 
sionally as  late  as  August.  The  cow  does  not  breed  till  three  years  old,  and  some- 
times produces  two  calves  at  a  birth.  For  the  first  two  months  of  its  existence  the 
calf  has  the  pelage  of  a  brownish-yellow  color;  and  even  at  that  period  has  indica- 
tions of  the  long  hair  covering  the  fore-quarters  of  the  adult.  Young  calves  can  be 
tamed  with  facility.  In  yearling  bison  the  horns  are  in  the  form  of  a  straight 
conical  spike,  of  from  four  to  six  inches  in  length;  and  these  spike-like  horns,  with 
a  curve  at  the  base  in  older  individuals,  continue  till  the  end  of  the  fourth  year, 
•during  which  period  the  young  males  are  termed  ' '  spike  bulls. ' '  In  these  young 
bulls  the  horns  are  jet  black;  but  from  scaling  of  the  exterior,  and  the  accumulation 
of  dirt,  they  tend  to  gray  in  the  adult.  With  advancing  age  the  outer  layers  of  the 
horn  begin  to  break  off  near  the  summit,  until  the  whole  horn  becomes  short,  thick, 
and  blunted,  "  with  only  the  tip  of  what  was  once  a  neat  and  shapely  horn  showing 
at  the  end.  The  bull  is  then  known  as  a  'stub  horn,'  and  his  horns  increase  in 
roughness  and  unsightliness  as  he  grows  older." 

Toward  the  end  of  winter  the  coat  of  the  bison  assumes  a  faded  and  bleached 
appearance  from  the  effects  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  elements;  and  toward  the 
end  of  February,  or  somewhat  later,  the  coat  begins  to  change,  but  the  whole 
process  occupies  more  than  half  the  year.  The  shedding  is  accomplished  both  by 
the  new  hair  growing  into  and  forcing  off  the  old,  and  also  by  the  latter  falling  off 
and  leaving  the  skin  bare  in  great  patches.  During  the  shedding  process  the  animal 
presents  an  unsightly  appearance,  but  by  the  end  of  June  the  whole  of  the  old  hair 
has  fallen  off  and  the  body  is  bare,  although  the  new  dark  hair  is  well  grown  on  the 
head.  During  the  summer  the  naked  skin  is  scorched  by  the  sun  and  bitten  by 
flies,  and  the  animal  consequently  protects  itself  by  wallowing,  and  thus  coating 
itself  with  a  plaster  of  dried  mud.  By  the  beginning  of  October  the  new  coat  of 
hair  has,  however,  attained  a  considerable  length,  and  between  the  twentieth  of 
November  and  the  twentieth  of  December  the  bison  is  in  the  full  glory  of  his  ap- 
parel; and  the  contrast  presented  by  his  condition  at  this  time  to  that  during  the  sum- 
mer must  be  seen  to  be  fully  appreciated.  The  height  attained  by  the  bull  bison 
has  been  already  mentioned.  In  regard  to  weight,  Mr.  Hornaday  states  that  an 
adult  bull  shot  by  his  party  scaled  1,727  pounds,  but  as  the  animal  was  by  no  means 
fat  it  is  probable  that  this  weight  is  in  some  cases  exceeded. 

It  was  during  the  breeding  season  that  the  small  bands  which  had  been  previ- 
ously distributed  over  a  wide  area  of  country  collected  in  the  huge  herds  above 
alluded  to;  and  at  such  seasons  the  bulls  were  occupied  either  in  chasing  the  cows 
or  in  combats  among  themselves.  The  concerted  roaring  of  the  bulls  at  these  times 
is  described  as  resembling  thunder,  and  audible  at  distances  of  from  one  to  three 
5° 


;86  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

miles,  or  even,  exceptionally,  at  five  miles.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  breeding- 
season  the  herd  again  broke  up  into  small  bands.  In  these  periodical  journeys 
across  the  country  in  search  of  water  regular  tracks  were  formed  by  the  bison,  and 
as  the  water  was  approached,  several  tracks  united,  with  the  result  that  in  some 
places  tracks  of  about  twelve  inches  in  width,  and  from  six  to  seven  in  depth,  may 
be  seen  following  the  level  of  the  valleys;  the  bison  in  these  journeys  having 
always  marched  in  single  file.  These  old  bison  tracks  still  remain  as  a  memento  of 
a  vanished  race,  and  are  now  used  by  the  domestic  cattle  which  have  supplanted  the 
monarchs  of  the  prairie.  After  reaching  the  watering  place,  the  herd,  instead  of  re- 
turning to  its  original  feeding  ground,  would  wander  right  and  left  in  search  of 
fresh  pastures.  When  undisturbed  in  good  pasture,  bison  were  always  in  the  habit 
of  lying  down  for  a  few  hours  during  the  middle  of  the  day;  and  they  were  at  cer- 
tain seasons  fond  of  rolling  either  in  dust  or  mud.  In  districts  where  salt  lakes  oc- 
curred, the  bison  would  resort  to  them  in  great  numbers.  All  the  great  herds  were 
in  the  habit  of  moving  southward  for  a  distance  of  from  two  hundred  to  four  hun- 
dred miles  with  the  approach  of  winter;  and  during  such  journeys  it  frequently 
happened  that  numbers  were  lost  in  crossing  quicksands,  alkali  bogs,  muddy  fords, 
or  on  treacherous  ice.  It  is  stated  than  in  1867  upward  of  two  thousand  bison  out 
of  a  herd  of  four  thousand  were  lost  in  a  quicksand;  and  that  an  entire  herd  of 
about  one  hundred  head  perished  when  crossing  the  ice  on  a  lake  in  Minnesota. 

Bison  would  boldly  face  the  cutting  blizzards  of  the  northwest  instead  of  turn- 
ing tail  to  them  after  the  manner  of  domestic  cattle;  although  they  would  at  the 
same  time  seek  such  shelter  as  might  be  obtainable  by  retiring  to  the  ravines  and 
valleys.  In  heavy  falls  of  snow,  which  lay  long  on  the  ground,  the  bison  were 
often  compelled  to  fast  for  days,  or  even  weeks,  together;  but  they  suffered  most 
when  the  surface  of  the  snow  was  covered  with  a  thin  crust  of  ice  after  a  slight  thaw, 
as  their  ponderous  weight  would  drive  their  feet  deep  into  the  snow,  and  leave  them 
at  the  mercy  of  the  Indians,  by  whom  they  were  slain  by  hundreds  when  thus  helpless. 
Space  does  not  admit  of  anything  more  than  bare  mention  of  a  few 
of  the  modes  in  which  the  bison  was  hunted.  The  method  of  stalking, 
or  "still-hunting,"  where  the  hunter  creeps  up  to  a  herd  and  shoots  one  after 
another  of  its  members,  appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  deadly,  owing  to  the  crass 
stupidity  of  the  animals  themselves.  The  plan  adopted  was  first  to  shoot  the 
leader,  when  the  remainder  of  the  herd  would  come  and  stupidly  smell  round  the 
body,  till  another  animal  assumed  the  post  of  leader,  and  was  shot  down  when  it 
was  about  to  make  a  move;  the  same  process  being  repeated  almost  without  end. 
Riding  down,  surrounding,  impounding,  or  hunting  in  snowshoes  were,  however, 
other  equally  effective  methods  of  destruction. 

In  captivity  the  American  bison  breeds  freely,  not  only  with  its 
Domestication  also  with  Qther  species  of  cattie-     jn  tne  United  States 


a  herd  has  been  established  by  crossing  bull  bison  with  domestic  cows;  the  cow 
bison  not  producing  a  hybrid  offspring.  This  hybrid  race  is  perfectly  fertile,  either 
with  itself  or  when  again  crossed  with  domestic  cattle;  and  it  is  considered  that  a 
strain  of  bison  blood  will  lead  to  the  cattle  in  the  Northwestern  States  being  better 
enabled  to  withstand  the  blizzards  of  those  districts. 


THE   CAPE   BUFFALO  787 

Subfossil  remains  of  the  American  bison  are  found  in  various  parts  of 
North  America,  while  in  Texas  there  occur  those  of  the  extinct  broad- 
fronted  bison  (B.  Latifrons),  distinguished  by  its  superior  size,  and  its  stouter  and 
less  back wardly -inclined  horns. 

THE  CAPE  BUFFALO  (Bos  Caffer) 

The  Cape  buffalo  is  our  first  representative  of  a  group  of  oxen  distinguished 
by  several  well-marked  characteristics.  They  are  all  heavily-built  animals,  with  thick 
and  strong  limbs,  moderately-long  tails,  tufted  at  the  end,  short  necks,  very  broad 
muzzles,  and  large  ears.  The  hair  covering  the  body  is  always  thin,  and  in  old  age 
leaves  the  skin  almost  entirely  naked.  The  horns,  which  are  generally  large  and 
massive,  are  more  or  less  distinctly  flattened  and  angulated,  at  least  at  the  base, 
where  their  cross  section  is  triangular.  They  are  placed  on  the  skull  a  considerable 
distance  below  the  plane  of  the  occiput;  and  their  upper  border  is  concave,  with  the 
tips  curved  inward,  the  curvature  being  generally  at  first  outward  and  backward, 
and  then  outward  and  upward.  In  the  skull  the  forehead  is  more  or  less  markedly 
concave,  and  the  premaxillary  bones  reach  upward  to  join  the  nasals,  as  in  the  typ- 
ical oxen.  The  number  of  ribs  is  thirteen  pairs. 

The  Cape,  or  black  African  buffalo  is  the  largest  and  fiercest  member  of  the 
group  found  in  the  continent,  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  This  species  is  char- 
acterized by  its  blackish  color,  and  the  great  massiveness  of  the  relatively-short 
horns,  which  are  much  flattened  at  the  base,  where  they  are  expanded,  so  as  to 
form  in  old  bulls  a  kind  of  helmet-like  mass,  covering  the  whole  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  head,  and  with  only  a  narrow  line  between  them.  From  this  expanded  base 
the  curvature  of  the  horns  is  at  first  outward,  downward,  and  backward,  and  then 
forward,  upward,  and  inward;  their  smooth  extremities  being  nearly  cylindrical. 
The  skull  is  characterized  by  its  shortness,  and  also  by  the  deep  concavity  of  the 
profile  below  the  horns;  the  nasal  bones  being  extremely  short,  and  the  sockets  of  the 
eyes  not  particularly  prominent.  The  head  has  a  very  large  and  expanded  muzzle, 
and  a  characteristic  hollow  below  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye.  The  enormous  flap- 
ping ears  are  thickly  fringed  on  their  lower  border  with  hair;  their  upper  border  be- 
ing sharply  truncated  before  the  descent  to  the  pointed  extremity.  With  the 
exception  of  the  ears  and  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the  hair  is  very  sparse,  and  it  is  only 
on  the  head  and  limbs  that  old  bulls  can  properly  be  said  to  be  haired  at  all.  In 
the  cows  and  young  bulls  the  hair  is,  however,  thicker;  and  its  color  in  these  is  dark 
brown,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  reddish  tinge.  A  well-grown  bull  buffalo  will 
stand  between  four  feet,  seven  inches  and  four  feet  eight  inches  at  the  shoulder. 
The  horns  vary  in  shape  with  the  age  of  the  animal.  In  regard  to  their  size,  Mr. 
Selous  states  that  the  largest  pair  he  obtained  had  an  extreme  span,  from  bend  to 
bend,  in  a  straight  line,  of  three  feet  eight  inches,  with  a  depth  on  the  forehead  of 
fifteen  inches;  the  total  length  of  each  horn  along  the  curve  being  three  feet.  In 
another  example  the  same  three  dimensions  were  respectively  three  feet  six  inches, 
seventeen  inches,  and  two  feet  eleven  inches. 


;88 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


.  The  typical  Cape  buffalo  is  usually  found  in  reedy  swamps  from  the 

Cape  as  far  north  as  the  Equator;  but  some  individuals  distinguished, 
according  to  the  Hon.  W.  H.  Drummond,  by  their  blacker  hair  and  more  spreading 
horns  inhabit  forests.  From  the  Equator  northward  to  Abyssinia  the  species  is  rep- 
resented by  a  variety  of  lighter  build,  and  with  horns  less  thickened  on  the  fore- 
head, and  separated  in  the  middle  line  by  a  considerable  interval.  This  variety  was 


CAPE  BUFFALO. 

(One-twenty-fifth  natural  size.) 

formerly  regarded  as  indicating  a  distinct  species,  under  the  names  of  B.  ezquinoctia- 
lis  and  B.  centralism  but  intermediate  gradations  connect  it  so  closely  with  the  ordi- 
nary Cape  form  that  this  view  has  been  abandoned. 

In  regions  where  their  numbers  have  not  been  thinned  by  the  sportsman's  rifle, 
the  Cape  buffalo,  according  to  Mr.  Selous,  is  usually  found  in  herds  of  from  fifty  to 
two  hundred,  or  even  three  hundred,  individuals.  Old  bulls  are  frequently  met  with 


THE   CAPE   BUFFALO  789 

c^ 

alone,  although  they  more  usually  associate  in  parties  of  two,  three,  or  four,  while 
occasionally  from  eight  to  ten  may  be  seen  together.  These  small  parties  of  bulls 
are  said  to  be  much  less  wary,  and,  consequently,  much  more  easy  to  approach  than 
large  herds  of  cows;  and  solitary  bulls  are  not  regarded  by  Mr.  Selous  as  more  dan- 
gerous than  other  members  of  the  species.  The  same  writer  observes  that  for  ani- 
mals of  such  heavy  build  and  bulk  these  buffaloes  are  remarkably  swift;  and  it 
requires  a  good  horse  to  keep  ahead  of  a  charging  buffalo  even  in  the  open;  while  in 
cover,  unless  very  fleet,  the  horse  stands  a  good  chance  of  being  overtaken.  Cape 
buffaloes  are  commonly  represented  in  pictures  as  charging  with  their  heads  lowered 
to  the  ground  and  their  tails  raised  high  in  the  air.  This,  however,  according  to 
Mr.  Selous,  is  wholly  incorrect,  since,  when  charging,  they  "  invariably  hold  their 
noses  straight  out,  and  lay  their  horns  back  over  their  shoulders.  They  lower  their 
heads  just  as  they  strike." 

Mr.  Drummond  writes  of  the  habits  of  this  species  as  follows:  "About  sunrise 
they  drink  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  last  during  the  long,  hot  day,  and  then 
make  their  way  to  wherever  they  may  have  determined  to  sleep.  This  in  summer 
is  generally  on  the  highest  and  most  breezy  spot  to  be  found,  under  the  shelter  of 
two  or  three  trees;  in  winter,  in  the  thick  jungle.  They  do  not  live  farther  from 
water  than  possible,  as  the  moment  the  sun  goes  down,  often  before,  they  go  straight 
to  refresh  themselves  with  a  bath  and  drink  before  feeding,  which  they  continue  to 
do  till  after  midnight,  making  the  most  horrible  maze  of  track  imaginable.  They 
then  rest  and  chew  the  cud  for  some  time,  getting  up  and  continuing  grazing  until 
it  is  time  to  revisit  the  river  or  hole,  and  so  onward  to  their  lair." 

The  Cape  buffalo  breeds  during  the  African  summer,  the  young  being  born 
from  January  to  March,  and  there  being  apparently  never  more  than  one  at  a  birth. 
The  calf  is  hidden  in  long  grass;  and  for  about  ten  days  after  its  birth  the  cow  sepa- 
rates from  the  herd,  and  remains  within  a  short  distance  of  her  offspring,  which  she 
visits  at  intervals.  In  regard  to  the  age  to  which  the  animal  lives,  Mr.  Drummond 
states  that  old,  solitary  bulls  have  been  known  as  such  for  twelve  years,  and  he  con- 
siders it  probable  that  the  full  age  may  be  about  thirty  years. 

The  buffalo  has  but  two  enemies  —  the  lion  and  man;  and  the  combined  as- 
saults of  these  two  have  in  some  districts  so  reduced  its  numbers  that,  according  to 
Mr.  Drummond,  writing  as  far  back  as  1875,  where  there  were  formerly  herds  of  from 
ten  to  one  hundred  in  number,  not  ten  head  are  to  be  found.  A  combat  between 
three  lions  and  a  bull  buffalo  has  been  mentioned  in  our  notice  of  the  lion.  The 
bulls  frequently  engage  in  rights  between  themselves;  and  Mr.  Drummond  gives  the 
following  account  of  one  such  combat  which  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  witness:—- 
' '  On  looking  through  the  edge  of  the  last  thicket  which  concealed  them  I  saw  two 
buffalo  bulls  standing  facing  each  other  with  lowered  heads,  and,  as  I  sat  down  to 
watch,  they  rushed  together  with  all  their  force,  producing  the  loud  crash  I  had  be- 
fore heard.  Once  their  horns  were  interlocked,  they  kept  them  so,  their  straining 
quarters  telling  that  each  was  doing  his  best  to  force  the  other  backward.  Several 
long  white  marks  on  their  necks  showed  where  they  had  received  scratches,  and 
blood  dripping  down  the  withers  of  the  one  next  me  proved  that  he  had  received  a 
more  severe  wound.  It  was  a  magnificent  sight  to  see  the  enormous  animals,  every 


790 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


muscle  at  its  fullest  tension,  striving  for  the  mastery.  Soon  one,  a  very  large  and 
old  bull,  began  to  yield  a  little,  going  backward  step  by  step,  but  at  last,  as  if  de- 
termined to  conquer  or  die,  it  dropped  on  its  knees.  The  other,  disengaging  his 
horns  for  a  second,  so  as  to  gain  an  impetus,  again  rushed  at  him,  but  did  not  strike 
him  on  the  forehead,  but  on  the  neck,  under  the  hump,  and  I  could  see  that  with  a 
twist  of  his  horns  he  inflicted  a  severe  wound.  Instead,  however,  of  following  up 


SHORT-HORNED    BUFFALO,    SIERRA    I,EONE    VARIETY. 
(One-twentieth   natural   size.) 

his  advantage,  this  bull  recoiled  and  hesitated,  and  was  eventually  charged  by  his 
adversary  full  in  the  shoulder,  after  which  he  declined  to  continue  the  contest." 

The  Cape  buffalo  has  been  described  as  the  most  dangerous  of  all  South-African 
animals,  but  both  Mr.  Drummond  and  Mr.  Selous  deny  that  this  is  really  the  case. 
It  is  true  that  more  fatal  accidents  occur  in  buffalo  shooting  than  in  any  other  sport, 
but  this  is  discounted  by  the  circumstance  that  more  of  these  animals  are  killed  than 
of  any  other  large  game.  Although  there  are  exceptions,  buffalo  do  not  generally 
charge  unless  wounded;  but  cows  with  calves,  or  those  wounded  by  lions  are  more 


THE  SHORT-HORNED  BUFFALO  791 

irritable,  and  more  prone  to  charge  than  ordinary.  At  the  same  tiriie,  the  pursuit  is 
far  from  being  unaccompanied  by  danger;  and  Sir  J.  Willoughby  states  that  of  all  the 
animals  met  with  by  him  in  Eastern  Africa  ' '  the  buffalo  is  probably  the  most  cun- 
ning and  dangerous  to  attack;  they  become  very  savage  when  wounded,  and  usually 
take  to  the  thick  bush,  where  they  lie  in  wait  for  their  foe.  The  greatest  care  should 
be  taken  in  following  them  up,  as,  on  account  of  the  denseness  of  the  bush,  it  is  next 
to  impossible  for  the  hunter  to  avoid  the  sudden  charge  that  is  almost  sure  to  ensue 
if  the  buffalo  sights  him  first.  A  cow  can  be  killed  by  a  bullet  anywhere  on  the 
forehead  or  behind  the  ear;  but  a  bull  is  practically  invulnerable  in  the  head,  although 
it  may  be  dropped  by  a  lucky  shot  striking  above  the  eyes  in  the  narrow  line  of  di- 
vision between  the  horns." 


THE  SHORT-HORNED  BUFFALO   {Bos  pumilus') 

The  short-horned,  or  red  buffalo,  of  which  one  variety  is  represented  in  the 
figure  on  p.  790,  and  a  second  in  the  illustration  on  the  next  page,  is  a  smaller  animal 
than  the  Cape  species,  from  which  it  is  further  distinguished  by  its  smaller  and  much 
less  massive  horns,  as  well  as  by  its  more  abundant  and  lighter-colored  hair.  This 
buffalo  is  a  West-African  species,  and  is  known  to  the  natives  as  the  niari,  and  to 
the  Europeans  of  the  west  coast  as  the  bush  cow.  It  is  found  in  most  of  the  tropical 
regions  where  the  Cape  buffalo  is  unknown,  and  is  essentially  a  forest-dwelling  ani- 
mal. The  height  of  the  animal  is,  as  a  rule,  inferior  to  that  of  the  Cape  buffalo. 
The  color  of  the  hair  is  generally  some  shade  of  yellow  or  red,  but  more  rarely 
brown,  although  some  individuals  are  much  darker  and  nearly  black.  The  specimen 
figured  in  the  illustration  on  p.  790,  which  came  fram  Sierra  Leone,  and  was  exhib- 
ited in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Antwerp,  in  1875,  was  light  yellow  above  but  red- 
dish on  the  under  parts,  with  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  areas. 
It  will  be  observed  from  the  figure  that  the  horns  are  but  little  flattened,  and  are 
separated  from  one  another  by  a  wide  interval  on  the  forehead,  and  have  a  simple 
curvature;  these  features  being  apparently  distinctive  of  all  the  specimens  from  the 
northwestern  portion  of  the  creature's  range.  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  pass 
southward  into  the  Congo  district,  we  find  that  these  buffaloes,  as  shown  in  our 
second  illustration,  have  the  horns  much  more  flattened  and  expanded  at  their  bases, 
where  they  are  closely  approximated  in  the  middle  line.  Their  tips  are  also  curved 
sharply  upward  and  inward,  terminating  in  a  point.  This  variety,  which  is  also  of 
rather  larger  size  than  the  other,  was  described  as  B.  centralis,  and  approximates  to 
the  northern  variety  of  the  Cape  buffalo.  Indeed  with  some  of  the  specimens  from 
Central  Equatorial  Africa  it  is  difficult  to  find  constant  characteristics  by  which  they 
can  be  distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from  the  typical  niari,  with  widely-separated  and 
slightly-flattened  horns,  and  on  the  other  from  the  northern  variety  of  the  Cape  buf- 
falo. Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  present  species  is  in  reality  nothing  more  than  a 
geographical  race  of  the  latter.  Reduced  in  size  and  otherwise  modified  by  the  differ- 
ence in  its  habitat.  We  have  indications  of  the  commencement  of  such  a  modification 
in  the  case  of  the  "wood  bison  "  of  North  America,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  such 


792 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


modifications  should  not  have  been  carried  still  further  in  the  present  instance. 
Horns  of  the  typical  short-horned  buffalo  range  from  eleven  to  twenty-one  inches  in 
length,  with  a  basal  girth  of  from  ten  to  thirteen  inches.  The  short-horned  buffalo 
is  found  both  in  the  plains  and  in  the  mountains  of  Western  Africa,  and  appears  to- 
be  far  from  uncommon.  It  possesses  a  speed  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  larger  an- 
telopes; and  when  in  thick  cover  is  very  difficult  to  drive  out,  except  with  the  aid 


SHORT-HORNED    BUFFALO,     CONGO    VARIETY. 

(One-twentieth   natural   size.) 

of  dogs.  Otherwise  there  does  not  appear  to  be  anything  specially  noteworthy  in  its- 
habits. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  both  in  Algeria  and  at  the  Cape  there 
Extinct  Forms  ^  found  in  thg  superficial  deposits  skulls  of  buffaloes  allied  to  the 

Cape  species,  but  with  far  longer  horns,  which  did  not,  however,  meet  in  a  helmet- 
like  mass  on  the  forehead.  In  an  Algerian  specimen  the  length  of  the  bony  horn 
cores,  measured  along  the  curves  is  fully  eleven  feet,  while  in  one  from  the  Cape 
the  length  is  estimated  at  upward  of  fourteen  feet.  When  covered  with  their  horny 
sheaths,  the  horns  would  of  course  be  still  longer. 


THE  INDIAN  BUFFALO 


THE  INDIAN  BUFFALO  (Bos  bubalus) 


793 


The  Indian  buffalo,  or  arna,  as  the  male  is  called  in  India,  is  a  very  different 
animal  in  appearance  from  either  of  the  African  species.  It  is  characterized  by  the 
much  greater  proportionate  length  of  the  head,  of  which  the  profile  is  nearly  straight 
and  the  centre  of  the  forehead  markedly  convex.  In  the  skull  the  sockets  of  the 
eyes  are  very  prominent,  and  the  nasal  bones  are  of  much  greater  length  than  in  the 
African  species.  The  ears  are  also  much  smaller  and  less  open,  with  only  a  very 


THE  INDIAN  BUFFALO,  FERAL  RACE. 

(One-twentieth   natural  size.) 

slight  fringe  of  hair  on  their  edges.  Still  more  distinctive  are  the  horns,  which  are 
very  long,  much  flattened,  and  angulated  throughout  the  greater  part  of  their 
length,  with  strongly-marked  transverse  wrinkles,  and  a  distinctly  triangular  section. 
They  taper  gradually  from  root  to  tip,  and  generally  curve  regularly  upward,  out- 
ward, and  a  little  backward  from  the  line  of  the  face  in  nearly  a  single  plane;  the 
tips  bending  inward  and  slightly  forward.  This  is  the  type  represented  in  our  illus- 
tration; but  in  a  variety,  which  is  mainly  or  entirely  from  Assam,  the  horns  are 


794  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

directed  straight  outward  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length,  and  then  suddenly 
curve  upward.  In  the  cow  the  horns  are  considerably  longer  and  thinner,  with  a 
much  less  marked  angulation  in  front,  than  in  the  bulls;  and  it  is  in  this  sex,  so  far 
as  our  experience  goes,  that  the  horns  with  the  straightest  direction  outward  are  met 
with.  The  body  becomes  almost  bare  in  old  animals,  and  the  general  color  is  ashy 
black,  although  the  legs  may  be  whitish,  or  even,  in  domestic  races,  quite  white  be- 
low the  knees  and  hocks.  There  is,  however,  a  dun-colored  variety  of  this  species, 
described  by  Mr.  Blandford,  from  upper  Assam,  in  which  the  forehead  is  more  con- 
vex than  ordinary,  and  the  nasaj  bones  of  the  skull  are  much  shorter. 

According  to  General  Kinloch,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  bull  of  this  species  ever  ex- 
ceeds five  feet  four  inches  (sixteen  hands)  at  the  withers;  and  in  one  specimen,  of 
which  he  gives  the  dimensions,  the  height  was  five  feet,  the  length  from  the  nose  to 
the  root  of  the  tail  nine  feet  seven  inches;  that  of  the  tail  three  feet  eleven  inches-, 
and  the  girth  eight  feet  three  inches.  In  the  same  specimen  the  length  of  the 
horns,  measured  from  tip  to  tip  along  the  greater  curve,  was  eight  feet  three  inches. 
A  skull  in  the  Britism  Museum  has  horns  measuring  twelve  feet  two  inches  from  tip 
to  tip  along  the  curve;  while  a  detached  horn  in  the  same  collection  has  a  length  of 
six  feet  six  and  one-half  inches,  which  indicates  a  span  of  about  fourteen  feet  from 
tip  to  tip  in  the  pair. 

In  a  truly  wild  state  the  Indian  buffalo  is  only  known  definitely  in 
the  country  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  the  herds  which  are  found 
in  a  wild  state  in  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  adjacent  islands,  being  not  im- 
probably descended  from  animals  escaped  from  captivity.  Our  illustration  is  taken 
from  an  individual  of  one  of  these  feral  races  in  Java,  where  they  are  known  by  the 
name  of  karbu. 

In  India  wild  buffaloes  are  found  on  the  plains  of  the  Bramaputra  and  Ganges, 
from  the  eastern  end  of  Assam  to  Tirhut;  they  also  occur  in  the  "  terai "  land  at 
the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  as  far  as  Rohilcund,  as  well  as  on  the  plains  near  the 
coast  in  Midnapur  and  Orissa,  and  in  the  eastern  portions  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
as  well  as  in  the  north  of  Ceylon.  Domesticated  buffaloes  are  found  not  only  over 
the  whole  of  India  and  Burma,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Malayan  region,  but 
have  likewise  been  introduced  into  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  Italy. 

The  haunts  of  the  wild  Indian  buffalo  are  the  tall  grass  jungles 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  plains  of  India,  and  generally  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  swamps;  but  it  may  also  be  found  more  rarely  in  the  open  plains  of  short 
grass,  or  among  low  jungle,  and  occasionally  even  in  forest.  Those  who  have  never 
had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  an  Indian  grass  jungle  can  have  but  little  conception 
of  its  height  and  density,  but  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  it  from  the  following 
statement  of  General  Kinloch,  who  writes  that  in  such  cover  "  frequently,  although 
a  herd  of  buffaloes  may  be  roused  within  a  score  of  yards,  the  waving  of  the  grass, 
and  perhaps  the  glint  of  a  polished  horn  tip,  is  the  only  ocular  evidence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  animals;  the  probably  nearly  noiseless  rush  might  be  caused  by  other 
animals;  and  where  the  horns  have  not  been  seen  it  is  only  by  the  strong,  sweet 
bovine  scent  —  similar  to,  but  much  more  powerful  than,  that  of  cows  —  that  one  can 
be  absolutely  certain  of  what  is  in  front  of  one."  In  such  jungles,  needless  to  say, 


THE  INDIAN  BUFFALO  795 

shooting  (or  indeed  advancing  at  all)  on  foot  is  out  of  the  question,  and  the  only 
method  of  procedure  is  by  beating  with  a  line  of  elephants. 

In  their  wild  state  these  buffaloes  are  always  found  in  herds,  which  may  com- 
prise fifty  or  more  individuals.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  "they  feed  chiefly  on 
grass,  in  the  evening,  at  night,  and  in  the  morning;  and  lie  down,  generally  in  high 
grass,  not  unfrequently  in  a  marsh,  during  the  day;  they  are  by  no  means  shy,  nor 
do  they  appear  to  shun  the  neighborhood  of  man,  and  they  commit  great  havoc 
among  growing  crops.  Sometimes  a  herd  or  a  solitary  bull  will  take  possession  of  a 
field  and  keep  off  the  men  who  own  it.  In  fact,  buffaloes  are  by  far  the  boldest  and 
most  savage  of  the  Indian  Bovidce,  and  a  bull  not  unfrequently  attacks  without 
provocation,  though  (probably  on  the  principle  that  a  council  of  war  never  fights) 
a  herd,  although  all  will  gallop  to  within  a  short  distance  of  an  intruder  and  make 
most  formidable  demonstations,  never,  I  believe,  attacks  any  one  who  does  not  run 
away  from  them.  A  wounded  animal  of  either  sex  often  charges,  and  has  occasion- 
ally been  known  to  knock  an  elephant  down.  Buffaloes  retain  their  courage  in 
captivity,  and  a  herd  will  attack  a  tiger  or  other  dangerous  animal  without  hesita- 
tion, and  although  gentle  with  those  they  know  and  greatly  attached  to  them,  they 
are  inclined  to  be  hostile  to  strange  men  and  strange  animals.  Whether  wild  or 
tame  they  delight  in  water,  and  often  during  the  heat  of  the  day  lie  down  in  shallow 
places  with  only  parts  of  their  heads  above  the  surface. ' '  The  same  author  re- 
marks that  few  animals  have  changed  less  in  captivity  than  tame  buffaloes,  which 
never  interbreed  with  the  humped  Indian  cattle.  The  calves  are  born  in  summer, 
and  there  are  not  unfrequently  two  at  a  birth.  In  walking  the  Indian  buffalo 
always  carries  its  head  low  down. 

Remains  of  the  Indian  buffalo  occur  fossil  in  the  gravels  of  the 
_  ff  Narbarda  valley,  and  likewise  in  parts  of  the  Punjab.     The  broad- 

horned  buffalo  (B.  platyceros)  of  the  Siwalik  hills  of  Northern  India, 
was,  however,  a  perfectly  distinct  extinct  species,  characterized  by  the  broad  trian- 
gular horns  being  placed  closer  together  on  the  forehead,  and  directed  rather  forward 
than  backward,  so  that  the  forehead  is  nearly  flat;  they  are  also  placed  more  below 
the  plane  of  the  occiput.  Other  extinct  Siwalik  buffaloes  (B.  occipitalis  and  B.  acuti- 
fornis}  were  of  smaller  size,  and  their  skulls  like  those  of  the  tamarao  and  anoa; 
the  horns  rising  upward  in  the  plane  of  the  face,  with  but  slight  divergence  or 
curvature,  and  their  cross  section  either  triangular  or  pear  shaped. 

The  tarmarao  of  the  Philippines  (B.  mindorcnsis}  is  a  sturdily-built 
dwarf  buffalo,  connecting  the  preceding  with  the  following  species.  It 
stand  about  three  and  one-half  feet  in  height,  and  has  coarse  thick  blackish-brown 
hair.  The  horns,  although  massive,  are  comparatively  short  and  rise  upward  in  the 
plane  of  the  face  with  a  lyre-shaped  curvature;  they  are  distinctly  triangular,  with 
the  largest  face  in  front,  and  are  somewhat  roughened.  In  its  massive  horns,  thick 
legs,  and  uniform  coloration,  this  species  comes  nearer  to  the  Indian  buffalo  than  to 
the  anoa. 

The  anoa  of  Celebes  (B.    depressicornis)   is  the  smallest  and  most 

slenderly  built  of  the  oxen,  and,  although  allied  to  the  buffaloes,  comes 

nearest  in  structure  to  the  antelopes.     In  size  it  is  inferior  to  a  Highland  cow,  its 


796 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


height  being  about  three  feet  three  inches,  with  the  hind-quarters  rather  higher  than 
the  withers.  The  horns  are  ringed  and  triangular  at  the  base,  of  considerable 
length,  sharply  pointed,  and  rising  upward  in  the  plane  of  the  face,  with  but  a 
small  divergence  and  curvature.  They  are  situated  far  below  the  plane  of  the  occi- 
put, and  consequently  rise  near  the  eyes;  in  old  males  they  may  be  as  much  as 
twenty-four  inches  in  length,  but  in  cows  they  are  always  small.  The  hinder  part 
of  the  skull  is  more  like  that  of  an  antelope  than  a  buffalo,  having  no  distinct  crest 
on  the  occiput.  The  ears  are  small,  haired  at  the  base,  but  naked  at  the  tips,  with 


THK    ANOA. 

(One-sixteenth  natural  size. ) 

a  bunch  of  white  hairs  internally ;  and  the  skull  narrows  toward  the  muzzle.  The 
tail  reaches  about  to  the  hocks.  The  general  color  of  the  hair  is  dark  brown,  lighter 
below,  but  there  are  two  small  spots  of  white  on  the  sides  of  the  head  below  the 
eyes,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  legs,  and  often  the  back,  have  also  white  mark- 
ings. In  the  young  animal  the  hair  is  of  considerable  length  and  thickness,  but  it 
tends  to  become  thin  with  age,  and  in  very  old  individuals  the  skin  is  nearly  bare. 
In  young  animals*  the  hair  is  reddish  yellow.  The  largest  known  horns  have  a 
length  of  nearly  twelve  and  one-half  inches.  The  anoa  has  a  considerable  resemblance 
to  a  young  Indian  buffalo,  and  it  agrees  with  the  members  of  that  group  in  its  tri- 


THE  MUSK  OX  797 

angular  horns,  in  the  short  and  sparse  hair  of  the  adult,  in  the  large  and  naked  muz- 
zle, and  the  barrel-like  form  of  its  body.  It  likewise  resembles  those  animals  in  its 
bovine  smell,  its  fondness  for  water  and  shade,  and  its  habit  of  drinking  by  long 
draughts  instead  of  by  short  gulps.  On  the  other  hand,  the  anoa  approximates  to 
the  antelopes  in  its  slender  build,  the  structure  of  the  hinder  part  of  its  skull,  the 
upright  direction  and  straightness  of  its  horns,  the  spots  on  the  head,  body,  and 
limbs,  and  its  small  size.  In  connection  with  the  aforesaid  fossil  species  from  the 
Siwalik  hills,  the  anoa  clearly  indicates  a  close  connection  between  the  antelopes 
and  the  buffaloes;  and  from  these  primitive  antelope-like  buffaloes  the  other  more 
specialized  groups  of  oxen  may  have  been  developed. 

THE  MUSK  Ox 
Genus  Ovibos 

In  the  desolate  regions  of  the  far  north  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  where  even 
in  summer  the  surface  of  the  ground  scarcely  thaws,  is  found  the  curious  musk  ox 
( Ovibos  moschatiis} ,  which  although  presenting  a  certain  superficial  resemblance  to 
the  oxen,  is  in  reality  far  more  nearly  allied  to  the  sheep.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  peculiar  musky  flavor  with  which  the  flesh  is  tainted,  and  it  forms  the  single 
living  representative  of  a  distinct  genus. 

The  musk  ox  is  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  American  bison,  but  from  its 
long  coat  of  hair  looks  larger  than  it  really  is.  In  appearance  the  animal  has  been 
compared  to  a  large  hairy  ram;  and  it  resembles  the  sheep  in  the  marked  convexity 
of  the  profile  of  the  face  and  the  hairy  muzzle.  The  head  is  broad,  with  the  small 
and  pointed  ears  almost  concealed  by  the  hair;  the  latter  being  long  and  thick,  and 
generally  of  a  dark  brown  color,  although  paler  in  the  s'pring.  Though  matted  and 
curling  on  the  back,  the  hair  on  the  throat  and  flanks  is  straight  and  reaches  down 
to  the  middle  of  the  legs;  it  also  entirely  hides  the  very  short  tail.  Beneath  the  hair 
is  a  coat  of  soft  fine  wool,  of  a  light  brown  color.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of 
the  animal  is,  however,  to  be  found  in  its  horns.  In  the  bulls  the  horns  have  very 
wide  and  flattened  bases,  covering  a  large  portion  of  the  forehead,  and  meeting  one 
another  in  the  middle  line;  at  first  they  curve  sharply  downward,  becoming  at  the 
same  time  gradually  narrower  and  less  expanded,  and  then  curving  sharply  upward 
and  forward,  terminating  in  front  of  the  eyes.  The  bases  of  the  horns  are  very 
rough,  and  of  a  yellowish-white  color,  but  they  gradually  become  less  rough,  and  at 
the  same  time  darker,  till  at  the  tips,  where  their  section  is  cylindrical,  they  are 
smooth  and  black.  In  the  young  rams  and  the  cows  the  horns  are  much  smaller, 
and  separated  from  one  another  by  a  considerable  interval  in  the  middle  line.  The 
limbs  are  short  and  massive;  and  the  feet  are  peculiar  in  that  while  the  outer  hoof  of 
each  is  rounded  the  inner  one  is  pointed;  there  is  a  considerable  growth  of  hair  be- 
tween the  hoofs,  which  aids  the  animal  in  obtaining  a  sure  foothold  on  the  ice.  The 
molar  teeth  of  the  musk  ox  are  like  those  of  the  sheep,  and  thus  quite  different  from 
those  of  the  oxen.  Average-sized  horns  are  about  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  inches 
in  length,  but  they  may  reach  twenty-seven  and  one-fourth  inches. 


Distribution 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  range  of  the  musk  ox  in  Arctic  America  is  limited  to  the  south- 
ward by  the  sixtieth  degree  of  latitude,  but  extends  northward  to  the 
eighty-third  degree  in  Grinnell  Land.  It  abounds  on  both  the  east  and  west  coasts 
of  Greenland,  and  in  Arctic  America  its  range  is  bounded  to  the  eastward  by  the 
Mackenzie  river,  flowing  from  the  Great  Slave  Lake  in  about  longitude  67°  30', 
while  westward  it  extends  nearly  to  the  Pacific.  In  former  years  the  range  of 
the  animal  reached  considerably  farther  south,  it  having  been  found,  in  the  year 
1770,  near  Fort  Churchill,  on  the  west  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay,  in  latitude  58° 
44'.  In  prehistoric  or  Pleistocene  time  the  musk  ox  also  ranged  to  the  north- 


THE  MUSK  ox. 
(One-fifteenth  natural  size.) 

west  into  Alaska,  its  fossilized  remains  having  been  found  in  the  frozen  soil 
of  Kotzebue  sound  in  Behring  Strait,  and  also  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Por- 
cupine river  in  Canada.  At  a  still  earlier  period  —  probably  when  the  whole 
of  North  America  was  far  colder  than  at  present  —  the  musk  ox  ranged  as 
far  south  as  Kansas  and  Kentucky,  where  its  remains  have  been  found  between 
the  thirty-fifth  and  fortieth  parallels  of  latitude.  The  remains  from  these  local- 
ities have,  however,  been  regarded  as  indicating  an  extinct  species.  Passing 
eastward  from  Alaska  across  Behring  Strait  into  Asia,  musk  ox  bones  are  found  in 
the  frozen  soil  of  Siberia,  as  far  eastward  as  the  Obi  river.  The  animal  doubtless 


THE  MUSK  OX 


799 


once  ranged  right  across  Russia,  since  there  is  evidence  of  its  former  existence  in 
Germany  as  far  south  as  Wiirtemberg.  Thence  it  extended  into  France,  but  the 
Pyrenees  and  Alps  seem  to  have  marked  the  southern  limits  of  its  range.  In  Eng- 
land remains  of  the  musk  ox  have  been  found  in  superficial  deposits,  and  its  skulls 
have  been  dredged  from  the  Dogger  Bank.  Although  the  alteration  in  climatic 


HEAD  OF   BUI,!,  MUSK   OX. 

conditions  affords  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  northward  retreat  of  the  musk  ox  we 
are  at  present  quite  in  the  dark  why  it  has  disappeared  from  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, while  the  reindeer  still  has  a  circumpolar  distribution. 

The  regions  inhabited  by  the  musk  ox  are  of  the  most  barren  and 
inhospitable  nature.     It  has  been  considered  that  the  animal  migrated 
southward  during  the  coldest  part  of  the  year,  but  this  is  denied  by  Mr.  H.  Bieder- 


Habits 


8oo 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


beck,  who  is  one  of  the  few  explorers  who  have  seen  it  in  its  wild  state.  It  was  met 
with  by  his  party  in  Grinnell  L,and  in  March  when  the  snow  is  deepest  and  the  tem- 
perature lowest,  and  it  inhabits  that  country  and  North  Greenland  throughout  the 
year.  ' '  The  musk  oxen  travel  in  herds,  and  it  is  but  an  exception  when  one  of 
them  is  found  alone.  This  herding  gives  them  a  better  chance  to  defend  themselves 
against  their  one  enemy,  the  Arctic  wolf,  and  also  gives  them  through  close  contact, 
additional  warmth  and  protection  against  cold  and  winds." 

Occasionally,  we  are  also  informed  by  Mr.  Biederbeck,  the  Eskimo 

undertakes  an  expedition  into  the  interior  for  the  purpose  of  hunting 

the  musk  ox  for  the  sake  of  its  warm  pelage,  which  is  used  either  for  their  own 

bedding,  or  as  an  article  of  barter.     The  animals  are  hunted  by  means  of  dogs,  each 


AT    BAY. 

hunter  taking  two  or  three  of  these  animals  with  their  sledge  traces  attached,  and 
thus  allowing  himself  to  be  pulled  along  till  within  a  short  distance  of  the  quarry. 
The  difficulty  is  then  to  slip  the  dogs  at  the  right  moment  without  allowing  their 
traces  to  drag  behind  them,  and  thus  be  liable  to  be  trodden  on  by  the  bayed  musk 
oxen;  but  clever  hunters  obviate  this  by  tying  the  traces  in  a  bundle  on  the  backs 
of  the  dogs  just  before  they  are  slipped.  When  bayed  and  surrounded,  the  members 
of  the  herd  are  shot  down  by  the  score,  the  great  object  being  to  kill  each  animal 
outright,  as  otherwise  there  is  great  danger  of  its  struggles  inducing  a  stampede 
among  the  herd,  which  would  involve  another  hunt.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
herd,  even  after  having  made  a  bolt,  will  return  to  the  spot  where  their  comrades 
have  fallen.  When  scenting  danger  the  musk  oxen,  says  Mr.  Biederbeck,  "always 


SHEEP 


80 1 


retreat  to  some  elevation  near  by,  and  upon  the  approach  of  the'  enemy  they  form 
in  a  perfect  line,  their  heads  toward  their  foe;  or,  if  attacked  at  more  than  one 
point,  they  form  a  circle,  their  glaring,  bloodshot  eyes  restlessly  watching  the 
attack;  and  I  think  it  would  go  hard  with  the  man  or  beast  who,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, might  come  within  reach  of  their  broad  horns  or  hard  hoofs." 

In  spite  of  its  coarse  grain,  the  meat  of  the  musk  ox  is  described  as  being  juicy 
and  tender,  that  of  the  young  animals  being  especially  so,  but  in  order  to  obviate 
the  musky  flavor  it  is  essential  that  the  carcass  should  be  dressed  as  soon  as  killed. 


SKELETON    OF    MOUFLON. 


SHEEP 
Genus  Ovis 

Although  nearly  allied  to  the  musk  ox,  the  sheep  form  a  group  distinguished 
by  several  important  characteristics  from  the  oxen,  but  passing  almost  imperceptibly 
into  the  goats.  They  are  of  smaller  size  than  the  majority  of  the  oxen,  and 
although  comparatively  short  necked,  carry  their  heads  higher  above  the  level  of 
the  back.  Both  males  and  females  are  furnished  with  horns;  but  whereas  those  of 
51 


802 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


the  former  are  large,  and  frequently  extremely  massive  at  the  base,  those  of  the 
latter  are  small  and  narrow.  In  the  males  the  horns  are  generally  more  or  less  trian- 
gular in  section,  and  marked  by  parallel  transverse  wrinkles,  while  their  color  is 
greenish  or  brownish;  they  are  directed  outwardly  from  the  sides  of  the  head,  their 
upper  border  being  at  first  always  convex,  and  the  curvature  generally  taking  the 
form  of  an  open  spiral,  with  the  tips  turned  outward.  The  face  has  generally,  but 
not  always,  a  small  gland  below  the  eye,  and  there  is  a  corresponding  depression  in 
the  skull  for  its  reception;  and  the  muzzle  differs  from  that  of  the 
oxen  in  being  pointed  and  covered  with  short  hair.  Another  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  group  is  the  presence  of  a  small  gland  in 
each  foot  between  the  hoofs;  and  the  females  have  but  two  teats 
in  place  of  the  four  of  the  oxen.  The  males  of  all  sheep  are  devoid 
of  any  strong  odor;  neither  have  they  any  beard  on  the  chin.  As  a 
rule,  in  wild  species,  the  tail  is  very  short;  but  in  one  case  it 
reaches  just  below  the  hocks.  The  ears  are  of  moderate  length; 
and  the  hair,  in  wild  species,  is  short  and  stiff,  although  it  may  be 
elongated  on  the  throat  and  fore-quarters.  The  upper  molar  teeth 
differ  from  those  of  the  oxen  in  having  narrow  crowns  without  any 
additional  column  on  the  inner  side.  The  feet  have  only  the  upper 
ends  of  the  lateral  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  remaining. 

As  regards  the  characteristics  of  their  molar  teeth,  the  sheep 
BONES    OF    THE  resemble   the  gazelles,    and  it  is  accordingly  not  improbable  that 

LEFT  FORE-FOOT  . 

they  may  trace  their  descent    to    extinct  antelopes,   more  or  less 

\Jr      1  1 1 J1,    brlrVx*,!^. 

(From  Dawkins.)     nearly  allied  to  that  group.     Oxen,   on  the  other  hand,    having 
molar  teeth  nearly  similar  to  those  of  the  sable  antelope  and  oryx, 
may  be  more  nearly  allied  to  the  ancestors  of  that  group. 

Sheep  are  represented  at  the  present  day  by  eleven  wild  species, 
which  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  Europe  and  Asia  northward  of  the 
outer  range  of  the  Himalayas ;  although  one  species  occurs  in  the  Punj  ab  and  Sind ,  a  sec- 
ond in  Northern  Africa,  and  a  third  in  North  America.  They  associate  either  in  parties 
of  two  or  three  individuals,  or  in  flocks  of  considerable  size;  and  are  essentially 
mountain  animals.  Very  generally,  however,  sheep  inhabit  the  more  open  mountain 
districts,  rather  than  the  craggy  and  steeply-scarped  regions  selected  by  the  goats. 
Most  of  the  species  are  very  nearly  related  to  one  another,  and  in  several  in- 
stances it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  certain  forms  ought  to  be  regarded  as 
distinct  species  or  merely  as  local  races.  Geologically,  the  sheep  are  even  a  more 
modern  group  than  the  oxen,  none  of  them  being  definitely  known  to  occur  before 
the  epoch  of  the  so-called  forest  bed  of  the  Norfolk  coast,  which  belongs  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  Pliocene  or  the  lower  part  of  the  Pleistocene  period. 


Distribution 


THE  AMERICAN  AND  KAMCHATKAN  WILD  SHEEP  ( Ovis  canadensis 

and  O.  nivicola') 

The  American  wild  sheep  or  ' '  bighorn  "  ( O.  canadensis}  and  the  Kamchatkan 
wild  sheep   (O.   nivicola)   are  two  very  closely-allied  species,   differing  in  several 


THE  AMERICAN  AND  KAMCHATKAN  WILD  SHEEP        803 

important  respects  from  the  other  members  of  the  genus.  The 'most  distinctive 
characteristic  of  these  species  is  to  be  found  in  their  horns,  which,  while  very  large 
and  massive,  are  distinguished  by  the  slight  development  of  the  wrinkles  on  their 
anterior  surface,  and  the  great  prominence  of  the  outer  anterior  angle,  and  the 
rounding  off  of  the  inner  one.  In  the  skull  the  depression  for  the  gland  below  the 
eye  is  extremely  shallow;  and  both  in  this  respect  and  in  the  smoothness  of  their 
horns,  these  species  show  an  approximation  to  the  goats. 

The  American  wild  sheep  is  a  large  animal,  with  the  summer  coat 
American  ..,.,,  .  ,.  ., 

Wild  Sheen       a    &  *  brown  color,  often  showing  a  reddish  tinge,  while  in  winter 

it  is  bluish  gray  on  the  upper  parts.  The  under  parts,  as  well  as  por- 
tions of  the  legs,  are  white;  and  there  is  a  large  and  conspicuous  white  patch  on  the 
rump,  which  extends  upward  on  either  side  of  the  tail.  The  back  has  a  more  or 
less  distinct  dark  stripe,  reaching  to  the  tail;  the  latter  being  very  short,  and  black 


SKULL    OF    KAMCHATKAN    WILD    SHEEP. 
(From  Guillemard's  Cruise  of  the  " Marchesa.")* 

in  color.  The  end  of  the  muzzle  is  light  colored.  Beneath  the  hair  there  is  a 
shining  white  under-wool.  Very  old  males  may  become  very  light  colored  through- 
out. The  rams  attain  a  height  of  about  three  and  one-half  feet  at  the  withers;  and 
their  average  weight  is  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  or  rather  less. 
The  ewes  stand  about  three  feet  in  height,  and  weigh  about  one- third  less  than  the 
rams.  The  length  of  the  horns  in  good  specimens,  measured  along  the  curve, 
varies  from  thirty-three  to  thirty-six,  or  even  forty  to  forty -one  inches;  the  broken 
tips  frequently  rendering  them  shorter  than  they  would  be,  if  perfect.  A  horn 
measing  thirty-three  inches  in  length  had  a  basal  girth  of  sixteen  inches;  while  in 
one  belonging  to  Mr.  Otho  Shaw,  of  which  the  length  is  forty  inches,  the  basal 
girth  is  only  fifteen  and  one-fourth  inches. 

According  to  Mr.    G.    O.   Shields,    the  geographical  range   of   the   American 
wild  sheep  extends  from  Mexico  to  Alaska,   and  from  the  eastern  flanks  of  the 

*We  are  indebted    to  Dr.  Guillemard  and  Mr.  Murray  for  this  figure,  and  also  for  the  one  of  the  head  of 
the  same  species. 


804 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


Rocky  mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast;  although  there  are  some  mountain  ranges 
within  this  area  upon  which  it  has  never  been  observed.  Along  the  valleys  of 
the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  rivers  it  extends,  however,  some  four 
hundred  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  inhabiting  the 
so-called  "Bad  Lands"  of  these  districts. 

According  to  the  observations  of  Colonel  J.  Biddulph  there  are  two 
distinct  varieties  of  this  sheep,  the  one  inhabiting  the  northern,  and 
the  other  the  southern  portion  of  its  distributional  area.  The  southern  variety  is 
characterized  by  its  large  skull  and  very  massive  horns;  the  tips  of  the  latter  being 


Distribution 


Varieties 


THE  AMERICAN    WILD   SHEEP    OR  BIGHORN. 
(One-sixteenth  natural   size.) 

generally  broken  and  directed  forward.  The  ears  are  large,  broad,  pointed,  and 
deer-like,  with  hair  of  only  very  moderate  length.  In  the  northern  race,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  skull  is  smaller,  and  the  horns  less  massive,  with  their  tips  generally 
entire,  and  directed  outward,  as  in  the  skull  of  the  Kamchatkan  species  represented 
in  the  figure  on  p.  803.  The  ears  are  small  and  thickly  furred,  with  blunted  ex- 
tremities; and  there  is  a  tuft  of  long  hair  between  the  ears  at  the  back  of  the  horns. 
There  are,  moreover,  certain  differences  in  the  coloration  of  the  legs  in  the  two 
races;  and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  southern  one  ever  assumes  the  dark  winter 
coat  frequently  found  in  the  northern  variety. 


THE  AMERICAN  AND  KAMCHATKAN  WILD  SHEEP        805 


Habits 


The  American  wild  sheep  is  described  as  one  of 'the  wildest  and 
most  wary  of  all  the  large  Mammals  of  North  America;  and  since  it 
appears  to  inhabit  more  difficult  and  rugged  ground  than  many  of  the  other  species,  its 
successful  pursuit  is  proportionately  difficult.  Mr.  J.  Muir  writes  that  "in  spring  and 
summer  the  full-grown  rams  form  separate  bands  of  from  three  to  twenty,  and  are 
usually  found  feeding  along  the  edges  of  glacier  meadows,  or  resting  among  castle- 
like  crags  of  the  high  summits;  and  whether  quietly  feeding,  or  scaling  the  wild 
cliffs  for  pleasure,  their  noble  forms,  and  the  power  and  beauty  of  their  movements, 
never  fail  to  strike  the  beholder  with  lively  admiration.  Their  resting  place  seems 
to  be  chosen  with  reference  to  sunshine  and  a  wide  outlook,  and  most  of  all  to 
safety  from  the  attacks  of  wolves. "  It  is  stated  that  flocks  of  these  sheep  have,  on 
more  than  one  occasion,  been  known  to  leap  down  a  precipice  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  in  height. 

This  species  was  formerly  found  in  large  flocks,  but  is  now  rapidly  diminishing 
in  numbers;  so  that  according  to  Mr.  Shields,  where  it  was  at  one  time  found  in 
bands  of  several  hundred  in- 
dividuals it  is  now  rarely  that 
more  than  fifty  are  seen  to- 
gether. Sentinels  are  posted 
in  prominent  positions  to  give 
notice  to  the  herd  of  the  ap- 
proach of  danger ;  and  the 
agility  of  these  animals  in 
making  their  way  over  glaciers 
and  crags  is  said  to  be  unsur- 
passed. In  summer  these  sheep 
will  occasionally  ascend  as  high 
as  twelve  thousand  feet;  but 
in  the  spring  they  wander  into 
the  valleys  in  search  of  fresh 
pasture  or  salt  lakes.  The 
lambs,  which  are  occasionally 
two  at  a  birth,  but  usually 
one,  are  produced  in  May  and 
the  beginning  of  June,  and 
when  but  a  few  days  old  will 
follow  their  mothers  up  apparently  inaccessible  cliffs.  The  flesh  of  this  sheep  is 
said  to  be  equal  in  flavor  to  the  best  venison.  The  Indians  hunt  the  bighorn  by 
tying  a  pair  of  horns  on  their  heads,  when  they  are  able  to  creep  within  range. 

The  Kamchatkan  wild  sheep,  of  which    the    head  is  represented  in  the    ac- 
companying cut  and  the  skull  in  the  figure  on  p.  803,  is  so  very  closely  related  to 
the  northern  variety  of  the  American  species,  that  it  may  be  a  ques- 
tion whether  it  is  really  anything  more  than  a  geographical  race  of 


HEAD    OF    THE    KAMCHATKAN    WILD    SHEEP. 
(From  Guillemard's  Cruise  of  the  "  Afarchesa.") 


Kamchatkan 
Wild  Sheep 


the  latter.     Thus  both  have  the  comparatively-small  skull,  and  rela- 
tively-slender horns  with  entire  and  outwardly-directed  tips;  while  in  both  there  is 


8o6  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  same  tuft  between  the  small  hairy  ears.  The  ears  of  the  Kamchatkan  sheep 
are,  however,  rounded  instead  of  blunt;  and  the  white  patch  on  the  rump  is  smaller, 
and  does  not  extend  above  the  tail,  while  there  is  no  trace  of  a  dark  stripe  down 
the  back. 

The  Kamchatkan  sheep  is  found  in  the  Stanovoi  mountains  to  the 
north  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  as  well  as  in  the  Peninsula  of  Kam- 
chatka, and  since  it  may  also  extend  somewhat  to  the  eastward,  it  is  obvious  that 
its  range  is  separated  by  little  more  than  Behring  Strait  from  its  American  cousin  in 
Alaska.  Hence,  it  is  evident  that  such  difference  as  there  is  between  the  two  is 
merely  due  to  their  isolation  from  one  another  since  the  period  when  there  was  a 
free  communication  between  Northeastern  Asia  and  Alaska.  Dr.  Guillemard  found 
these  sheep  abundant  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Kamchatka,  about  fifty  miles  to  the 
northeast  of  Petropaulovski;  his  party  having  shot  fourteen  adult  rams  in  two 
days.  He  describes  them  as  standing  about  three  feet  four  inches  at  the  shoulders 
on  the  average;  and  the  largest  horns  he  obtained  measured  thirty-eight  inches 
along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  girth  of  fourteen  inches.  "The  general  color," 
writes  Dr.  Guillemard,  "  is  a  brown  gray,  the  head  and  neck  rather  grayer  than  the 
rest  of  the  body.  Both  tail  and  ears  are  remarkably  short.  The  coat  in  those  that 
we  shot  was  very  long  and  thick,  almost  like  that  of  a  reindeer;  but  autumn  was 
well  advanced,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  in  summer  it  is  much  thinner.  It  was 
curious  that  we  should  not  only  never  have  shot,  but  never  even  have  seen,  the 
females.  All  those  that  fell  to  our  rifles  were  rams  of  (as  far  as  we  could  judge) 
from  three  to  six  years  old.  Whether  the  females  always  herd  together  or  only  at 
certain  seasons  it  is  difficult  to  say,  and  we  were  unable  to  get  any  information  from 
the  natives  upon  this  point.  The  taste  of  the  meat  when  quite  fresh  was  slightly 
rank,  but  upon  the  second  day  the  unpleasant  flavor  had  entirely  disappeared." 


THE  MONGOLIAN  AND  TIBETAN  ARGALIS  (Ovzs  ammon  and  O.  hodgsoni) 

The  magnificent  wild  sheep  of  Mongolia  known  as  the  argali  (O.  ammon*),  and 
a  very  closely-allied  species  (O.  hodgsoni)  found  in  Tibet,  are  readily  distinguished 
from  the  American  and  Kamchatkan  members  of  the  genus  by  the  characteristics  of 
their  skull  and  horns.  The  skull  has  a  much  deeper  pit  for  the  gland  below  the  eye; 
and  the  enormous  horns  have  the  wrinkles  on  the  anterior  surface  very  strongly 
marked,  and  their  outer  anterior  angle  much  less  prominent,  the  inner  one  being 
more  distinct. 

The  two  species,  or  perhaps  varieties,  are  so  closely  related  that  one  description 
will  do  for  both;  but  the  true  argali  appears  to  be  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a 
ruff  on  the  throat,  while  in  one  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  there  is  no  distinct 
light-colored  patch  on  the  rump.  The  argalis  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  large 
donkey;  and  have  short,  coarse,  and  close  hair,  small  ears,  and  a  very  short  tail.  In 
the  males  of  the  Tibetan  species  the  hair  on  the  sides  and  under  part  of  the  throat 
is  lengthened  so  far  as  to  form  a  white  ruff,  and  there  is  also  a  shorter  crest  of  dark 
hair  running  along  the  back  of  the  neck  to  the  shoulders.  The  color  is  grayish 


THE  MONGOLIAN  AND  TIBETAN  ARGALIS 


807 


brown  above,  but  whitish  beneath;  and  in  the  males  there  is,  as  a  j^le,  a  large  white 
patch  surrounding  the  tail  and  embracing  a  considerable  portion  of  the  rump,  while 
the  throat,  chest,  and  under  parts,  as  well  as  the  inner  sides  of  the  legs,  are  likewise 
white.  The  crest  of  hair  on  the  neck  and  a  stripe  down  the  outer  sides  of  the  legs 
are  dark,  and  there  is  also  a  dark  mark  above  the  tail.  In  very  old  rams  the  fur  of 
the  back  becomes  grayish  by  the  admixture  of  white  hairs;  and  Mr.  Blanford  con- 
siders it  probable  that  in  winter  the  whole  color  is  paler  than  in  summer.  In  the 
ewes  the  long  hair  on  the  back  and  throat  characteristic  of  the  Tibetan  argali  is  but 
little  developed,  or  absent;  and  the  light  patch  on  the  rump  is  indistinct.  The  mas- 
sive and  closely-wrinkled  horns  of  the  rams  are  light  brown  in  color,  with  their 
edges  much  rounded,  and  their  lateral  surfaces  considerably  deeper  than  the  one  in 
front;  they  form  a  spiral  curve,  with  the  tips  diverging  slightly  outward,  and  the 
whole  twist  falling  somewhat  short  of  a  complete  circle.  As  in  the  American  wild 
sheep,  the  horns  of  the  ewes  are  small,  thin,  widely  separated,  and  nearly  erect,  with 
a  slight  outward  and  backward  curvature.  The  adult  ram  of  the  Tibetan  argali 


FRONT  AND   SIDE   VIEWS   OF  SKUI.lv  AND   HORNS  OF"  TIBETAN   ARGAI.I. 

(P'rom  Sir  V.  Brooke,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1875.) 

stands  from  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet  at  the  shoulder;  but  the  weight  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  ascertained.  The  horns  of  fine  specimens  generally  measure 
from  thirty-six  to  forty  inches  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  girth  of  sixteen  or  sev- 
enteen inches;  but  these  dimensions  are  sometimes  exceeded.  The  horns  of  a  speci- 
men in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Otho  Shaw  have  a  length  of  forty-seven  and  one-half 
and  a  girth  of  seventeen  inches;  and  in  another  pair  the  length  has  been  stated  to  be 
forty-eight  inches,  with  a  girth  of  twenty  inches.  Some  degree  of  doubt  attaches, 
however,  to  an  alleged  length  of  fifty-three  inches,  and  a  girth  of  twenty-four  or 
twenty-five  inches,  which  have  been  given  as  the  dimensions  of  one  example.  In 
ewes  the  horns  are  seldom  more  than  eighteen  inches,  but  it  is  stated  that  they  may 
occasionally  reach  twenty-four  inches. 

The  range  of  the  true  argali  appears  to  have  been  much  restricted  at 
the  present  day,  owing  to  the  animal  having  been  driven  from  many 
parts  of  Northern  Siberia  by  the  Cossack  hunters.  Formerly  occurring  in  the  Altai, 
it  is  now  found  over  Northern  Mongolia,  and,  according  to  Brehm,  some  portions  of 
Southern  Siberia.  The  sheep  from  Mongolia  to  the  north  of  Peking,  described  as  O. 
jubata,  is  probably  not  specifically  distinct  from  this  species;  and  the  same  remark 


Distribution 


8o8  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

will  apply  to  the  O.  nigrimontana  of  Turkestan.     The  term  argali  is  the  Mongolian 
name  of  this  sheep,  but  it  is  known  to  the  Kirghiz  as  the  arkal. 

The  Tibetan  argali  —  thenyan  (female  nyanmo)  of  the  L,adakhis —  inhabits  the 
Tibetan  plateau  from  Northern  L,adakh  to  the  districts  northward  of  Sikhim,  and 
probably  still  farther  to  the  east.  It  is  unknown  to  the  southward  of  the  main  axis  of 
the  Himalayas,  and  in  summer  does  not  descend  below  an  elevation  of  fifteen  thou- 
sand feet,  but  in  winter  may  occasionally  come  as  low  as  twelve  thousand  feet. 

The  true  argali  is  stated  to  inhabit  mountains  at  an  elevation  of  from 
three  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  which  have  an 
abundance  of  naked  rocks,  but  have  their  slopes  thinly  covered  with  forests,  and 
their  valleys  wide  and  open.  Here  these  sheep  dwell  throughout  the  year,  rarely 
traveling  from  one  mountain  to  another;  a  single  flock,  when  undisturbed,  frequently 
inhabiting  one  and  the  same  mountain  for  many  successive  years.  Up  to  the  breed- 
ing season  the  rams  and  ewes  keep  separate  from  one  another,  the  former  generally 
going  in  parties  of  from  three  to  five  individuals,  while  the  latter  are  found  singly; 
but  shortly  before  that  time  the  two  sexes  assemble  together  in  flocks  of  from  ten  to 
fifteen  in  number.  They  appear  to  be  essentially  diurnal  in  their  habits,  feeding  in 
the  morning  and  evening  on  the  mountain  slopes  and  valleys,  and  retiring  to  rest 
about  midday.  Both  when  feeding  and  sleeping,  sentinels  are  placed  to  warn  the 
flock  of  danger.  In  summer  the  argalis  feed  on  grass  and  various  herbs,  but  in 
winter  they  are  compelled  to  subsist  on  moss,  lichens,  and  dry  grass.  At  such  sea- 
sons they  resort  to  the  more  exposed  portions  of  the  mountains,  as  it  is  there  only 
that  the  wind  has  blown  away  the  snow  from  the  lichens  and  other  herbage.  Ac- 
cording to  Prejewalski,  the  pairing  season  of  the  argalis  in  Mongolia  is  in  the  month 
of  August;  but  Brehm  was  informed  by  the  Kirghiz  that  in  Southern  Siberia  it  does 
not  take  place  till  October.  The  younger  ewes  almost  invariably  give  birth  to  only 
a  single  lamb  at  a  time,  but  the  older  ones  frequently  have  two. 

As  with  the  American  wild  sheep,  it  has  been  frequently  asserted  that  the  argali 
when  taking  a  long  leap  will  break  its  fall  by  alighting  on  its  horns.  In  both  in- 
stances this  statement  has  however  been  contradicted  by  the  most  reliable  authorities. 
Prejewalski  states  he  has  seen  these  sheep  leap  down  from  a  height  of  from  eighteen 
to  thirty  feet  and  alight  on  their  feet  without  harm. 

The  country  inhabited  by  the  Tibetan  argali  is  of  the  most  barren  and  desolate 
nature,  scorched  in  summer  during  the  day  by  the  untempered  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
swept  during  the  night  and  throughout  the  winter  by  blasts  of  icy  coldness.  For 
days  the  traveler  may  journey  through  these  arid  regions  without  seeing  a  trace  of 
a  bush,  although  he  may  here  and  there  come  across  some  low  bush  jungle  in  the 
more  sheltered  valleys.  As  a  rule,  the  elevations  are  undulating  and  shelving,  and 
the  valleys  wide  and  open.  In  such  exposed  situations  animals  naturally  become 
extremely  wary,  but  this  wariness  is  carried  to  the  highest  degree  in  the  rams  of  the 
present  species,  which  are  considered  by  General  Kinloch  to  be  more  difficult  to 
stalk  than  any  other  kind  of  Indian  or  Tibetan  game.  The  females  and  young- 
rams,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  difficult  to  approach,  and  in  Ladakh  may  not  un- 
frequently  be  met  with  in  considerable  numbers.  In  spite,  however,  of  their  general 
wariness,  adult  rams  will  occasionally  approach  within  rifle  shot;  the  present  writer 


THE  PAMIR    WILD   SHEEP  809 

on  one  occasion  having  seen  a  ram  accompanied  by  two  ewes  cros£  a  pass  and  de- 
liberately descend  the  valley  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  spot  where  he  himself 
was  lying  concealed.  During  the  summer  the  old  rams  are  generally  found  in  small 
parties  of  from  three  to  four  to  upward  of  some  fifteen  individuals  of  their  own  sex, 
and  quite  apart  from  the  ewes;  but  the  above-mentioned  instance  shows  that  they 
may  occasionally  be  accompanied  by  them.  The  breeding  season  is  in  the  winter, 
when  these  sheep  collect  in  the  lower  and  more  sheltered  valleys;  and  the  young  are 
born  in  May  or  June.  The  flesh  of  the  nyan,  as  the  author  can  testify  from  personal 
experience,  is  most  excellent,  being  dark  colored,  fine  grained,  and  well  flavored. 
In  L,adakh  the  chief  haunts  of  this  splendid  sheep  are  the  Chang-Chenmo  valley  and 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Pangong  lake,  and  thence  into  Chinese  Tibet.  A  wild 
hybrid  between  a  male  of  this  sheep  and  a  female  of  the  under-mentioned  urial,  was 
shot  in  Zanskar,  and  described  as  a  distinct  species  under  the  name  of  O.  brookei; 
while  there  is  also  a  record  of  a  hybrid  between  the  male  urial  and  the  female  nyan. 

A  fossil  argali  occurs  in  the  forest  bed  of  the  Norfolk  coast,  and  re- 
rossil  Argali 

mains  of  other  species  have  been  obtained  from  the  superficial  deposit 
of  the  continent. 

THE  PAMIR  WILD  SHEEP  (Ovis  poli) 

Although  discovered  by  the  great  Venetian  traveler  as  long  ago  as  the  latter 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  it  is  only  since  the  year  1873  that  the  great  Pamir 
wild  sheep  has  been  fully  known  to  science.  In  that  year  it  was  described  by  the 
Russian  naturalist  Severtzoff,  under  the  name  of  Karelin's  sheep  (O.  karelini); 
while  specimens  of  the  skin  and  horns  obtained  during  the  second  expedition  to 
Yarkand,  under  the  late  Sir  Douglas  Forsyth  in  1873-74,  were  soon  afterward  re- 
ceived in  England.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  species  was  named  by  Mr.  E.  Blyth 
in  1840,  but  it  was  then  only  very  imperfectly  known.  Since  1873  our  knowledge 
has  advanced  rapidly,  and  this  magnificent  sheep  has  been  shot  by  two  English- 
men—  Mr.  St.  George  L,ittledale  and  Major  C.  S.  Cumberland  —  who  traveled  to 
the  Pamir  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing  skins  and  horns. 

The  Pamir  sheep,  although  furnished  with  longer  horns,  does  not  appear  to 
attain  quite  such  large  dimensions  as  the  Tibetan  argali,  from  which  it  is  mainly 
distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  horns,  and  also  by  coloration.  In  the  male  the 
horns,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  are  seen  to  form  a  spiral  of  about  a  circle  and  a 
quarter,  and  when  adult  they  are  much  longer  than  those  of  the  argali,  but  are  less 
massive  at  the  base.  In  fine  specimens  the  horns  may  measure  from  fifty  to  sixty 
inches  in  length  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  girth  of  about  fifteen  inches;  a  speci- 
men has,  however,  been  recorded  measuring  sixty-three  inches  in  length,  while  one 
pair  attained  the  enormous  length  of  seventy-three  inches,  with  a  basal  girth  of  six- 
teen and  three-fourths  inches;  and  another  seventy-five  inches,  with  a  girth  of 
sixteen  inches.  Females,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  have  small  upright  horns 
like  those  of  the  female  argali.  The  color  of  the  fur  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  rams 
is  light  brown,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  reddish  tinge;  but  there  is  a  dark  line  of 
longer  hair  extending  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  withers,  which  in  the  female 
is  sometimes  continued  as  a  stripe  down  the  back.  The  muzzle,  together  with  the 


8io 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 


fore-part  of  the  neck,  the  chest,  the  under  parts,  the  rump  inclusive  of  the  tail,  and 
the  legs  are  white.  The  patch  of  white  on  the  rump  is  of  irregular  contour,  and 
sometimes,  as  in  our  figure,  there  may  be  a  small  black  mark  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  tail.  In  summer  it  is  probable,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  that  the  color  is 
darker  and  browner.  The  ewes  differ  by  the  absence  of  any  white  on  the  throat. 
In  addition  to  the  long  hairs  on  the  nape  of  the  neck,  the  old  males  have  a  more  or 


THE  PAMIR  WII<D  SHEEP. 
(One-seventeenth  natural  size.) 

less  marked  ruff  on  the  throat.  In  an  adult  male  measured  by  Mr.  Blanford,  in 
which  the  horns  had  a  length  of  forty-eight  inches,  the  height  at  the  withers  was 
three  feet  eight  inches,  and  the  length  from  the  horns  to  the  tip  of  the  tail  five  feet 
two  inches,  of  which  five  and  one-half  inches  was  taken  up  by  the  tail  itself.  As  is 
the  case  with  the  argali;  the  ewes  are  but  little  inferior  in  size  to  the  rams.  Dr. 
Severtzow  estimates  that  an  adult  ram  would  weigh  about  five  hundred  pounds. 


THE  PAMIR    WILD  SHEEP  811 

To  support  the  enormous  weight  of  the  horns  great  strength  in  the  neck  and 
fore  parts  of  the  rams  is  essential;  and  this  is  afforded  by  the  great  depth  of  the 
neck  and  chest,  as  is  well  shown  in  our  illustration. 

The  Pamir  sheep  takes  its  name  from  inhabiting  the  elevated  dis- 
trict in  Central  Asia  known  as  the  Pamirs,  or  "  Roof  of  the  World." 
It  is  also  found  on  the  table-lands  to  the  westward  and  northward  of  Eastern 
Turkestan;  while  its  range  extends  northward  across  the  Thian-Shan  range  to  the 
Semiretchinsk  Altai.  It  has  been  obtained  from  the  head  waters  of  the  Amu  Darya, 
and  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  Gobi  desert;  while  to  the  westward  it  extends  as 
far  south  as  the  Shimshal  Pamir  just  north  of  Gilgit,  and  thus  comes  within 
the  limits  of  the  territory  under  the  influence  of  the  Government  of  India.  On  the 
average,  this  sheep  may  be  said  to  live  at  an  elevation  of  about  twelve  thousand 
feet,  but  in  some  districts  it  ascends  higher,  while  in  others  it  is  found  at  much 
lower  levels. 

The  typical  and  larger  form  of  this  sheep  is  the  one  inhabiting  the  Pamirs, 
while  the  rather  smaller  variety  described  as  O.  karelini  is  from  the  Thian-Shan;  it 


SKULI,   AND    HORNS   OF   PAMIR    SHEEP. 
(From  Sir  V.  Brooke,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1875.) 

has  been  shown,  however,  that  the  one  form  passes  imperceptibly  into  the  other. 
A  sheep  described  by  Dr.  Severtzow,  under  the  name  of  O.  heinsi  is  probably  also 
not  specifically  separable. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Wakhan  the  rams  of  the  Pamir  sheep  are  known  by  the 
name  of  kuchkar,  while  the  ewes  ar,e  termed  mesh;  but  in  the  Turki  language,  as 
spoken  in  Eastern  Turkestan,  the  males  are  called  kulja  or  gulja,  and  the  females  arkar. 
The  habits  of  this  sheep  appear  to  be  almost  or  exactly  similar  to 
those  of  the  Tibetan  argali.  It  inhabits,  however,  a  far  less  barren 
country  than  the  latter;  the  undulating  slopes  of  the  Pamirs  being  covered  in  sum- 
mer with  a  continuous  carpet  of  rich  grass.  The  breeding  season  of  this  species 
occurs  in  the  winter,  during  the  months  of  December  and  January;  and  at  that 
period  some  of  the  herds  may  be  very  large. 

Describing  the  nature  of  the  country  inhabited  by  the  Pamir  sheep,  Colonel  H. 
Trotter,  who  was  attached  to  the  expedition  under  Sir  D.  Forsyth,  observes  that 
after  passing  a  place  called  Chakmak,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Thian-Shan 
range,  the  road  for  twenty-five  miles  "continues  gently  ascending  along  the  course 


812  THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 

of  the  frozen  stream,  passing  through  volcanic  rocks  to  Turgat  Bela,  a  little  short  of 
which  the  country  alters,  and  the  precipitous  hills  are  replaced  by  gently  undulat- 
ing grassy  slopes,  abounding  with  the  O.  poli.  These  extensive  grassy  slopes, 
somewhat  resembling  the  English  downs,  are  a  very  curious  feature  of  the  country, 
and  not  only  attract  the  Kirghiz  as  grazing  grounds  for  their  cattle,  but  are  equally 
sought  after  by  the  large  herds  of  gulja,  in  one  of  which  Dr.  Stoliczka  counted  no 
less  than  eighty-five." 

In  the  Semiretchinsk  Altai,  according  to  Dr.  Severtzow,  these  sheep  are  found 
wherever  there  are  good  meadows  and  rocky  places,  at  elevations  of  two  thousand 
or  three  thousand  feet;  and  the  same  writer  states  that  owing  to  the  open  nature  of 
the  country,  and  the  good  grazing  grounds  which  they  frequent,  they  are  more 
easily  driven  from  their  haunts  by  the  Kirghiz  than  are  the  ibex,  which  inhabit 
rocky  and  less  accessible  regions.  In  other  parts  of  the  Thian-Shan,  as  the  upper 
Naria  valley,  these  sheep  are  found  in  summer  at  elevations  of  ten  thousand  or  even 
twelve  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

THE  URIAI,  OR  SHA  (Ovt's  vignei) 

The  Asiatic  wild  sheep  known  in  the  Punjab  as  the  urial,  but  in  Ladakh  as  the 
sha,  belongs  to  a  group  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  species  by  their  smaller 
size  and  less  massive  horns.  It  was  long  considered  that  the  urial  of  the  Punjab  and 
other  districts  of  Northwestern  India  was  specifically  distinct  from  the  sha  of  Ladakh, 
but  the  investigations  of  Mr.  Blanford  have  shown  that  the  two  forms  pass  into  one 
another,  and  must  consequently  be  regarded  merely  as  varieties  of  a  single  species. 

The  typical  urial  of  the  Punjab  stands  about  two  feet  eight  inches  in  height  at 
the  shoulder,  but  the  Ladakh  variety  is  rather  taller,  its  height  being  as  much  as  three 
feet,  or  even,  it  is  said,  rather  more.  The  horns  are  strongly  wrinkled,  and  have 
their  lateral  surfaces  not  much  broader  than  the  front  one;  while  their  outer  front 
angle  is  much  more  rounded  off  than  in  the  argali.  The  two  horns  rise  very  close 
together,  and  curve  round  in  a  regular  circular  sweep,  sometimes  keeping  almost  en- 
tirely in  the  same  plane,  but  at  others  forming  a  spiral;  their  curve  very  seldom  ex- 
ceeding one  complete  circle.  In  the  ewes  the  horns  are  very  short,  and  nearly 
straight.  The  average  length  of  the  horns  of  the  rams  varies  from  twenty-four  to 
thirty  inches  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  girth,  of  about  ten  inches;  but  Mr.  Blan- 
ford states  that  a  specimen  has  been  obtained  in  which  the  length  of  the  horns  was 
upward  of  thirty-seven  and  three-fourths  inches,  and  their  basal  girth  eleven  and 
one-fifth  inches.  In  the  sha  or  Ladakh  variety  the  horns  are  generally  thicker  at  the 
base  than  in  the  true  urial,  their  basal  girth  in  some  instances  varying  between 
eleven  and  twelve  inches,  whereas  in  the  latter  it  does  not  exceed  ten  inches;  the 
horns  frequently,  moreover,  form  a  wider  circle,  and  their  outer  front  edge  is  still 
more  rounded  off. 

The  adult  ram  of  the  urial  is  characterized  by  having  a  large  ruff  of  long  hair 
on  the  throat,  commencing  on  either  side  of  the  chin  in  two  distinct  moieties,  which 
soon  unite  and  extend  down  the  throat  to  the  chest.  In  the  Ladakh  variety  the  ruff 
is  generally  much  less  developed.  In  color  the  fur  of  the  urial  is  rufous  gray  or 


THE  ARMENIAN  AND   CYPRIAN  SHEEP  813 

fawn  on  the  upper  parts  in  the  summer  dress,  but  in  winter  becomes  grayish  brown; 
the  under  parts,  together  with  the  rump,  tail,  and  legs,  are  whitish;  while  in  old 
rams  the  ruff  is  generally  white  in  front,  passing  behind  into  black,  although  in  some 
cases  it  may  be  entirely  black.  There  is  a  dark  brown  or  black  patch  behind  the 
shoulder;  and  sometimes  a  blackish  line  dividing  the  white  of  the  under  parts  from 
the  darker  area,  as  well  as  blackish  markings  on  the  limbs.  The  ewes  and  young 
rams  are  of  a  uniform  grayish-brown  color. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  urial  is  more  extensive  than  that  of 
any  other  Old- World  sheep,  and  includes  districts  with  exceedingly 
different  climatic  conditions.  The  large  variety  known  as  the  sha  extends  from 
Northern  Tibet  through  L,adakh  and  Zanskar,  where  it  is  generally  found  at  eleva- 
tions of  from  twelve  thousand  to  fourteen  thousand  feet,  through  Astor  and  Gilgit 
(where  it  is  locally  known  as  the  uria)  to  Afghanistan.  The  true  urial  inhabits  the 
Salt  range  of  the  Punjab,  the  Suliman  range,  the  Hazara  hills,  and  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Peshawur,  whence  it  ranges  all  through  Sind,  Baluchistan,  and  Afghanistan 
into  Eastern  Persia.  The  variety  found  in  Baluchistan  and  Kelat  is  characterized 
by  the  very  open  spiral  formed  by  the  horns,  so  that  the  tips  diverge  much  more 
than  usual;  this  variety  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  a  distinct  species  under  the 
name  of  O.  blanfordi. 

Regarding  the  different  habitats  of  the  urial,  Mr.  Blanford  observes 
that  in  I^adakh  this  sheep  inhabits  open  valleys;  in  Astor  and  Gilgit  it 
keeps  to  grassy  ground  at  moderate  elevations  below  the  forest;  in  the  Salt  range  of 
the  Punjab,  and  in  Sind,  Baluchistan,  and  Persia,  it  is  found  on  undulating  or  hilly 
ground  cut  up  by  ravines,  and  is  more  often  seen  on  stony  and  rocky  hillsides  than 
among  bushes  and  scrub.  The  herds  vary  usually  from  three  or  four  to  twenty 
or  thirty  in  number;  the  sexes  are  generally  together,  but  the  males  often 
keep  apart  in  summer.  These  sheep  are  wary  and  active;  although  not  such  mas- 
ters of  the  art  of  climbing  among  precipices  as  the  goats,  tahr,  or  bharal,  they  get 
over  steep  places  with  wonderful  ease.  Their  alarm  cry  is  a  shrill  whistle,  their  us- 
ual call  a  kind  of  bleat.  In  the  Punjab  the  breeding  season  is  in  September,  but  it 
must  be  considerably  later  in  Astor,  where  the  lambs  are  born  early  in  June.  There 
are  either  one  or  two  young  at  a  birth;  and  the  species  will  freely  interbreed  with 
domestic  sheep.  The  Punjab  and  Sind  urial  inhabits  a  hotter  area  than  any  other 
species  of  wild  sheep;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  a  single  species  should  have  been 
able  to  adapt  itself  to  climates  so  different  from  one  another  as  are  those  of  the  Pun- 
jab and  I^adakh. 

In  the  Salt  range  of  the  Punjab  the  urial  may  occasionally  be  seen  grazing  with 
domestic  sheep;  but  they  are  soon  disturbed  by  the  sight  of  a  European.  The 
broken  nature  of  the  ground,  with  numerous  sharp  ridges,  separated  by  deep  and 
narrow  ravines,  renders,  however,  urial  stalking  a  comparatively  easy  sport. 

THE  ARMENIAN  AND  CYPRIAN  SHEEP  ( Ovis  gmelini  and  O.  ophion) 

The  Armenian  sheep  brings  us  to  the  first  of  a  group  of  three  comparatively 
small  species  distinguished  from  the  urial  by  the  total  absence  of  horns  in  the  ewes, 


814 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


the  want  of  a  distinct  ruff  on  the  chin  of  the  rams,  and  the  much  finer  wrinkles  on 
the  front  of  their  horns,  as  well  as  by  the  tail  being  always  dark  colored.  The  Ar- 
menian sheep,  which  inhabits  Eastern  Persia  and  Asia  Minor,  and  is  especially  com- 
mon in  the  Cilician  Taurus,  is  the  largest  of  these  three  species,  the  rams  generally 
standing  about  two  feet  nine  inches  at  the  shoulder.  The  color  of  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body  in  the  rams  is  russet  yellow,  the  fore  portion  of  the  head  being  whitish, 
and  the  under  parts,  inside  of  the  limbs,  and  the  whole  of  the  lower  portions  of  the 
legs,  as  well  as  a  streak  on  the  buttocks,  white.  There  is  a  dark  mark  on  the  front 
of  the  fore-legs  above  the  knee,  and  the  fringe  of  long  hair  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
throat  is  also  dark,  as  is  the  end  of  the  tail.  The  horns  have  a  peculiar  backward 
and  inward  curvature,  so  as  nearly  to  meet  behind  the  neck,  and  as  a  rule  they  do 
not  exceed  twenty-six  inches  in  length,  but  a  single  pair  has  been  recorded  as  meas- 
uring upward  of  forty  inches.  The  females  have  a  characteristic  white  saddle  mark 
on  the  back. 

In  the  Troodos  mountains  of  Cyprus  this  species  is  represented  by  the  smaller 
but  closely-allied  Cyprian  sheep,  which  may  indeed  be  nothing  more  than  a 
geographical  race  of  the  other,  diminished  in  size  and  modified  by  the  small 

area  of  its  habitat  and  its 
long  isolation.  This  elegant 
species  is,  indeed,  the  smallest 
of  all  the  wild  sheep,  the  rams 
standing  only  just  over  twenty- 
six  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and 
their  horns  not  exceeding 
twenty-three  inches  in  length. 
According  to  Colonel  J.  Bid- 
dulph,  it  is  distinguished  from 
the  typical  form  of  the  Arme- 
nian sheep  by  the  horns  being 
more  slender,  with  their  outer 
front  angle  almost  completely 
obliterated,  and  their  tips 
directed  upward  instead  of 
downward.  The  fringe  on  the 
throat  is  also  less  developed 

and  there  is  a  much  more  distinct  dark  line  dividing  the  white  of  the  belly  from  the 
rufous  of  the  flanks.  There  is,  however,  a  variety  of  the  Armenian  sheep  in  which 
the  horns  approximate  in  form  to  those  of  this  species. 


HEAD   OF    CYPRIAN    SHEEP. 
(From    Biddulph,  Ptoc.  Zool.  Soc.,  i» 


THE  MOUFLON   (Ovis   musimon] 

The  European  mouflon,  now  confined  to  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  is 
the  last  member  of  the  typical  group  of  wild  sheep.  In  height  the  rams  stand 
about  twenty-seven  and  one-half  inches  at  the  withers  ;  the  build  of  the  animal 


THE  MOUFLON 


815 


being  very  compact  and  neat.  The  hair  is  short  and  close  on  the  body,  with  an 
abundant  tinder-wool,  but  in  the  rams  is  elongated  into  a  short  mane  on  the  neck 
and  a  fringe  on  the  lower  part  of  the  throat.  With  the  exception  of  a  dark  brown 
line  down  the  back,  and  a  conspicuous  light  gray  saddle-like  patch  on  the  sides  of 
the  rams,  the  general  color  of  the  upper  parts  is  foxy  red,  passing  into  ashy  gray 
on  the  head,  while  the  muzzle,  a  streak  on  the  rump,  the  sides  of  the  tail,  the  feet, 
and  portions  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs,  and  the  under  part  of  the  body  are 


THE  MOUFIX>N. 
(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

white.     The  horns  curve  forward  by  the  side  of  the  face,  and  vary  in  length  from 
twenty  to  twenty-eight  or  twenty-nine  inches. 

Although  reported  to  have  occurred  formerly  in  parts  of  Greece  and 
the  Balearic  Isles,  it  does  not  seem  certain  that  the  mouflon  was  ever 
an  inhabitant  of  these  countries,  while  Brehm  is  doubtful  if  its  alleged  former  oc- 
currence in  Spain  is  a  fact.  At  one  time  the  mouflon  was  extremely  numerous  in 
Corsica  and  Sardinia,  accounts  being  extant  of  the  slaughter  of  four  hundred  or  five 
hundred  head  during  a  single  hunt.  At  the  present  day  it  is,  however,  far  less 


8i6  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

numerous,  so  that  instead  of  being  met  with  in  large  flocks,  it  is  now  only  seen  in 
companies  of  from  four  to  five  up  to  seven  individuals;  while  in  the  largest  "drives" 
not  more  than  forty  or  fifty  head  are  ever  killed  at  one  time. 

In  Sardinia  the  mouflon,  instead  of  being  found  on  all  the  mountain 
ranges,  are  restricted  to  certain  chains,  and  there  they  frequent  only 
the  highest  ridges,  generally  confining  themselves  to  such  peaks  as  command  a  view 
of  the  whole  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  flocks  of  mouflon  are  led  by  an  old 
and  powerful  ram;  but  at  the  pairing  season  the  large  flocks  used  to  split  up  into 
small  parties,  consisting  of  one  ram  and  several  ewes.  The  rams  engage  in  fierce 
conflicts  among  themselves  for  the  supremacy;  and  during  the  months  of  December 
and  January  the  mountains  re-echo  with  the  sound  of  the  blows  as  one  ram  rushes 
against  the  head  of  another.  The  lambs  —  either  one  or  two  at  a  birth  —  are  pro- 
duced during  April  or  May;  and  are  able  in  a  few  days  to  follow  their  dams  every- 
where. Mr.  E.  N.  Buxton  states  that  the  Sardinia  mouflon  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  animals  to  approach  with  which  he  is  acquainted.  He  observes  that 
"  when  they  are  alarmed,  or  at  '  gaze,'  they  have  a  habit,  or  at  least  the  rams  have, 
of  placing  themselves  in  the  middle  of  a  bush  of  tnacquia,  or  in  the  shadow  which 
it  casts.  The  ewes,  who  are  naturally  less  conspicuous,  do  this  in  a  less  degree. 
The  mouflon  are  assisted  by  the  wonderful  alertness  of  their  eyes. ' '  Later  on  Mr. 
Buxton  writes  that  "  one  of  their  favorite  devices  is  to  seek  for  spots  on  the  lee  side 
of  a  ridge  where  the  currents  of  air  meet.  Here,  in  otherwise  favorable  positions, 
they  are  quite  unapproachable."  Occasionally  wild  mouflon  will  desert  their  own 
kin  to  live  among  tame  sheep;  while  sometimes  also  a  motherless  domestic  lamb  has 
been  known  to  seek  companionship  among  a  flock  of  mouflon.  Evidently,  there- 
fore, the  wild  sheep  are  very  closely  related  to  our  domestic  breeds. 

DOMESTIC   SHEEP   (Ovis   aries] 

Although  from  the  similarity  in  the  form  and  structure  of  their  horns  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  domestic  races  of  sheep  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
mouflon,  Armenian  wild  sheep,  and  urial,  than  to  those  mentioned  hereafter,  yet 
we  are  at  present  quite  in  the  dark  as  to  their  origin;  and  it  is  an  open  question 
whether  we  ought  to  regard  the  various  domesticated  breeds  as  derived  from  a 
single,  or  from  several  original  wild  stocks.  The  most  important  features  by  which 
most  domestic  races  of  sheep  differ  from  their  wild  cousins  are  the  length  of  the 
tail,  and  the  substitution  of  a  coat  of  wool  for  one  of  hair.  No  wild  sheep  except 
the  under-mentioned  Barbary  sheep,  which  has  horns  of  a  totally  different  type,  is 
furnished  with  a  long  tail;  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  long  tails  of  the 
domestic  breeds  are  due  to  a  kind  of  degeneracy,  although,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  this  does  not  much  advance  matters.  Unfortunately,  geology  does  not  help  us 
much  in  this  investigation;  although  it  is  ascertained  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
ancient  Swiss  lake  villages  were  possessed  of  a  breed  of  sheep  characterized  by  their 
small  size,  long,  thin  legs,  and  goat-like  horns. 

Domestic  sheep  vary  greatly  in  the  character  of  their  horns.  Thus  while  in 
the  Dorset  breed  these  appendages  are  present  in  both  sexes,  and  of  nearly  equal  size 


DOMESTIC  SHEEP 


817 


in  each,  in  some  forms  only  the  males  are  provided  with  horns,  while  in  other  breeds, 
like  the  Southdown,  they  are  absent  in  both  sexes.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  ten- 
dency among  some  breeds  to  produce  additional  pairs  of  horns,  so  that  we  may  have 
four-horned,  and  even  eight-horned  sheep.  When  there  is  more  than  one  pair  of  horns, 
they  arise  from  a  peculiar,  elevated  crest  on  the  frontal  bones.  In  the  Wallachian 
breed  the  horns  of  the  rams,  as  Mr.  Youatt  remarks,  spring  almost  perpendicularly  from 


THE     BLACK-HEADED     SHEEP. 

(One-twelfth   natural  size.) 

the  frontal  bone,  and  then  take  a  beautiful  spiral  form;  in  the  ewes  they  protrude 
nearly  at  right  angles  from  the  head,  and  then  become  twisted  in  a  singular  manner. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  types  of  domestic  sheep  is  characterized 
by  the  tail  being  flattened,  and  either  of  great  length  or  abnormally 
shortened.     It  has  been  considered  that  these  sheep  indicated  a  dis- 
tinct aboriginal  form,  but  against  this  view  may  be  quoted  Mr.  Darwin's  observa- 
52 


Flat-Tailed 
Sheep 


8i8  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

tion  that  their  drooping  ears  are  indicative  of  long  domestication.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  nature  of  the  pelage  in  the  Eastern  and  Ethiopian  varieties  of  these 
breeds,  is  suggestive  of  a  more  intimate  relationship  with  a  wild  ancestral  stock. 

In  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  parts  of  Arabia,  the  flat-tailed  sheep  have  their  tails 
of  enormous  size,  sometimes  reaching  a  weight  of  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds. 
So  long,  indeed,  is  the  tail,  that  it  actually  trails  upon  the  ground,  and  is 
frequently  supported  by  little  sledges  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  incommoding  its 
owner. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  such  as 
Persia  and  many  parts  of  Central  Asia,  as  well  as  in  Northeastern  Central 
Africa,  we  find  that  the  flat  tail  becomes  short  or  rudimentary,  and  the  fat  accumu- 
lates on  either  side  of  the  haunches  in  twro  great  protuberances.  Hence  this  breed 
is  designated  O.  aries  steatopyga.  This  breed,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  is  of 
large  size,  and  differs  from  most  domesticated  sheep  in  its  completely  hairy  pelage. 
The  coat  of  the  adult  resembles,  indeed,  very  closely  that  of  many  wild  sheep,  gen- 
erally consisting  of  short  and  close  hair,  and  yielding  no  wool  capable  of  being  spun 
or  woven.  The  lambs  have,  however,  a  perfectly  woolly  coat.  In  Abyssinia,  Mr. 
Blanford  states  that  the  fat-tailed  sheep  kept  in  the  highlands  differ  from  the  ordi- 
nary breed  in  being  covered  with  wool.  They  have  also  frequently  well-developed 
and  handsomely-curled  horns.  In  our  figured  example  of  the  hairy  breed  of  these 
sheep,  the  hair  is  white  on  the  body  but  black  on  the  head  and  front  part  of  the 
neck.  The  horns  are  small  and  curved.  These  sheep  are  kept  in  great  numbers  by 
the  nomad  tribes  of  the  Asiatic  steppes;  some  preferring  those  which  are  entirely 
black,  while  others  cultivate  a  pure  white  breed.  A  large  number  of  lambs  of 
the  black  breed  are  killed  at  a  very  early  age  for  the  sake  of  their  skins,  which  are 
covered  with  fine  curly  wool,  and  constitute  the  astrachan  of  commerce. 

The  Fezzan  sheep,  which  is  brown  and  white  in  color  and  has  a  long  and  round 
tail,  has  the  pelage  entirely  in  the  form  of  hair. 

It  would  be  impossible  within  the  limits  at  our  disposal  to  mention  the  various 
breeds  of  round-tailed  domestic  sheep  met  with  in  various  parts  of  the  world; 
and  we  must,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  a  brief  mention  of  those  cultivated 
in  f.he  British  Islands. 

The  Shetland  and  Orkney  breeds  are  characterized  by  their  fleece 
16  &n  being  composed  of  fine  soft  wool  largely  intermixed  with  hair.     They 


are  of  small  size  and  hardy  disposition,  with  horns  frequently  present 
in  both  sexes,  although  often  wanting  in  the  ewes;  and  their  color  may  be  either 
black,  brown,  gray,  or  white. 

The  older  soft-wooled  sheep  of  Scotland  are  a  small-horned  breed, 

with  lank  bodies  and  short  wool,  which  is  deficient  in  the  property  of 
felting.  They  are  nearly  extinct. 

Of  the  Welsh  sheep  there  are  two  races,  both  of  small  size.     The 

first  is  the  higher  mountain  breed,  characterized  by  the  presence  of 
horns  in  both  sexes,  their  generally  dark  color,  and  the  intermixture  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  hair  among  their  soft  wool.  The  second  breed  is  hornless,  with  soft  wool, 
which  is  deficient  in  the  property  of  felting.  These  sheep  are  hardy,  and  noted  for 


DOMESTIC  SHEEP 


819 


Irish  Breeds 


the  excellence  of  their  flesh;  when  removed  from  their  native  pastures  they  are  im- 
patient of  restraint. 

The  Irish  Wicklow  sheep  were  almost  identical  with  the  Welsh 
mountain  sheep,  but  have  been  much  altered  by  crossing.  There  are, 
however,  several  other  Irish  breeds,  among  which  the  Kerry  is  the  best  known. 
These  are  larger  than  the  Welsh  sheep,  with  the  horns  frequently  absent  in  the  ewes, 
and  the  fleece  moderately  soft,  but  irregular,  and  mixed  with  hair.  They  are  late 
in  reaching  maturity,  and  wild  in  disposition. 


HEAD  OF  MERINO  RAM. 


Heath  Breed 


The  black-faced  Heath  breed,  which  are  natives  of  the  chain  of 
mountains  and  moors  extending  northward  from  Derbyshire,  are  the 
hardiest  and  boldest  of  all  the  British  races.  Both  sexes  are  horned,  and  their  faces 
and  limbs  are  dark-colored,  and  their  fleeces  coarse  and  shaggy.  When  taken  to 
lower  grounds,  their  wool  becomes  finer. 

The  Cheviot  breed,  originally  confined  to  a  small  tract  of  grassy 
hills  in  the  North  of  England,  are  rather  heavier,  although  less  robust 
than  the  last.  Both  sexes  are  hornless,  their  faces  and  limbs  are  white,  and  they 
produce  wool  of  moderate  fineness. 

The  old  Norfolk  breed,  of  the  eastern  counties  of  England,  are 
strong  and  active  sheep,  with  horns  in  both  sexes,  which  are  thick  and 
spiral  in  the  rams.  The  body  and  limbs  are  long,  the  head  is  carried  high,  and  the 
face  and  legs  are  black;  while  the  wool  is  silky  and  of  medium  length. 


Cheviots 


Norfolk  Breed 


820  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  Dartmoor  and  Exmoor  sheep  may  be  taken  as  samples  of  the 

breeds  of  the  older  forests,  commons,  and  chases.  They  frequently 
have  dark  or  gray  faces  and  limbs,  and  may  be  with  or  without  horns,  while  their 
size  is  small.  The  two  races  mentioned  differ  from  the  others  in  having  wool  of 
medium  length,  instead  of  extreme  shortness. 

The  well-known  Southdown  breed,  derived  from  the  chalk  hills  of 

Sussex,  are  characterized  by  the  absence  of  horns,  their  dark  brown 
faces,  ears,  and  limbs,  and  their  short  felting  wool.  Their  size  and  weight  are  sub- 
ject to  local  variation,  but  their  heads  are  always  comparatively  small,  their 
lower  jaws  thin  and  fine,  and  the  space  between  their  ears  well  covered  with  wool. 
A  good  Southdown  carries  more  meat  in  proportion  to  offal  than  does  any  other  of 
the  short-wooled  varieties. 

The  Dorset  and  pink-nosed  Somerset  breed,  are  indigenous  to  the 

southwest  of  England,  and  are  easily  recognized  by  their  long  limbs, 
the  presence  of  horns  in  both  sexes,  and  their  white  limbs  and  faces,  the  muzzle  be- 
ing often  flesh-colored.  The  wool  is  of  medium  length,  and  the  lambs  are  produced 
unusually  early.  There  is  a  variety  of  the  Dorset  breed  in  Dean  forest  and  on  the 
Mendip  hills,  small,  compact  animals  that  thrive  on  the  poorest  soil.  The  Port- 
land sheep  are  an  allied  but  smaller  breed. 

The  small  merino  sheep,  in  which  the  males  have  long  spiral  horns 

while  the  females  are  usually  hornless,  may  have  either  white  or  gray 
faces  and  limbs,  and  are  distinguished  from  all  other  breeds  by  the  great  length  and 
fineness  of  their  wool.  Originally  a  native  of  Spain,  the  breed  has  spread  over  many 
parts  of  Europe,  and  has  been  introduced  into  South  Africa,  America,  and  Aus- 
tralia; but,  for  several  reasons,  has  not  found  much  favor  with  English  farmers. 

Finally,  we  have  the  various  strains  of  long-wooled  sheep,  under 
Breeds        which  heading  are  comprised  the  new  Leicester,    and  the  varieties 

more  or  less  intermixed  with  it  in  blood,  such  as  the  Lincolnshire,  the 
Romney  Marsh,  the  Cotswold,  the  Devonshire,  the  Notts,  and  the  long-wooled  Irish 
breeds.  They  are  all  of  large  size,  destitute  of  horns  in  both  sexes,  and  bear  long 
wool,  which,  while  unsuitable  for  felting,  is  eminently  adapted  for  the  manufacture 
of  worsted  yarn.  These  sheep  are  stated  by  Mr.  Low  to  be  "  more  especially 
adapted  to  the  plains  and  the  districts  where  artificial  food  can  be  reared  in  the  nec- 
essary quantity.  They  have  been  continually  increasing  in  number  with  the  exten- 
sion of  tillage  and  the  general  improvement  of  agriculture.  Of  the  several  varieties 
the  new  Leicester  breed  occupies  the  first  class  with  respect  to  form,  and  the  apti- 
tude to  fatten  readily. ' ' 

THE  BHARAL  (Ovis' nahura) 

With  tne  bharal,  or  blue  sheep  of  Tibet,  we  come  to  the  first  of  two  wild 
species  differing  markedly  from  all  the  others  in  the  characteristics  of  their  horns 
and  skulls,  and  approximating  in  these  respects  to  the  goats.  As  regards  the  horns, 
the  male  bharal  has  these  appendages  nearly  smooth,  and  rounded  or  subquadrangu- 
lar  at  the  base,  while  their  curvature  assimilates  more  to  a  letter  S  than  to  the  spiral 


en 
< 

IE 
CD 


THE   BHARAL  821 

<-"' 

characteristic  of  the  typical  sheep.  They  are  marked  with  fine  transverse  striae,  and 
rise  very  close  together  on  the  head;  their  direction  is  outward,  at  first  upward, 
then  downward,  and  at  the  extremities  backward.  The  females  have  short  horns, 
curving  upward  and  outward.  There  is  no  gland  on  the  face,  and  consequently  no 
pit  in  the  skull  below  the  eye.  The  tail  is  relatively  longer  than  in  any  of  the 
wild  species  yet  noticed.  The  fur  is  of  uniform  length  throughout,  without  any 
trace  of  a  mane  on  the  neck  or  fringe  on  the  throat,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
smoothness  and  compactness.  As  regards  coloration,  the  adult  male  bharal  is  a 
decidedly  striking  animal.  Thus,  whereas  the  general  color  of  the  upper  parts  is 
brownish  gray,  becoming  more  distinctly  brown  in  summer,  and  tending  to  slaty 
gray  in  winter,  the  under  parts,  the  inside  and  back  of  the  limbs,  as  well  as  the 
rump,  so  far  as  the  root  of  the  tail,  are  white.  The  front  of  the  face,  the  chest,  a 
stripe  down  the  front  of  the  limbs',  interrupted  by  white  at  the  knees,  and  a  stripe 
along  the  side  dividing  the  white  of  the  belly  from  the  dark  of  the  upper  parts,  as 
well  as  the  last  two-thirds  of  the  tail,  are  black.  The  black  markings  on  the  face, 
chest,  and  flanks,  are  wanting  in  the  females. 

The  male  bharal  stands  about  three  feet  in  height  at  the  withers,  and  good- 
sized  horns  have  a  length  of  twenty-four  or  twenty-six  inches  along  the  curve,  with 
a  basal  girth  of  some  eleven  inches.  Specimens  have,  however,  been  recorded 
measuring  thirty  and  one-half  and  thirty-two  inches  in  length,  and  thirteen  inches 
in  girth.  The  female  bharal  is  altogether  a  smaller  animal. 

The  bharal  is  essentially  a  Tibetan  species,  ranging,  according  to 
Mr.  Blanford,  from  near  Shigar  in  Baltistan  and  the  neighborhood  of 
Sangu,  southeast  of  Yarkand,  as  far  eastward  as  Moupin  in  Eastern  Tibet;  while 
in  a  north  and  south  direction  it  embraces  the  area  lying  between  the  main  axis  of 
the  Himalayas  (or  a  few  of  the  higher  ranges  to  the  south)  and  the  Kuen-L,un  and 
Altyn  Tagh  ranges. 

Structurally  the  bharal  is  as  much  a  goat  as  a  sheep,  but  in  the 
absence  of  a  beard  and  of  a  strong  odor  in  the  rams,  as  well  as  in  gen- 
eral appearance,  it  is  more  like  a  sheep,  and  is  consequently  placed  in  the  same 
genus.  It  exhibits,  however,  a  marked  difference  from  other  species  of  the  same 
general  size  in  refusing  to  breed  with  domestic  sheep;  and  its  relationship  to  the 
goats  is  so  strong  that,  were  it  not  for  convenience,  there  are  considerable  grounds 
for  including  both  sheep  and  goats  in  a  single  genus. 

In  conformity  with  its  structure,  the  bharal,  as  Mr.  Blanford  re- 
marks, ' '  is  intermediate  in  its  habits  between  the  sheep  and  the  goats. 
Like  the  former  it  is  found  on  undulating  ground,  and  frequently  lies  down  during 
the  day  on  its  feeding  ground,  though  generally  among  stones;  but,  like  the  latter, 
it  is  a  splendid  climber,  perfectly  at  home  on  precipitous  cliffs,  and  wont,  when 
alarmed,  to  take  refuge  in -ground  inaccessible  to  man.  It  is  found  in  herds  of  from 
eight  or  ten  to  fifty  or  even  a  hundred;  the  males  and  females  being  generally  found 
apart  in  the  summer,  but  frequently  associating  together  at  all  seasons.  The 
herds  keep  to  high  open  ground  above  forest  and  never  even  enter  bush.  They 
feed  and  rest  alternately  during  the  day.  Owing  to  their  color  it  is  peculiarly  diffi- 
cult to  make  them  out  when  they  are  lying  down  among  stones. ' '  It  appears  that 


822 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


these  animals  are  never  found  below  an  elevation  of  ten  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea  level,  while  in  summer  they  range  up  to  fourteen  thousand  and  sixteen  thousand 
feet.  Bharal  are  by  no  means  difficult  of  approach  in  districts  where  they  have  not 
been  much  disturbed,  and  on  one  occasion  in  Ladakh  the  present  writer  came  sud- 
denly upon  a  flock  of  five  rams  lying  asleep  in  an  unfrequented  path.  They  are 
generally  well  represented  in  the  Gardens  of  the  London  Zoological  Society,  where 
they  have  bred  freely. 


.v  ^gs^f^f-'^:^  .-• 

--  • " -\_^~--- -^ *<_:"- il _-^ -.•Sj?-^-'- 


THE  BARBARY  SHEEP. 

(One-fifteenth  natural  size.)  . 


THE  BARBARY   SHEEP  (Ovis  tragelaphus) 

The  Barbary,  or  inaned  sheep,  which  is  the  only  wild  representative  of  the 
group  met  with  in  Africa,  while  agreeing  with  the  bharal  in  the  general  character- 
istic of  its  horns  and  skull,  is  distinguished  by  the  great  mass  of  long  hair  clothing 
the  throat,  chest,  and  fore-limbs,  and  likewise  by  the  great  length  of  the  thickly- 
haired  tail,  which  reaches  slightly  below  the  hocks.  Although  commonly  referred 
to  in  works  of  natural  history  under  the  name  of  aoudad,  it  does  not  appear  that 
this  title  is  recognized  by  the  inhabitants  of  its  native  country,  to  whom  this  sheep 
is  known  as  the  arui. 


THE   GOATS  823 

r"' 

The  Barbary  sheep  attains  a  height  of  rather  over  three  feet,  and  is  of  a  nearly 
uniform  pale  rufous-yellow  color,  with  the  individual  hairs  differently  colored  in 
different  parts  of  their  lengths.  The  females  are  distinguished  from  the  males  by 
the  much  shorter  hair  on  the  fore  quarters,  but  have  horns  nearly  or  quite  as  long. 
The  horns  do  not  generally  exceed  twenty-five  inches  in  length,  but  may  reach 
twenty-six  or  a  little  more,  and  although  finely  wrinkled  in  the  young  are  nearly 
smooth  in  the  adult. 

_.      ..     .  These  sheep  are  generally  found  alone  or  in  parties  of  two  or  three, 

and  are  sparsely  distributed  over  the  more  precipitous  regions  of  the 
arid  southern  slopes  of  the  Atlas  range,  from  the  Atlantic  to  Tunis.  They  are  un- 
known in  the  interior  of  the  range  near  the  coast,  always  keeping  within  sight  of  the 
desert,  and  capable,  according  to  Arab  reports,  of  going  several  days  without  water. 
Their  color  harmonizes  admirably  with  the  limestone  rocks  of  their  native  mountains. 
TT  .-,  Mr.  E.  N.  Buxton  observes  that  the  Arabs  are  in  the  habit  of  pitch- 

ing their  tents  near  the  scanty  springs  frequented  by  these  sheep,  and 
daily  lead  their  goats  high  up  the  mountains.  Consequently,  the  arui  have  ' '  no 
means  of  escaping  from  them,  as  every  mountain  within  reach  of  water  is  similarly 
infested.  They  are  constantly  within  sight  and  hearing  of  the  Arabs  and  their 
goats,  and  as  they  cannot  get  away  they  have  developed  the  art  of  hiding  themselves 
to  an  extraordinary  extent,  and  they  have  unlimited  confidence  in  their  own  invisi- 
bility. This  was  demonstrated  to  me  one  evening  when  I  sat  for  twenty  minutes 
carefully  spying  the  surrounding  country.  The  knoll  on  which  I  sat  commanded 
a  small  shallow  hollow.  In  this  there  was  not  a  vestige  of  cover  except  a  few  thin 
thuya  bushes  which  looked  as  if  they  could  not  hide  a  rat.  It  was  not  till  I  rose  to 
shift  my  position  that  a  female  arui  and  two  yearlings  started  from  these  bushes. 
They  had  been  lying  within  sixty  yards  of  me,  and  must  have  been  fully  conscious 
of  my  presence  all  the  time.  The  arui,  in  this  habit  of  hiding,  is  very  like  the 
Pyrenean  ibex,  which  lives  in  rather  similar  ground,  and  also  trusts  to  concealment 
in  preference  to  flight. ' ' 

In  Algeria  the  .rams  of  this  species  are  distinguished  2&fechtal,  the  ewes  as  massa, 
and  the  lambs  as  charuf. 

THE  GOATS 
Genus    Capra 

The  two  preceding  species  of  sheep  connect  the  more  typical  representatives  of  that 
group  so  intimately  with  the  goats  that  there  is  some  difficulty  in  drawing  up  a  list 
of  characteristics  which  will  satisfactorily  distinguish  between  the  two.  The  males  of 
all  the  goats  are,  however,  characterized  by  the  possession  of  a  peculiar  strong  odor, 
while  they  very  generally  have  a  beard  on  the  chin.  None  of  them  have  any  gland 
on  the  face  below  the  eye  (in  which  respect  they  resemble  the  bharal  and  Barbary 
sheep) ;  and  they  differ  from  all  the  sheep  in  the  absence  of  any  glands  between  the 
hoofs  of  the  hind-feet,  while  in  some  cases  these  glands  are  likewise  wanting  in  the 
fore-feet.  In  all  cases  the  tail  is  short;  and  there  are  peculiar  hard  patches,  or  cal- 
losities, on  the  knees,  and  in  some  instances  also  on  the  chest.  The  skull  of  a  goat 


824 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 


differs  from  that  of  a  sheep  in  that  the  plane  of  the  portion  behind  the  horns  meets 
that  of  the  part  in  front  of  the  same  in  an  obtuse  instead  of  a  right  angle,  while 
the  profile  of  the  face  is  very  concave,  and  the  occipital  region  rounded  instead 
of  nearly  flat.  The  true  goats,  or  those  constituting  the  genus  Capra,  are  further 
distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  the  horns  of  the  males.  These  are  situated 
close  together  immediately  above  the  eyes,  and  are  continued  upward  at  first  in 
the  plane  of  the  forehead;  the}7  may  be  either  scimitar-shaped,  with  a  backward 
sweep,  or  spiral,  and  are  generally  more  or  less  compressed  and  angulated,  while 
they  are  frequently  ornamented  with  knobs  or  knots  in  front.  In  the  females  the 
horns  are  much  smaller,  and  set  farther  apart  at  their  bases. 


SKELETON    OF    THE    IBEX. 


Although  the  term  goat  is  applied  to  one  American  Ruminant,  yet  goats  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word  are  exclusively  restricted  to  the  Old  World.  Moreover, 
these  animals  are  mainly  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia  north  of  the  southern  flanks  of 
the  Himalayas.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  one  species  occurs  in  Egypt  and  another  in 
Abyssinia,  but  the  group  is  quite  unknown  in  the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  Africa, 
while  the  species  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Southern  India  is  classed  in  a  genus 
apart  from  that  containing  the  true  goats.  There  are  about  ten  species  of  true  wild 
goats,  all  of  which  live  in  herds,  although  the  males  sometimes  keep  apart  from  the 
females,  and  are  occasionally  solitary.  Like  the  sheep,  the  goats  are  essentially 


THE  CAUCASIAN  WILD  GOATS,  OR  TUR 


825 


mountain  animals,  but  they  generally  inhabit  more  rugged  and  precipitous  ground 
than  do  the  majority  of  the  former;  this  is,  however,  not  invariably  the  case,  as  the 
Himalayan  ibex  ranges  on  to  the  open  country  of  the  Pamirs.  All  the  members  of 
the  group  are  very  active  and  wary  animals,  and  they  are  characterized  by  their 
tendency  to  browse  on  the  young  shoots  and  leaves  of  such  trees  and  shrubs  as  they 
can  reach,  whereas  sheep  mainly  confine  themselves  to  grazing.  On  account  of  these 
browsing  habits  goats  are  extremely  destructive  to  forests,  eating  off  the  tops  of  the 
young  trees  and  thus  preventing  all  new  growth. 

Geologically,  goats  appear  to  be  somewhat  older  than  the  sheep,  remains  of 
certain  species  having  been  obtained  from  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills  in 
Northern  India,  while  those  of  others  occur  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  the  plains 
of  Central  Europe.  The  latter  belong  to  a  species  of  ibex,  which  is  a  matter  of  some 
interest  as  showing  that  during  a  colder  epoch  these  animals  could  exist  in  the  low- 
lands, from  whence,  with  an  increase  of  the  temperature,  they  migrated  to  the 
various  mountain-chains,  where  they  have  differentiated  into  distinct  species  from 
isolation.  This  explains  the  occurrence  of  allied  species  of  wild  goats  in  the  Cau- 
casus and  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  the  Alps  and  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula. 

THE  CAUCASIAN  WILD  GOATS,  OR  TUR  (Capra  cylindricornis,  etc.) 

There  occur  in  the  Caucasus  range  three  different  kinds  of  wild  goats,  locally 
known  as  tur,  which,  as  being  those  approaching  most  nearly  to  the  sheep,  naturally 
come  first.  These  three  kinds  are  commonly  ranked  as  distinct  species,  but  it  may 
be  a  question  whether  they  are  not  really  only  races  of  one  species  exhibiting  varia- 
tions in  the  structure  of  its  horns  analogous  to  those  existing  in  the  Himalayan 
markhoor  noticed  subsequently. 

The  goat  inhabiting  the  Eastern  Caucasus  is  known  as  Pallas' s  tur 
(C.  cylindricornis} ,  and  is  found  to  the  westward  of  Kasbek  and 
throughout  Daghestan.  It  may  be  described  as  a  goat  with  horns  like  those  of  the 
bharal.  The  horns  are 
black,  smooth,  and 
nearly  cylindrical,  di- 
rected outward  and 
backward  in  a  some- 
what spiral  manner, 
with  their  tips  directed 
inward,  and  sometimes 
not  separated  from  one 
another  by  an  interval 
of  more  than  a  foot. 
The  general  color  of 
the  animal  is  light 
brown,  and  the  height  HORNS  OF  PA^AS'S  TUR- 

at  the  shoulder  about  three  feet.  The  reddish-brown  beard  is  short  and  stiff,  and 
curved  inward  toward  the  middle  of  the  chin.  Another  distinctive  feature  is  to 


Pallas's  Tur 


826  THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 

be  found  in  the  lower  incisor  teeth,  which  have  very  narrow  crowns.  Good  speci- 
mens of  the  horns  may  measure  some  thirty-one  inches  along  the  curve,  and 
occasionally  reach  thirty-four  and  one-half  and  thirty-six  inches. 

In  the  Central  Caucasus,  between  Elburz  and  Daghestan,  the  pre- 
Caucasian  Tur       ...         ..  .  1        j    i        ,1  ^ 

ceding  form  is  replaced  by  the  true   Caucasian    tur  (C.  caucasica), 

which  is  intermediate  between  it  and  Severtzow's.  This  tur  is  very  similar  in  ap- 
pearance to  Pallas's,  having  horns  with  a  spiral  curvature,  and  approaching  each 
other  at  the  tips,  but  with  a  nearly  square  cross  section  at  the  base,  and  with  knobs 
on  the  front  surface.  The  color  is  very  like  that  of  Severtzow's  tur,  but  the  head 
is  more  reddish,  the  beard  like  that  of  Pallas's,  and  the  under  part  of  the  body 
darker,  while  the  tail  has  longer  hairs.  The  incisors  are  like  those  of  C.  cylindri- 
cornis  and  the  horns  vary  from  thirty  to  forty  inches  in  length. 

Severtzow's  tur  (C.  severtzowi*)  inhabits  the  whole  of  the  Western 
Severtzow's       _  ,  .  ,       ,  . 

Tur  Caucasus,  and  presents  considerable  local  variation  in  color.     It  is  a 

very  strongly-built  animal,  standing  about  three  feet  at  the  withers. 
Its  general  color  is  brownish  gray  with  a  yellowish  tinge,  the  head  and  spine  being 
darker,  the  under  parts  a  lighter  shade  of  brown,  and  the  limbs  dark  with  a  pale 
stripe  on  their  hinder  surface.  The  brown  beard  is  long  and  narrow,  and  the  tail 
very  short.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of  this  goat  is,  however,  found  in  its 
horns.  These  are  very  large,  black  in  color,  and  directed  upward  and  backward 
in  a  scimitar-like  form,  curving  almost  entirely  in  a  single  plane,  with  their  tips 
widely  separated,  and  generally  directed  downward,  although  occasionally  outward. 
The  section  of  these  horns  at  the  base  is  triangular,  and  they  are  ornamented  in 
front  with  more  or  less  distinct  knobs,  so  that  they  are  very  like  those  of  ibex, 
although  shorter  and  thicker.  They  vary  somewhat  in  their  degree  of  outward  in- 
clination—  being  sometimes  separated  by  as  much  as  three  feet  at  the  tips  —  and 
those  in  which  the  outward  inclination  is  most  marked  and  the  knobs  most  devel- 
oped approach  nearest  to  Pallas's  tur.  This  form  is  further  distinguished  by  the 
crowns  of  the  lower  incisor  teeth  being  wide  and  rounded. 

If  we  had  only  Pallas's  tur  and  Severtzow's  tur  to  deal  with  there  would  be  no 
hesitation  in  regarding  them  as  distinct  species,  but  the  Caucasian  tur,  inhabiting 
the  intermediate  area,  suggests  a  passage  from  the  one  to  the  other.  The  habits 
of  these  goats  are  probably  very  similar  to  those  of  the  next  species. 

THK  SPANISH  WILD   GOAT  (Capra  pyrenaica) 

Although  often  termed  an  ibex,  the  Spanish  wild  goat  —  the  cabramontes  of 
the  Spaniards — is  much  more  nearly  allied  to  the  turs.  It  is  characterized  by  the 
horns  of  the  males  having  an  upward  and  outward  direction,  and  forming  a  slight 
and  very  open  spiral.  They  are  flattened  on  the  inner  side  and  keeled  behind,  so 
as  to  present  a  pyriform  cross  section.  When  seen  from  the  front,  as  in  the  right- 
hand  figure  of  cut  on  next  page,  their  form  is  somewhat  lyrate,  and  on  their 
outer  side  they  carry  more  or  less  well-marked  bosses  or  knobs,  resembling  those  on 
the  front  of  the  horns  of  the  ibex.  There  is  a  small  but  thick  black  beard,  which 
may  be  of  considerable  length.  The  general  color  of  the  hair  is  light  brown,  but  it 


THE   SPANISH  ]%ILD   GOAT  827 

is  much  darker  around  the  nose  and  on  the  forehead  and  the  back  of  the  head;  a 
triangular  patch  on  the  back,  a  streak  on  the  flanks,  and  the  front  of  the  limbs  are 
black;  the  upper  lips,  the  cheeks,  the  sides  of  the  throat,  and  the  hinder  surfaces  of 
the  legs  are  grayish,  and  the  remainder  of 'the  under  parts  are  white.  There  is, 
however,  considerable  variation  in  color  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and 


THE    SPANISH    WILD    GOAT. 

(One-fifteenth   natural  size.) 


also  a  certain  amount  of  local  variation  in  this  respect.  The  hair  is  much  longer  in 
winter  than  in  summer,  and  there  is  a  thick,  woolly  under-fur.  The  height  of  the 
animal  is  about  twenty-six  inches  at  the  shoulder.  Horns  of  old  rams  average 
twenty-four  or  twenty-five  inches,  but  may  reach  twenty-seven  or  twenty-eight 
inches  in  length. 


828  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  Spanish  wild  goat  inhabits  the  Pyrenees,  some  of  the  mountains 
Distribution  Q£  Central  Spain>  and  the  higher  ranges  of  Andalusia  and  Portugal. 
That  the  species  has  existed  in  the  southern  portion  of  its  habitat  since  the  Pleisto- 
cene epoch  is  proved  by  the  occurrence  of  its  bones  in  the  caves  of  Gibraltar,  in 
company  with  those  of  an  extinct  rhinoceros. 

It  was  at  one  time  considered  that  the  wild  goat  of  Andalusia  was  specifically 
distinct  from  the  Pyrenean  form,  but  it  is  now  known  that  the  two  are  only  varie- 
ties of  a  single  species.  It  appears  from  the  observations  of  Mr.  A.  Chapman  that 
the  variety  from  the  Pyrenees  is  the  largest,  and  is  characterized  by  the  horns  of 
very  old  males  tending  to  assume  a  smooth  form,  without  distinct  knobs,  and  thus 
approximating  to  those  of  the  Caucasian  tur.  In  specimens  obtained  from  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  in  Andalusia,  at  elevations  of  about  eleven  thousand  feet,  the  horns 
are  frequently  as  long  as  those  of  the  Pyrenean  variety,  but  they  are  generally  more 
flattened,  while  the  size  of  the  animals  themselves  is  considerably  less.  The  wild  goats 
of  the  Central  Spanish  Cordilleras  are  those  with  the  heaviest  and  most  distinctly- 
knobbed  horns,  but  there  is  a  complete  transition  from  this  type  to  the  Pyrenean  form. 
During  the  greater  portion  of  the  year  the  males  of  the  Spanish  wild 
goat  live  apart  from  the  females,  and  it  is  only  during  the  breeding^ 
season  that  the  two  sexes  come  together.  Both  sexes  associate  in  flocks,  which 
may  be  very  large,  comprising  at  times  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  head. 
As  a  rule,  the  old  bucks,  heedless  of  snow  and  cold,  reside  on  the  most  exposed  and 
highest  peaks  of  the  mountains;  but  the  does,  especially  in  the  late  spring,  fre- 
quent the  southern  slopes,  and  in  the  depth  of  the  winter  will  descend  even  to  the 
neighborhood  of  the  villages.  When  feeding  or  reposing,  sentinels  are  placed  in 
commanding  positions  to  apprise  the  flock  of  approaching  danger,  which  they  do  by 
means  of  a  loud  snort,  upon  which  the  whole  company  at  once  takes  to  flight.  Mr. 
E.  N.  Buxton  states  that  these  goats  are  generally  found  among  thick  scrub,  and 
he  considers  that  the  incurving  tips  of  their  horns  are  thus  formed  on  purpose  to 
admit  of  easy  passage  among  bushes.  The  pairing  season  takes  place  in  November, 
when  the  flocks  of  opposite  sexes  come  together,  and  the  males  engage  in  combats 
for  the  possession  of  the  females.  In  December  the  sexes  again  split  up  into  separ- 
ate flocks,  the  males  from  one  to  three  years  of  age  consorting,  however,  with  the 
females.  The  kids  are  born  in  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  from  twenty  to 
twenty-four  weeks  after  the  pairing  season,  and  in  a  few  hours  after  birth  are  able 
to  follow  their  mothers  over  the  roughest  ground.  While  the  kids  are  young  the 
mothers  confine  themselves  to  the  southern  slopes  and  warmer  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  carefully  avoid  such  situations  as  are  exposed  to  cold  and  cutting  winds. 
These  goats  are  hunted  either  by  stalking  or  driving,  and  in  either  case  display  the 
extreme  wariness  characteristic  of  the  group. 

That  the  Spanish  wild  goat  is  allied  to  the  Caucasian  tur  is  quite  evident.  The 
form  and  curvature  of  its  horns,  together  with  the  presence  of  a  keel  on  their  pos- 
terior border,  is,  however,  suggestive  of  a  transition  from  the  type  of  horn  obtain- 
ing in  the  ibex  to  that  found  in  the  markhoor,  and  it  is  thus  easy  to  see  how  all  the 
varieties  of  horns  found  among  the  goats  may  have  been  derived  from  a  single  com- 
mon form. 


THE  PERSIAN   WILD   GOAT 


THE  PERSIAN  WILD  GOAT  (Capra  agagrus) 


829 


The  Persian  wild  goat  —  the  paseng  (rock-footed)  of  the  Persians  —  is  a  species 
of  especial  interest  as  being  the  chief  ancestral  stock  from  which  the  various  breeds 
of  domestic  goats  are  derived.  This  species  is  characterized  by  the  long  scimitar- 
like  horns  of  the  males,  which  are  much  compressed,  with  the  front  edge  forming  a 


THE   PERSIAN  WILD  GOAT. 

(One- eighteenth  natural  size.) 

sharp  keel,  marked  by  irregular  prominences  and  notches,  while  the  hinder  edge  is 
rounded,  and  the  outer  side  more  convex  than  the  inner.  Generally  the  tips  of  the 
horns  are  inclined  inward,  although  they  are  occasionally  divergent.  The  horns  of 
the  does  are  much  smaller,  with  an  even  front  edge.  The  male  paseng  has  a  small 
beard  on  the  chin;  and  in  the  winter  coat  the  hair  on  the  neck  and  shoulders  is 
rather  longer  than  elsewhere;  and  at  the  same  season  in  the  colder  portions  of  the 


830 

animals'  habitat  a  coat  of  woolly  under- fur  is  developed  beneath  the  hair.  In  win- 
ter the  general  color  of  the  upper  parts  is  brownish  gray,  tending  in  summer  to  yel- 
lowish or  rufous  brown;  the  under  parts  and  the  inner  sides  of  the  buttocks  being 
whitish  or  white.  In  the  older  bucks,  the  general  color  is,  however,  paler;  a  stripe 
down  the  back,  the  tail,  the  chin,  throat,  and  beard,  the  front  of  the  legs,  with 
the  exception  of  the  knees,  and  a  stripe  along  the  flanks  are  dark  brown.  There  is 
also  a  certain  amount  of  white  on  the  lower  part  of  the  legs. 

An  adult  male,  measured  by  Captain  Hutton,  stood  thirty-seven  inches  at  the 
withers.  Good  horns  of  the  paseng  measure  forty  inches  along  the  curve;  but  in 
one  specimen  killed  near  Karachee,  the  length  was  upward  of  fifty-two  and  one-half 
inches,  with  a  basal  girth  of  seven  inches. 

The  range  of  this  species  is  extensive,  and  was  formerly  even  more  so 
than  it  is  at  the  present  day.  There  is  evidence  that  in  classic  times 
this  goat  was  widely  distributed  over  the  Grecian  Archipelago;  although  in  Europe 
it  is  now  found  only  in  Crete,  the  island  of  Anti-Melo  in  the  Cyclades,  and  perhaps 
also  in  Giura,  to  the  northeast  of  Eubcea.  Eastward  it  is  found  in  the  hills  and 
mountains  of  Asia  Minor,  being  especially  common  in  the  Taurus  range;  and  it  ex- 
tends thence  through  Persia  into  Baluchistan,  Sind,  and  Afghanistan.  In  India  its 
range  does  not  extend  beyond  the  western  side  of  Sind,  as  eastward  and  northeast 
of  the  Bolan  Pass  and  Quetta  its  place  is  taken  by  the  markhoor.  Found  in  Sind  and 
Baluchistan  in  hills  little  above  the  sea  level,  in  the  mountains  of  Persia  it  ascends 
to  elevations  of  eleven  or  twelve  thousand  feet. 

Habits  ^e  Paseng  is  an  extremely  active  animal,  chiefly  frequenting  craggy 

and  rocky  districts,  and  taking  leaps  of  great  length  with  unerring 
precision.  Although  such  a  feat  has  been  expressly  denied  by  all  competent  au- 
thorities as  occurring  among  the  sheep,  it  is  recorded  by  a  trustworthy  observer, 
that  one  of  these  goats,  which  had  missed  its  footing,  saved  itself  by  alighting  on  its 
horns.  Writing  of  this  species  in  Persia,  St.  John  observes  that  "in  spite  of  the 
constant  persecution  to  which  it  is  subjected,  it  exists  in  vast  numbers.  On  the 
Kuh-i-barf,  a  not  very  lofty  or  extensive  hill,  constantly  shot  over,  near  Shiraz,  I 
once  counted  over  a  hundred  in  a  herd,  which  had  been  driven  together  by  two  days' 
consecutive  fusilade  from  half  a  dozen  shikaris.  .  .  .  The  ibex,"  as  Sir  Oliver 
calls  the  animal,  "is  marvelously  shy  and  wary.  In  my  earlier  residence  in  Persia  I 
spent  many  a  weary  day  after  them,  but  never  managed  to  bag  a  buck.  Even 
native  sportsmen,  though  admirable  shots,  and  thoroughly  familiar  with  every  nook 
and  cranny  of  the  hills,  rarely  get  one  by  fair  stalking,  most  of  those  killed  being 
obtained  by  building  a  wall  of  loose  stones  near  water,  and  shooting  the  goats  when 
drinking.  The  males  drink  in  the  morning  and  evening  only,  but  the  females,  in 
hot  weather,  at  least,  drink  also  at  midday.  While  putting  up  the  telegraph  about 
sixty  miles  north  of  Shiraz,  in  1864,  I  came  suddenly  upon  a  herd  of  twenty  or  more 
does  and  kids,  drinking  by  the  roadside,  a  couple  of  hundred  yards  from  the  foot  of 
the  hills.  Except  when  alarmed,  bucks  and  does  seem  to  keep  apart. ' ' 

^  In  Sind  and  Baluchistan  these  goats  inhabit  barren  rocky  hills,  but  in  parts  of 
Asia  Minor  they  are  found  on  forest-clad  uplands.  In  such  localities,  according  to 
Mr.  E.  N.  Buxton,  they  may  of  ten  be  found  within  hearing  of  the  drovers  on  the  roads, 


DOMESTIC  GOATS  831 

or  even  of  the  railways;  but  this  confidence  is  accompanied  by  exceeding  watchful- 
ness. The  number  in  a  flock  in  these  districts  is  generally  from  four  to  ten,  and  at 
the  time  of  Mr.  Buxton's  observations  bucks  and  does  were  found  together.  Senti- 
nels are  almost  always  posted  to  warn  the  flock,  these  being  relieved  at  short  inter- 
vals; and  it  appear3  that  this  sentry  duty  is  undertaken  according  to  seniority,  the 
youngest  animals  commencing  first,  and  the  oldest  buck  taking  his  turn  last.  In 
Asia  Minor  paseng  are  hunted  both  by  driving  and  by  stalking;  but  they  are  so 
cunning  that  the  former  method  is  not  generally  very  successful.  The  Cabulis 
hunt  them  on  the  lower  grounds  of  Afghanistan  with  greyhounds. 

In  the  Caucasus  the  kids  are  born  in  May,  but  Mr.  Blanford  believes  that  in 
Sind  they  are  produced  somewhat  earlier.  There  may  be  either  one  or  two,  and, 
it  is  said,  occasionally  three  at  a  birth. 

The  bezoar  stone,  so  highly  esteemed  in  Persia  as  an  antidote  to  poison  and  a 
remedy  for  several  diseases,  is  a  concretion  found  in  the  stomach  of  the  paseng,  from 
whence  it  derives  its  old  European  name  of  pazen,  or  pasen. 

Giura  Goat  *n  t^ie  ^s^atl(^  °^  Giura,  near  Eubcea,  there  occurs  a  wild  goat  which 

has  been  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  of  C.  dorcas. 
There  is,  however,  little  doubt  but  that  it  is  the  descendant  of  tamed  goats  which 
have  run  wild,  or  of  such  animals  crossed  with  the  paseng. 


DOMESTIC   GOATS    (Capra   hircus) 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  various  breeds  of  domesticated  goats  have 
been  mainly  if  not  exclusively  derived  from  the  Persian  wild  goat,  and  they  may 
accordingly  be  most  conveniently  considered  in  this  place.  In  saying  that  domestic 
goats  are  mainly  derived  from  that  species,  it  should,  however,  be  mentioned  that  it 
is  probable  that  many  races  may  have  been  crossed  with  other  wild  kinds.  Domes- 
tic goats  exhibit  great  variety  in  the  form  of  their  horns;  some  retaining  the  back- 
ward scimitar-like  sweep  of  the  ancestral  paseng,  while  others  assume  a  spiral  form 
recalling  those  of  the  markhoor.  When,  however,  such  spiral-horned  specimens  are 
carefully  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the  direction  of  the  twist  is  precisely  the 
opposite  of  that  which  occurs  in  the  markhoor. 

The  varieties  of  domestic  goats  are  almost  innumerable,  and  there  is  such  an 
amount  of  difference  between  the  more  extreme  types  that  it  is  at  first  sight  difficult 
to  believe  that  they  all  belong  to  a  single  species.  In  certain  instances  the  horns 
may  disappear  from  one  or  from  both  sexes,  while  in  other  cases  those  of  the  female 
are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  male,  and  occasionally  a  second  pair  may  be 
developed.  Equal  diversity  obtains  in  regard  to  the  length  of  the  hair,  which  in 
the  long-legged  and  pendulous-eared  Indian  breed  is  no  longer  than  in  a  deer; 
while  in  the  Kashmir  and  Angora  goats  it  reaches  nearly  to  the  ground.  The 
color,  again,  ma}'  vary  from  pure  white  to  brownish  black;  and  there  are  great 
differences  as  regards  the  size  and  shape  of  the  body.  The  ears  may  be  either 
upright  or  pendent,  and  when  in  the  latter  state  sometimes  attain  an  enormous 
length. 


832 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


Goats  were  domesticated  by  the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  the  Swiss 
lake  cities,  and  were  likewise  well  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
Noticing  only  a  few  of  the  more  remarkable  modern  races,  one  of  the  most  valued 
is  the  Angora  goat,  a  native  of  a  district  of  Asia  Minor,  but  which  has  been  im- 
ported into  several  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  a  large  species,  with  long,  flattened,  and 
spirally-twisted  horns  in  the  males,  and  has  been  regarded  by  some  writers  as  a  di- 


ANGORA    GOAT. 

(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

rect  descendant  of  the  markhoor.  The  body  is  low,  the  legs  are  stout,  the  head  and 
c  short,  and  the  ears  pendent.  The  white  hair  is  long,  wavy,  and  silky,  and  it 

is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  cloth.     During  the  cold  weather 

iese  goats  are  kept  in  stables,  but  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year  are  suffered  to 

im  at  large;  the  flocks  are  very  large,  each  buck  being  accompanied  by  about  a 

hundred  does.     They  are  shorn  in  April;  and  during  the  heat  of  summer  their  hair 


DOMESTIC  GOATS  833 

is  carefully  washed  and  combed  in  order  to  prevent  its  deterioration.     Some  few  are 
born  without  horns,  and  it  is  stated  that  in  such  cases  the  hair  is  short  and  close. 

Of  equal  celebrity  with  the  last  is  the  Kashmir  goat,  which  is  a 
°a  rather  small  but  strongly-built  variety,  characterized  by  the  presence 
of  a  thick  under-coat  of  wool  beneath  the  long  hair.  The  neck  is  short,  the  head 
somewhat  thick,  the  eyes  small,  and  the  pendent  ears  longer  than  half  the  length  of 
the  head.  The  horns  are  long  and  flattened,  with  a  sharp  edge  in  front,  and  curved 
outward  and  backward;  their  tips  being  inclined  inward.  There  is  considerable  vari- 
ation in  color;  but  generally  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  upper  parts  of  the  body,  and 
the  tail  are  silvery  or  yellowish  white.  Some  individuals  are  uniformly  colored 
throughout,  and  may  be  either  pure  white,  yellow,  light  or  dark  brown,  or  even 
black.  Although  most  abundant  in  Tibet,  the  Kashmir  goat  extends  to  Bokhara, 
and  the  country  of  the  Kirghiz;  while  of  late  years  it  has  been  introduced  into 
France,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Austria.  These  goats  are  valued  for  their  under-wool, 
which  is  combed  out  during  the  summer,  and  is  known  in  Kashmir  as  pashm. 
From  this  pashm  are  manufactured  the  Kashmir  shawls,  and  also  a  very  fine  and 
soft  dove-colored  cloth,  pashmina.  A  certain  quality  of  pashm  is  also  obtained 
from  the  Himalayan  ibex.  Enormous  flocks  of  these  goats  are  kept  in  many  parts 
of  Tibet. 

The  Syrian  or  mamber  goat  of  Eastern  Europe  and  Southwestern 
Asia  resembles  the  preceding  in  the  length  of  the  hair,  but  is  distin- 
guished from  all  other  breeds  by  the  extraordinary  length  of  its  pendent  ears,  which 
are  half  as  long  again  as  the  head.  These  goats  are  of  large  size  and  very  tall;  the 
horns  are  usually  present  in  both  sexes,  and  curve  in  a  semicircle;  the  profile  of  the 
face  is  convex;  and  both  sexes  have  a  small  beard.  The  long  black  hair  is  shaggy 
and  silky. 

The  Nile  or  Egyptian  goat  is  another  allied  breed,  agreeing  in  size 
with  the  ordinary  domestic  goat,  but  with  longer  legs  and  shorter 
horns,  and  especially  distinguished  by  the  small  size  of  the  head  and  the  extreme 
convexity  of  the  profile.  The  horns  are  frequently  absent  in  both  sexes,  and  when^ 
present  are  short,  thick,  and  crumpled;  while  there  is  generally  no  beard.  The  pend- 
ent ears  are  about  as  long  as  the  head,  and  are  rounded  at  the  tips,  and  flat.  The 
hair  is  short,  and  generally  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  but  inclining  to  yellow  on  the 
legs.  Sometimes,  however,  the  color  is  slaty  gray,  or  spotted.  These  goats  extend 
from  the  countries  along  the  Lower  Nile  to  Central  Nubia.  The  Theban  race  of 
this  breed  has  the  most  marked  convexity  of  profile. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  breeds  is  the  Su- 
dan goat,  characterized  by  the  short  horns  of  three  or  four  inches  in 
length,  curving  at  first  backward  and  outward,  and  then  bending  forward  at  their 
tips.     The  legs  are  short  and  strong;  and  the  short  but  thick  hair  is  generally  dark 
colored,  frequently  showing  a  mixture  of  black  and  reddish.     Sometimes  the  gen- 
eral dark  color  is  relieved  by  white  spots;  but  red,   yellowish-brown,  and  perfectly 
black  specimens  are  not  uncommon.     From  the  chin  depends  a  black  beard  reaching 
to  the  chest,  where  it  divides  to  spread  over  the  shoulders  and  upper  parts  of  the 
fore-limbs.     These  goats  are  found  over  all  the  country  lying  between  the  White 
53 


834  THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Nile  and  the  Niger,  and  doubtless  extend  over  the  greater  part  of  Central  Africa  to 
the  West  Coast.     They  are  kept  by  the  natives  in  enormous  flocks. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  wild  goats  of  the  Isle  of 
Feral  Goats  Qiura>  which  are  probably  derived  from  a  domestic  race  perhaps 
crossed  with  the  paseng.  Goats  have  also  run  wild  in  many  other  places,  more 
especially  mountainous  islands  like  St.  Helena,  Tavolara  near  Sardinia,  and  Juan 
Fernandez.  In  St.  Helena  these  wild  goats  have  completely  destroyed  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  native  flora,  and  this  has  resulted  in  the  disappearance  of  much  of  the 
fauna.  Goats  were  introduced  by  the  Spaniards  into  Juan  Fernandez  in  the  year 
1563.  These  soon  increased  enormously,  and  in  order  to  diminish  their  numbers 
clogs  were  subsequently  let  loose,  and  likewise  ran  wild.  At  the  time  of  Lord  An- 
son's  visit,  in  the  summer  of  1741,  the  goats  had  been  greatly  reduced  in  numbers 
by  the  dogs,  and  they  were  further  so  much  thinned  by  his  party  that  it  was  esti- 
mated only  about  two  hundred  remained.  About  thirty-five  years  ago  Pechuel- 
Loesche  visited  the  island,  and  found  that  while  the  dogs  had  disappeared,  the 
goats  had  once  more  become  exceedingly  numerous.  In  1885  the  goats  were  being 
vigorously  hunted  by  the  settlers  with  guns  and  dogs.  The  general  color  of  these 
goats  is  reddish  brown,  in  some  districts  spotted  with  dirty  white. 


IBEX  (Capra  ibex,  etc.) 

Although  the  Spanish  and  Persian  wild  goats  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  ibex, 
it  seems  preferable  to  restrict  this  term  to  four  nearly-allied  species,  namely,  the 
true  or  Alpine  ibex,  the  Himalayan  ibex,  the  Arabian  ibex,  and  the  Abyssinian 
ibex.  All  these  species  are  characterized  by  their  nearly  uniform  coloration,  and 
by  the  front  surface  of  their  long  scimiter-shaped  horns  being  flattened  and  orna- 
mented by  a  number  of  bold  transverse  knots  or  ridges.  These  horns  curve  back- 
ward, and  diverge  regularly,  although  in  some  cases  their  tips  have  an  inward  incli- 
nation; they  are  nearly  triangular  in  cross  section,  the  base  of  the  triangle  being 
.formed  by  the  broad  front  surface,  and  the  apex  by  the  sharp  hinder  edge.  In  the 
females  the  horns  are  small  and  placed  wider  apart  at  the  base,  with  a  nearly  oval 
section,  and  they  are  marked  by  parallel  wrinkles. 

Al  inelbex  ^^  Alpine  ibex,  steinbock  or  bouquetin  (C.  ibex},  is  now  extermi- 
nated as  a  wild  animal,  although  preserved  by  the  Italian  Government 
in  one  or  two  valleys  on  the  Piedmont  side  of  Monte  Rosa.  It  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Himalayan  ibex  by  the  extremely  small  size  of  the  beard  of  the 
males,  which  is  so  short  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable.  The  animal  is  also  of  smaller 
size,  and  at  the  present  day,  at  least,  its  horns  are  far  shorter,  and  have  less  promi- 
nent knobs  than  those  of  the  Himalayan  species.  Doubtless,  however,  the  general 
size  of  the  animal,  as  well  as  the  length  of  its  horns,  have  been  considerably  reduced 
by  the  circumscribed  area  to  which  it  is  now  confined.  Formerly,  indeed,  the  ibex 
roamed  over  the  Alps  of  Savoy,  Switzerland,  and  the  Tyrol;  but  it  is  unfortunate 
that  there  do  not  appear  to  be  records  of  the  length  to  which  the  horns  formerly  at- 
tained. Horns  of  twenty-six  and  three-fourths  and  thirty-one  and  three-fourths 
inches  in  length  have,  however,  been  recorded  of  late  years. 


ALPINE  IBEX. 


(835) 


836  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  pairing  season  is  in  January,  and  the  kids  are  born  at  the  end  of  June  or 
beginning  of  July.  The  habits  of  this  species  are  practically  identical  with  those  of 

the  Himalayan  ibex. 

The  Himalayan  ibex  (C.  sibirica)  differs  from  the  Alpine  species  by 
Himalayan  thg  presence  of  a  profuse  beard  on  the  chin  of  the  bucks,  and  a  ridge 
of  coarse  dark  hair  along  the  back,  as  well  as  by  its  superior  size  and 
longer  horns.  The  hair  is  coarse  and  brittle;  and  in  winter  is  underlaid  by  a  thick 
coat  of  wool,  or  pashm,  which  enables  the  animal  to  withstand  the  intense  cold  of 
its  native  mountains.  The  horns  of  the  bucks  have  very  large  knobs,  placed  at 
fairly  regular  intervals;  and  it  may  be  observed  here  that  these  knobs  do  not  indi- 
cate the  annual  stages  of  growth,  which  are  marked  by  fine  lines  on  the  sides  of  the 
horns.  In  color  the  Himalayan  ibex  is  subject  to  a  considerable  amount  of  seasonal 
and  local  variation.  Generally,  however,  in  summer  the  color  is  brown,  only 
slightly  paler  above  than  below;  but  old  males  have  some  dirty  white  patches  on 
the  back.  On  the  other  hand,  in  winter  the  coat  assumes  a  yellowish  white  hue, 
more  or  less  tinged  with  brown  or  gray.  The  dark  line  on  the  back  has  been  al- 
ready mentioned,  and  in  addition  to  this  the  beard,  tail,  and  legs  are  also  dark 
brown.  In  Baltistan  very  dark-colored  ibex  are  met  with;  and  specimens  from  Si- 
beria and  the  Thian-Shan  range  are  distinguished  by  having  the  under  surface  of 
the  hinder  part  of  the  body  and  portions  of  the  legs  entirely  white. 

A  well-grown  buck  of  the  Himalayan  ibex  will  stand  about  forty  inches  at  the 
shoulder;  while  does  are  about  a  third  smaller.  Fine  specimens  of  the  horns  meas- 
ure from  forty  to  forty-five  inches  along  the  curve;  but  a  pair  have  been  recorded 
measuring  upward  of  fifty-four  inches  in  length,  with  a  girth  of  eleven  and  one-half 
inches  just  above  the  first  knob;  and  there  are  several  of  fifty-one  inches,  or  a  little 
over,  in  existence. 

Assuming  the  ibex  of  the  Himalayas  to  be  identical  with  the  one 
inhabiting  the  Thian-Shan  range  and  Siberia,  the  species  has  a  very 
extensive  geographical  range.  Thus  it  is  found  in  all  the  mountain  ranges  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  from  the  Himalayas  to  the  Altai,  and  from  the  neighborhood  of  Herat,  on 
the  Persian  frontier,  in  the  northwest,  to  Kumaon  in  the  southeast.  It  is  found 
not  only  on  the  crags  but  likewise  in  the  open  Pamir  country.  To  the  south  of  the 
valley  of  Kashmir  the  ibex  is  unknown  in  the  Pir-Panjal  range,  and  its  continua- 
tion to  the  northwest  of  the  Jhelutn  river,  the  Kajnag;  but  it  is  not  known  to  occur 
in  the  Himalayas  to  the  eastward  of  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  neither  is  it  recorded 
from  Eastern  Tibet.  Messrs.  Blanford  and  Hodgson  have,  however,  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  it  occurs  in  Tibet  to  the  northward  of  Shikatze,  on  the  San-Poo  river,  and 
also  near  L,'  Hassa. 

Habits  "^ke  *tS  -^P*ne  cousin  >  tne  Himalayan  ibex  inhabits  the  crags  and 

upland  meadows  at  or  near  the  snow  level,  rising  or  descending 
.according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  General  Macintyre  writes  of  the  habits  of 
this  species  in  the  following  words:  "  From  what  I  have  seen  and  heard  of  ibex, 
their  sense  of  smell  is  not  nearly  so  acute  as  their  sight.  But  they  seldom  ap- 
prehend danger  from  above,  so  it  is  best  to  approach  them,  if  possible,  from  that 
direction.  During  the  spring  and  early  summer  they  may  be  seen  feeding  at 


THE   IBEX 


837 


almost  any  time  of  the  day  on  the  green  patches  of  herbage  among  the  higher  crags 
and  snow  fields,  only  taking  a  siesta  for  a  few  hours  at  a  time.  In  the  dead  of  winter 
they  are  found  much  lower 
on  the  mountain  sides.  Pro- 
vided they  do  not  see  the 
hunter,  they  are  not  always 
scared  away  by  firing,  prob- 
ably owing  to  their  being  so 
accustomed  to  hearing  the 
noise  of  falling  rocks  and 
avalanches.  And  sometimes 
they  get  so  bewildered  by  the 
echoes  of  a  shot,  that  they 
give  time  for  several  easy 
chances  before  making  up  their 
minds  to  be  off.  If  one  of 
them,  however,  catches  only 
a  glimpse  of  anything  sus- 
picious, a  warning  whistle  at 
once  sends  off  the  whole  herd, 
although  they  often  depart 
very  leisurely,  even  after  being 
shot  at.  Ibex  sometimes  con- 
gregate in  large  numbers,  but 
they  are  usually  found  in 
flocks  of  from  six  or  seven  to 
twenty  or  so,  the  older  bucks 

often  herding  separately,  except  during  the  rutting  season.  Despite  the  quantities 
that  are  shot,  killed  by  avalanches,  and  by  those  terrible  foes  to  all  Himalayan 
game,  the  wild  dogs,  there  appears  to  be  little  decrease  in  their  numbers  on  the 
more  sequestered  hunting  grounds,  for  they  are  very  prolific,  each  doe  having  as 
a  rule  a  pair  of  kids  every  summer.  The  villagers  train  their  dogs  to  hunt  them 
down,  when  the  ibex  become  so  stupefied  with  terror  that  they  are  easily  approached 
and  shot." 

The  foregoing  account  refers  to  the  habits  of  this  ibex  in  the  Kashmir  dis- 
trict, and  it  accords  in  the  main  with  an  earlier  one  from  the  pen  of  General  Kinloch. 
The  latter  writer  states  that  ibex  but  seldom  come  as  low  as  the  upper  limits  of 
forest;  and  even  during  the  winter  "do  not,  as  a  rule,  descend  very  low,  but  resort 
to  places  where,  from  the  steepness  of  the  hillside,  the  snow  does  not  lie  in  any 
quantity.  Here  they  may  be  detained  for  weeks  by  a  heavy  fall,  picking  a  scanty 
subsistence  from  the  scattered  tufts  of  withered  herbage  that  here  and  there  crop 
out  of  the  crevices  of  the  rocks.  At  this  season  males  and  females  herd  together; 
but  as  the  snow  melts  and  the  time  for  the  birth  of  the  young  approaches,  the  old 
males  forsake  the  females  altogether,  and,  as  the  summer  advances,  retire  to  the 
most  inaccessible  mountains,  frequently  sleeping  during  the  day  above  the  limits 


HEAD  OF  "HIMALAYAN  IBEX. 


838  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

of  vegetation,  and  descending  great  distances  to  feed  in  the  mornings  and  evenings. 
The  best  time  to  shoot  ibex  is  when  the  young  grass  is  just  beginning  to  sprout 

along  the  margin  of  the  snow 
in  May  and  June;  after  the 
hardships  and  frequent  long 
fasts  of  winter  they  feed 
greedily  on  the  fresh,  young 
shoots,  and  in  secluded  spots 
may  be  found  lying  down  on 
the  grassy  slopes  during  the 
day." 

The  same  writer  pro- 
ceeds to  observe  that,  al- 
though excessively  wary,  the 
Himalayan  ibex,  on  account 
of  the  broken  nature  of  the 
ground  it  frequents,  is  not 
very  difficult  to  approach 
within  shooting  distance. 
From  our  own  personal  ob- 
servation and  the  accounts  of 
the  natives  of  the  secluded 
valleys  around  Kashmir,  we 
are  inclined  to  believe  that 
the  Himalayan  ibex  is  in  the 
habit  of  descending  to  lower 
levels  than  is  admitted  by 
General  Kin  loch;  and  we 
have  been  told  that  in  the 
valleys  of  Ward  wan  and  Tibet 
numbers  are  killed  at  this 
season  in  the  snow  quite  close 
to  the  villages.  On  one  oc- 
-  casion,  during  the  summer, 
we  observed  a  small  flock  of 

ARABIAN    IBEX.  ibex    driyen    down    from     foe 

heights  by  a  sudden  snowstorm  to  the.  level  of  the  highroad  between  Kashmir  and 
Ladakh,  in  the  valley  of  the  Indus.  In  1854  Colonel  Markham  wrote  that  in 
Kashmir,  ibex  might  be  seen  in  flocks  of  a  hundred  or  more,  but  nothing  like  these 
numbers  are  found  at  the  present  day;  and,  in  spite  of  the  statement  of  General 
Macintyre,  it  appears  to  us  that  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Kashmir  this 
magnificent  animal  is  becoming  rapidly  scarcer. 

The  bucks  descend  from  the  higher  crags  to  join  the  does  about  October,  the 
pairing  season  taking  place  during  the  winter;  and  the  young  are  born  in  May  and 
June,  or  about  a  month  earlier  than  is  the  case  with  the  Alpine  species.  To  the 


THE  MARKHOOR  839 

natives  of  Kashmir  the  ibex  is  known  as  the  kel,  while  in  Baltistan  and  Ladakh  it 
is  termed  skin,  or  iskin. 

The  third  representative  of  the  group  is  the  Arabian  or  Sinaitic  ibex 

(C.  sinaitica},  locally  known  as  the  beden.  This  goat  is  found  in  the 
Sinaitic  Peninsula,  in  portions  of  Palestine,  and  in  Upper  Egypt;  it  is  common  in  Ara- 
bia Petraea,  but  more  rare  in  Palestine  proper,  and  never  appears  to  have  extended 
northward  of  the  Lebanon,  where  a  few  still  remain.  In  Egypt  its  southern  limit 
is  approximately  marked  by  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  This  species  is  distinguished 
from  the  Himalayan  ibex  by  the  horns  being  more  compressed,  and  having  the 
knobs  on  the  front  surface  arranged  at  less  regular  intervals.  The  general  color 
of  the  fur  is  yellowish  brown,  with  dark  markings  on  the  back,  chest  and  front  of 
the  legs;  the  under  parts  and  the  hinder  surface  of  the  limbs  being  whitish.  In 
well-grown  adult  males  the  horns  may  attain  a  length  of  thirty-six  inches  along  the 
curve,  and  Sir  E.  G.  Loder  has  a  pair  almost  thirty-nine  inches  in  length.  The 

habits  of  the  animal  appear  to  be  similar  to  those  of  the  others. 

Lastly,  there  is  the  little-known  Abyssinian  ibex  (C.  walie),  from 

Abyssinia,  distinguished  from  the  others  by  the  curvature  of  its  horns, 
and  the  presence  of  a  protuberance  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 

THE   MARKHOOR  (C.  falconert) 

The  Himalayan  markhoor  (literally  snake  eater),  or  spiral-horned  goat,  brings 
us  to  the  last  representative  of  the  genus  Capra,  and  one  distinguished  from  all  the 
others  by  its  upwardly-directed  and  spirally-twisted  horns,  and  also  by  the  exten- 
sion of  the  beard  on  to  the  chest  and  shoulders.  In  the  latter  respect  this  species 
reminds  us  of  the  arui  among  the  sheep,  although  -the  markhoor  agrees  with  other 
goats  in  the  shortness  of  its  tail.  The  markhoor  is  further  remarkable  for  the  enor- 
mous amount  of  variation  in  the  form  and  size  of  the  horns;  one  variety  having 
them  twisted  in  the  form  of  a  corkscrew,  with  not  more  than  one  and  a  half  com- 
plete turns,  while  in  another  they  are  twisted  on  their  own  axis  in  the  form  of  a 
screw,  which  may  have  as  many  as  three  complete  turns.  These  varieties  were 
formerly  regarded  as  constituting  distinct  species,  but  since  they  are  more  or  less 
completely  connected  by  intermediate  forms  like  those  represented  in  our  illustra- 
tions, they  are  now  generally  regarded  as  the  extreme  developments  of  one  very 
variable  species.  The  horns  of  the  varieties  with  a  corkscrew-like  twist  are  the 
finest  trophies  yielded  by  any  of  the  goats. 

According  to  General  Kinloch,  the  male  markhoor  may  stand  nearly  three  feet 
eight  inches  at  the  withers,  although  an  adult  Gilgit  specimen,  measured  by  Colonel 
J.  Biddulph,  measured  only  three  feet  two  and  one-half  inches.  The  magnificent 
beard,  extending  in  the  adult  males  on  to  the  chest  and  shoulders,  and  sometimes 
reaching  nearly  to  the  knees,  is  black  in  front  and  gray  behind;  in  the  young  bucks 
and  the  does  at  all  ages  it  is  confined  to  the  chin.  The  fur  has  but  little  or  no 
pashm,  and  in  summer  is  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  but  becomes  gray  in  winter;  it  is 
paler  on  the  under  parts,  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  front  of  the  legs  have  a  dark 
stripe.  In  summer  the  very  old  males  become  whitish  all  over;  while  the  young 


840 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


are  uniformly  grayish  brown,  except  for  a  dark  stripe  along  the  back.  Owing  to 
the  variation  of  the  horns  in  the  different  races,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  give  a 
description  which  will  hold  good  for  them  all.  They  are,  however,  much  com- 
pressed, placed  close  together  at  the  base,  and  spirally  twisted,  with  a  keel  both  in 
front  and  behind.  The  front  keel  which  tends  to  become  rounded  in  old  animals, 
at  first  turns  outward  in  each  horn;  and  the  sharp  back  keel  twists  forward  to 


THE    MARKHOOR,    CABUI,    VARIETY. 
(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

form  the  prominent  front  ridge  of  the  first  turn  of  the  spiral.     The  length  varies 
greatly  m  the  different  races.     The  females  have  small  horns  with  a  slight  twist 

rhe  markhoor  ™  first  met  with  in  the  Pir-Panjal  range,  forming  the 
outer  boundary  of  the  valley  of  Kashmir,  but  does  not  extend  to  the 

I6  VtallT  °H  ^  Chrb  ^^     T°  ^  n°rth  ^  -thwest  oTth    vat 
ir  it  extends  mto  the  districts  of  Baltistan,  Astor,  and  Gilgit;  and  it  is 


Distribution 


THE  MARKHOOR  841 

r^' 
also  found  in  many  of  the  ranges  of  Hazara  and  Afghanistan,  and  likewise  in  the 

neighborhood  of  Quetta. 

Four  distinct  varieties  of  the  markhoor  are  recognized  by  Mr.  Blan- 
ford,  and  are  characterized  as  follows:  First  of  all,  we  have  the 
typical  Astor  and  Baltistan  markhoor,  in  which  the  horns  form  a  very  open  spiral, 
never  forming  more  than  one  and  a  half  turns.  The  horns  are  extremely  massive, 
and  attain  a  great  length.  Mr.  Otho  Shaw  has  specimens  measuring  forty-nine  and 
fifty-five  inches  in  length  along  the  posterior  keel;  and  it  is  probable  that  an  ex- 
ample with  a  length  of  sixty-three  inches  belonged  to  this  variety.  Next  we  have 
the  Pir-Panjal  markhoor,  of  which  the  horns  are  represented  in  the  cut  on  the 
next  page.  Here  the  spiral  is  less  open,  and  may  form  from  one  to  two  complete 
turns.  This  race  extends  across  the  Jhelum  river  into  the  Kajnag  range,  and  from 
thence  probably  into  Hazara  and  Gilgit,  where  it  passes  into  the  third  variety.  Mr. 
Shaw  has  a  pair  of  horns  measuring  forty-five  inches  along  the  curve,  and  others 
have  been  recorded  of  fifty  inches  and  rather  over.  In  the  third  or  Cabul  variety, 
which  is  the  one  represented  in  our  cut  on  p.  840,  the  horns  are  almost  straight, 
but  still  have  a  slight  spiral,  with  two  complete  twists.  Specimens  have  been  meas- 
ured with  a  length  of  forty-four  inches,  but  it  is  said  that  as  much  as  sixty  inches 
have  been  recorded,  measured  along  the  curve.  Lastly,  we  have  the  markhoor  of 
the  Suliman  range,  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  Afghanistan,  in  which  the  horns  are 
generally  perfectly  straight,  with  the  front  and  back  keels  wound  round  in  a  sharp 
spiral,  which  may  form  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  complete  turns.  In  the  largest 
recorded  head  the  length  along  the  hind  keel  was  forty-nine  inches.  This  variety 
is  considerably  inferior  in  size  to  the  other,  and  has  a  smaller  beard. 

The  different  varieties  of  the  markhoor  exhibit  some  diversity  in 
their  habits,  owing  to  the  varying  tiature  of  their  native  districts; 
General  Kinloch  remarking  that  while  the  open-horned  varieties  inhabit  lofty  pine- 
clad  ranges,  whose  summits  are  generally  wreathed  in  snow,  the  straight- horned 
Suliman  race  has  its  home  among  barren  and  rocky  hills  of  trifling  elevation, 
where  the  heat  during  the  summer  months  is  frequently  intense. 

Like  other  goats,  markhoor  go  in  small  flocks,  the  males  generally  keeping  apart 
from  the  females.  General  Kinloch  remarks  of  the  male  that  "his  flowing  black 
beard,  and  long  shaggy  mane,  falling  from  his  neck  and  shoulders  to  his  knees,  give 
him  a  most  imposing  appearance;  and  as  he  stands  to  gaze  on  some  jutting  rock  on 
the  face  of  a  rugged  precipice,  overhung  by  dark  pine  trees,  no  sportsman  nor  lover 
of  nature  can  fail  to  be  struck  with  admiration  at  his  noble  bearing.  He  is  power- 
fully and  compactly  made,  and,  in  spite  of  his  weight,  he  has  perhaps  no  equal 
in  traversing  difficult  and  dangerous  ground.  I  know  of  no  animal  whose  pursuit 
habitually  entails  so  much  difficult  climbing,  and  to  be  successful  one  must  occasion- 
ally venture  into  places  where  no  less  inducement  would  tempt  one  to  run  the  risk. 
Old  male  markhoor  are  extremely  difficult  to  find,  especially  where  they  have  been 
frequently  disturbed.  Unlike  the  ibex,  which  keeps  to  the  rugged  crags  and  steep 
ravines  above  the  limits  of  the  forest,  the  markhoor  delights  in  rocky  forests, 
and  although  it  occasionally  comes  out  into  the  open  glades,  it  seeks  concealment 
as  much  as  possible. ' ' 


842  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

This  description  applies  to  the  markhoor  of  Kashmir  and  Astor;  but  in  Afghan- 
istan the  animal  inhabits  bare  and  rugged  hillsides,  owing  to  the  general  absence 

of  forest  in  that  country.  The  ground 
haunted  by  markhoor  in  many  parts  of 
Kashmir  territory  is  of  the  most  loose 
and  rotten  description  which  renders 
stalking  decidedly  dangerous.  Not  un- 
frequently  markhoor  are  found  with  one 
or  both  horns  much  broken,  but  whether 
this  is  due  to  accidents  from  landslips 
and  avalanches,  or  to  combats  between 
one  another,  does  not  appear  to  be  ascer- 
tained. As  already  mentioned,  the 
Suliman  markhoor  is  frequently  found 
at  a  comparatively  low  elevation;  and  it 
appears  that  in  all  localities  this  goat 
does  not  bear  extreme  cold  so  bravely 
as  its  cousin  the  ibex,  and  that  in  winter 
it  always  descends  to  the  more  protected 
valleys.  This  sensitiveness  to  cold  is 
doubtless  correctly  attributed  by  Colonel 
Biddulph  to  the  absence  of  under-fur,  or 
pashm,  in  the  markhoor. 

The  agile  habits  of  this  goat  were 
well  exhibited  by  a  buck  formerly  kept  in 
the  L,ondon  Zoological  Gardens,  which,  in 
spite  of  the  weight  of  a  heavy  chain, 
was  found  nearly  every  morning  mounted 
on  the  top  of  the  high  wall  surrounding 
his  inclosure.  In  captivity  markhoor 

breed  freely,  the  number  of  young  at  a  birth  being  either  one  or  two.  It  does  not 
appear  to  be  ascertained  when  the  young  are  born  in  the  Pir-Panjal  range,  but  in 
the  districts  of  Astor  and  Gilgit  they  are  produced  in  May  and  June.  Markhoor 
have  frequently  interbred  with  domestic  goats;  and  it  was  formerly  considered  that 
the  spiral-horned  varieties  of  the  latter  traced  their  parentage  directly  to  this 
species.  In  domestic  goats,  as  already  mentioned,  the  horns  are  almost  invariably 
twisted  in  the  opposite  direction  to  those  of  the  markhoor,  although  Mr.  Blanford 
states  that  there  are  occasionally  exceptions.  It  is,  however,  not  improbable  that 
some  races  of  domestic  goats  may  have  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  markhoor 
blood. 

The  markhoor  appears  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  types  of  wild  goat,  since  a 
fossil  species,  which  cannot  at  present  be  satisfactorily  distinguished  from  the 
living  one,  occurs  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas. 


HEAD  OF  MARKHOOR;  PIR-PANJAL  VARIETY. 


THE    TAHR  AND    THE  NILGIRI  GOAT  843 


Genus   Hemitragus 

The  Himalayan  goat,  known  as  the  tahr  (//".  jemlaicus),  together  with  an  allied 
species  from  Arabia,  and  a  third  from  the  Nilgiri  hills  of  Southern  India,  differ  so 
markedly  from  the  true  goats  that  Mr.  Blanford  considers  they  should  be  placed  in 
a  genus  by  themselves.  All  these  goats  are  utterly  devoid  of  a  beard,  and  also  dis- 
tinguished by  having  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  naked.  Their  skulls  are  longer 
and  narrower  than  in  the  true  goats,  with  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  less  prominent; 
and  the  horns  are  relatively  short,  and  but  little  smaller  in  the  does  than  in  the 
bucks.  In  form  the  horns  are  compressed  and  angulated  in  front,  with  their  bases 
quite  close  together;  and  they  curve  backward  from  the  plane  of  the  forehead. 
Neither  of  the  species  have  glands  in  the  fore-feet. 

T  ,  The  Himalayan  tahr,  which  is  represented  in  our  illustration,  is 

readily  distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  black  horns,  which  have  their 
lateral  surfaces  flattened  and  shelving  regularly  up  to  the  sharp  and  beaded  keel  on 
the  inner  front  border;  they  diverge  regularly  from  their  bases,  at  the  same  time 
curving  sharply  backward,  with  a  slight  inward  inclination  at  the  tips.  On  the 
head  the  hair  is  short,  but  it  becomes  longer  on  the  body,  and  in  old  bucks  is  so 
lengthened  on  the  neck,  chest,  and  shoulders  as  to  form  a  long  shaggy  mane  reach- 
ing below  the  knees.  There  is  considerable  individual  variation  in  color,  but  the 
general  tint  of  the  hair  is  dark  or  reddish  brown;  old  males  being  generally  very 
dark,  although  pale  colored  individuals  of  both  sexes  are  not  unfrequently  met  with. 
The  face  and  the  front  of  the  limbs  are  very  dark,  in  some  instances  almost  black; 
and  old  males  have  an  indistinct  dark  line  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  In  young 
animals  the  color  is  a  uniform  grayish  brown;  and  the  kids  are  reported  to  be  very 
pale  colored.  The  female  tahr  differs  from  all  other  goats,  as  well  as  from  sheep,  in 
having  four  teats. 

In  height  the  male  tahr  varies  from  three  feet  to  three  feet  four  inches  at  the 
shoulder,  the  does  being  much  smaller.  Good  specimens  of  the  horns  vary  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  length,  measured  along  the  curve;  but  a  pair  has  been  re- 
corded with  a  length  of  sixteen  and  one-half  inches  and  a  basal  girth  of  ten  and  one- 
half  inches.  In  the  does  the  length  of  the  horns  is  seldom  more  than  ten  inches. 
Distribution  ^is  goat  *s  ^oun^  throughout  the  higher  forest  regions  of  the  Him- 
alayas, from  the  Pir-Panjal  range  on  the  outer  side  of  the  valley  of 
Kashmir  in  the  northwest,  to  Sikkim  in  the  southeast,  but  is  unknown  in  the  arid 
Tibetan  districts  of  the  interior.  Tahr  is  the  native  name  by  which  it  is  known  in 
the  Western  Himalayas,  but  in  Kashmir  it  is  termed  kras,  while  in  Nipal  it  goes  by 
the  name  of  jharal.  Quite  recently  a  second  smaller  species,  with  only  two  teats, 
has  been  discovered  in  Arabia;  while  a  fossil  tahr  occurs  in  the  rocks  of  the 
Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas. 

In  spite  of  the  small  size  of  its  horns,  the  tahr  is  decidedly  a  fine- 
looking  animal;  and  it  is  plentifully  distributed  over  many  parts  of  the 
Himalayas.     Although  in  the  Pir-Panjal  range  tahr  are  often  found  on  the  same 


844 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


ground  as  markhoor,  in  other  districts  they  frequent  almost  worse  ground,  and  we 
have  known  many  instances  where  specimens  have  been  completely  smashed  by  fall- 
ing down  precipices  after  they  were  killed.  After  mentioning  that  the  tahr  resem- 
bles the  markhoor  in  its  forest-loving  habits,  General  Kinloch  observes  that  ' '  although 
it  sometimes  resorts  to  the  rocky  summits  of  the  hills,  it  generally  prefers  the  steep 
slopes  which  are  more  or  less  clothed  with  trees.  Female  tahr  may  frequently  be 
found  on  open  ground,  but  old  males  hide  a  great  deal  in  the  thickest  jungle,  lying 


THE   HIMALAYAN   TAHR. 

(One-eighth  natural  size.) 

during  the  heat  of  the  day  under  the  shade  of  trees  or  overhanging  rocks, 
Nearly  perpendicular  hills  with  dangerous  precipices,  where  the  forest  consists  of 
oak  and  ringal-cane,  are  the  favorite  haunts  of  the  old  tahr,  who  climb  with 
ease  over  ground  where  one  would  hardly  imagine  that  any  animal  could  find  a 
footing. ' ' 

The  old  male  tahr  generally  herd  separately  from  the  females  during  the  sura- 
er  but  about  October  the  two  sexes  come  together;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  kids 
x>rn  in  June  and  July,  only  a  single  one  being  produced  at  a  birth 


THE   TAHR  AND    THE  NILGIRI  GOAT  845 


r'" 


The  Nilgiri  wild  goat  (//.  hylocrius}  —  the  warri-atu  of  the  Tamils, 
and  the  Nilgiri  ibex  of  English  sportsmen  —  is  a  southern  species  in- 
habiting the  Nilgiri  and  Animalaya  hills,  and  the  so-called  Western  Ghats  as  far 
south  as  Cape  Comorin.  It  is  generally  found  at  elevations  of  from  four  thousand 
to  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  but  occasionally  somewhat  lower  down.  This 
species  may  be  distinguished  at  a  glance  from  the  tahr  by  the  form  of  the  horns,  and 
the  absence  of  the  shaggy  mane  which  forms  such  a  conspicuous  feature  on  the 
fore  quarters  of  the  males  of  the  latter.  Instead  of  being  flattened  externally,  the 
horns  of  this  goat  have  their  outer  side  highly  convex,  and  tftus  have  a  distinct  an- 
terior surface,  internally  to  which  there  is  a  slight  ridge;  moreover,  for  some  dis- 
tance the  two  horns  run  parallel  to  one  another,  after  which  they  diverge  gradually. 
The  hair  is  short,  thick,  and  coarse;  the  males  having  a  short,  stiff  mane  on  the  back 
of  the  neck  and  withers.  The  general  color  is  dark  yellowish  brown  above,  with  a 
darker  stripe  down  the  back;  while  the  under  parts  are  paler.  The  females  and 
young  show  a  more  or  less  decided  gray  tinge.  In  height  old  males  of  the  Nilgiri 
goat  stand  from  three  and  one-fourth  feet  to  three'  and  one-half  feet  at  the  shoulder, 
the  horns  measuring  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  in  length  along  the  curve,  al- 
though in  one  instance  a  length  of  seventeen  inches  has  been  recorded. 

Writing  of  the  habits  of  this  species,  Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  "the  Nilgiri 
goat  is  found  usually  in  herds  of  from  five  or  six  to  fifty  or  sixty  among  the  crags 
and  rocky  precipices  that  border  the  Nilgiris  and  other  high  ranges  in  the  extreme 
south  of  India.  It  keeps  above  the  forest,  and  but  rarely  enters  woods.  I  have 
more  than  once  seen  these  animals  feeding  on  the  grassy  hills  at  the  top  of  the  Kun- 
dahs  west  of  the  Nilgiris,  but  their  usual  haunts  are  the  grassy  slopes  and  precipi- 
tous crags  on  the  edges  of  the  plateau;  they  feed  on  the  former  in  the  mornings  and 
evenings,  and  rest  on  ledges  among  the  cliffs  during  the  day.  They  are  quite  as 
wary  and  sharp-sighted  as  tahr  or  markhoor,  and  just  as  nimble  and  alert  on  precipi- 
tous ground.  An  old  doe,  as  with  other  goats,  usually  acts  as  sentinel  to  the  herd, 
and  they  always  appear  to  suspect  danger  from  below  and  not  from  above. ' '  The 
young  appear  to  be  born  almost  at  any  season  of  the  year,  and  it  is  stated  that  there 
are  generally  two  at  a  birth. 

How  this  species  originally  reached  its  present  habitat,  so  remote  from  that  of 
its  allies,  is  not  very  easy  to  understand;  but  the  occurrence  of  a  fossil  goat  appar- 
ently allied  to  this  group  in  Perim  island,  in  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  may  eventually 
aid  in  solving  the  problem. 

In  regard  to  the  present  distribution  of  this  goat,  a  recent  writer  observes  that 
it  is  still  fairly  abundant  on  the  Animalaya  and  Travancore  hills;  but  has  sadly  de- 
creased elsewhere  owing  to  the  war  of  extermination  waged  against  it  by  the  native 
pot  hunter  and  European  shooter,  who  have  alike  been  indefatigable  in  slaying  the 
does  and  young  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  ibex,  as  it  has  been  locally  misnamed, 
has  become  so  scarce  on  the  Nilgiris  that  its  destruction  has  been  wholly  prohibited 
since  last  year,  but  it  is  feared  that  this  prohibition  has  been  effected  too  late  to  pre- 
vent the  extinction  of  the  few  now  left,  for  the  leopards  are  most  deadly  and  per- 
sistent enemies,  and  it  is  a  very  difficult  matter  for  a  small  herd  to  hold  its  own  and 
increase  in  spite  of  their  depredations. 


846 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


THE  CORALS 
Genus  Cemas 

The  goral  (Cemas  goral}  of  the  Himalayas,  is  our  first  representative  of  an 
assemblage  of  mountain-haunting  Ruminants  which  to  a  great  extent  connect  the 
goats  with  the  antelopes.  Most  of  these  animals  have  a  more  or  less  goat-like  build, 
goat-like  teeth,  short  tails,  relatively-small  cylindrical  horns,  and  no  beards.  The 
goral  is  a  relatively-small  creature,  standing  only  twenty-seven  inches  at  the 
shoulder,  and  having  somewhat  stout  limbs,  and  rather  coarse  short  hair,  which  be- 


THE  GORAL. 
(One-tenth   natural  size.) 

comes  elongated  into  a  slight  crest  along  the  back  of  the  neck.  Its  general  color  is 
brown,  with  a  more  or  less  rufous  or  gray  tinge;  but  there  is  a  dark  stripe  from  the 
nape  of  the  neck,  to  the  black  tail,  and  another  down  the  front  of  each  leg,  while 
the  throat  is  white.  The  muzzle  is  naked;  and  the  face,  as  in  the  goats,  has  no 
gland  below  the  eye,  while  the  skull  lacks  any  depression  in  the  same  region.  The 
short,  black,  and  conical  horns  curve  regularly  backward,  and  are  marked,  except 
at  the  tip,  by  a  number  of  small  and  irregular  rings.  In  the  bucks  they  may  vary 
from  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  but  a  pair  has  been  recorded  of  upward  of  nine 
and  three-fourths  inches.  The  horns  of  the  does  are  only  slightly  smaller  than  those 
of  the  bucks. 


THE  SEROWS  847 

The  goral  is  found  throughout  the  outer  ridges  of  the  Himalayas, 
from  Kashmir  to  Bhutan,  at  elevations  of  from  three  thousand  to  eight 
thousand  feet.     In  Eastern  Tibet  its  place  is  taken  by  the  ashy  goral  (C.  cinerea) 
and  the  gray  goral  (C.  grisea};  while  in  Northern  China  and  Amurland  it  is  repre- 
sented by  the  long- tailed  goral,  distinguished  by  its  longer  tail. 

The  Himalayan  goral  is  generally  found  in  small  parties  of  from 
four  to  eight  individuals;  but  sometimes  these  animals  associate  only 
in  pairs,  and  old  bucks  appear  to  be  generally  solitary.  They  frequent  rugged 
grassy  hills  or  rocky  forest-clad  ground;  and  during  cloudy  weather  feed  through- 
out the  day,  but  when  fine,  only  in  the  morning  and  evening.  Where  one  goral  is 
seen,  there  will  almost  certainly  be  found  others  in  the  neighborhood;  and  these  ani- 
mals but  rarely  forsake  their  feeding  grounds.  When  alarmed,  they  utter  a  kind 
of  hissing  snort.  General  Macintyre  writes  that  ' '  goral  stalking  in  the  precipitous 
and  broken  ground  on  the  middle  ranges  [of  the  Himalayas]  is  perhaps  the  pleas- 
antest  though  not  the  grandest  kind  of  mountain  sport.  The  amount  of  stiff  climb- 
ing it  entails  is  quite  enough  to  give  it  zest,  without  making  it  excessively 
laborious.  The  sportsman  can  generally  return  to  his  tent  to  rest  during  the  heat 
of  the  day,  while  the  gorals  are  doing  likewise,  hidden  away  among  the  shady 
recesses  of  the  rocks,  and  he  can  always  get  back  at  night  to  a  comfortable  bed. ' ' 

THE  SEROWS 
Genus  Nemorhcedus 

Nearly  allied  to  the  gorals  are  the  more  shaggy  animals  known  as  serows,  or 
goat-antelopes,  which  are  likewise  peculiar  to  Southeastern  and  Eastern  Asia.  Al- 
though resembling  the  gorals  in  their  general  build,  their  naked  muzzles,  short  tails, 
and  the  presence  of  four  teats  in  the  females,  the  serows  are  distinguished  by  hav- 
ing a  gland  beneath  the  eye,  and  a  corresponding  shallow  depression  in  the  skull 
for  its  reception.  Moreover,  the  plane  of  the  forehead  passes  imperceptibly  into  that 
of  the  region  behind  the  horns,  whereas  in  the  gorals  the  two  are  separated  by  a 
distinct  angle. 

The  common  serow  (Nemorhcedus  bubalinus)  is  a  Himalayan  species  extending 
from  Kashmir  to  the  Mishmi  hills,  where  it  is  found  at  elevations  of  from  six  to 
twelve  thousand  feet.  It  is  much  larger  than  the  goral,  standing  about  thirty-seven 
inches  at  the  shoulders,  and  the  horns  of  bucks  generally  measuring  from  nine  to 
ten  inches  in  length,  although  they  may  reach  as  much  as  thirteen  and  one-half 
inches.  The  serow  is  rather  an  ugly  looking  animal,  with  large  ears,  and  coarse 
and  somewhat  thin  hair  of  moderate  length,  which  forms  a  kind  of  crest  along  the 
neck.  The  head  and  neck  are  black,  and  the  rest  of  the  hair  of  the  upper  parts 
black  or  dark  gray,  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  grizzle;  the  muzzle,  chin,  and  inside 
of  the  ears  are  white,  and  the  under  parts  are  also  whitish,  while  the  flanks,  chest, 
etc.,  are  rusty  red.  The  black  horns  curve  regularly  backward,  and  in  addition  to 
numerous  rings,  are  marked  by  a  number  of  longitudinal  striae.  The  two  sexes  are 
very  similar. 


848 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


The  Burmese  serow  (N.  sumatrensis} ,  which  inhabits  hilly  districts  from  the 
Eastern  Himalayas  to  Yunnan  and  Eastern  Tibet,  and  thence  to  Siam,  Burma,  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  Sumatra,  is  only  distinguished  by  its  redder  color,  and  per- 
haps rather  smaller  size.  The  other  two  species  are  the  Japanese  serow  (N. 
crispus]  from  Japan,  and  Swinhoe's  serow  (N.  swinhoei]  from  the  island  of  For- 
mosa, both  of  which  are  distinguished  by  their  smaller  size,  which  is  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  goral. 

The  habits  of  all  the  serows  are  probably  very  similar.     Writing 

of  the  Himalayan  species,  General  Kinloch  observes  that  it   ' '  has  an 

awkward  gait,  but  in  spite  of  this,  it  can  go  over  the  worst  ground;  and  it  has, 

perhaps,  no  superior  in  going  down  steep 
hills.  It  is  a  solitary  animal,  and  is  nowhere 
numerous;  two  or  three  may  be  found  on 
one  hill,  four  or  five  on  another,  and  so  on. 
It  delights  in  the  steepest  and  most  rocky 
hillsides,  and  its  favorite  resting  places  are 
in  caves,  under  the  shelter  of  overhanging 
rocks,  or  at  the  foot  of  shady  trees.  Although 
very  shy  and  difficult  to  find,  the  serow  is  a 
fierce  and  dangerous  animal  when  brought  to 
bay.  I  have  even  heard  of  an  unwounded 
male  charging  when  his  mate  had  been  shot. 
It  is  said  that  a  serow  will  sometimes  beat 
off  a  pack  of  wild  dogs,  and  I  believe  that 
serow  and  dogs  have  been  found  lying  dead 
together.  When  disturbed,  the  serow  utters  a 
most  singular  sound,  something  between  a 
snort  and  a  screaming  whistle,  and  I  have 
heard  them  screaming  loudly  when  they  had 
apparently  not  been  alarmed.''  General  Mac- 
intyre  relates  that  on  one  occasion  ' '  a  female 

serow  had  been  shot  by  a  sportsman,  when,  on  his  native  follower  approac  ing  to 
secure  it,  a  male  companion  rushed  out  from  the  dense  cover  hard  by,  and  going 
for  the  man,  sent  him  rolling  downhill  with  a  butt  from  its  horns." 


HORNS  OF  HIMALAYAN  SEROW. 


THE   TAKIN 
Genus   Budorcas 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  members  of  this  group  is  the  little-known  takin 

(Budorcas   taxicolor)  from  Eastern  Tibet  and  the  Mishmi  hills,  which  is  evidently 

Hied  to  the  serow,  although  with  very  differently-shaped  horns.     The  takin  is  a 

leavily-built  and  comparatively-large  animal,  standing  three  and  one-half  feet  at 

the  shoulder,  with  stout  limbs,  large  lateral  hoofs,  and  a  small  goat-like  tail      The 


THE  ROCKY-MOUNTAIN  GOAT 


849 


muzzle  is  covered  with  hair,  except  a  small  spot  at  the  extremity,  and  the  profile  of 
the  face  is  convex.  The  horns  are  black  and  thick  in  both  sexes;  in  the  males  they 
rise  (as  in  our  figure)  close  to- 
gether, and  at  first  curve  out- 
ward, after  which  they  make  a 
sharp  turn  and  are  directed 
straight  backward.  According 
to  Mr.  A.  O.  Hume,  the  horns 
of  the  female  are  placed  further 
apart  at  the  base,  and  curve  out- 
ward and  then  backward  with- 
out any  marked  angulation;  but 
other  writers  state  that  they  are 
similar  in  shape  to  those  of  the 
males,  but  smaller  and  thinner. 
Male  horns  vary  in  length  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  inches, 
with  a  basal  girth  of  nine  or  ten 
inches.  The  head  of  the  takin 
is  black,  but  the  color  of  the 

coarse  hair  of  the  body  varies  from  yellowish  to  reddish  brown  mingled  with  black. 
Very  little  is  known  of  the  habits  of  this  Tibetan  Ruminant,  but  it  appears  to  be 
found  either  singly  or  in  herds. 


UPPER   PART   OF  SKUI.I,  AND   HORNS  OF  MAI,E  TAKIN. 
(From  Hume,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1887.) 


THE  ROCKY-MOUNTAIN   GOAT 
Genus  Haploceros 

The  so-called  goat  of  the  Rocky  mountains  {Haploceros  montanus),  which  is 
the  third  and  last  representative  of  the  Bovida  inhabiting  America,  is  another  ani- 
mal nearly  allied  to  the  serow.  This  creature  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  sheep, 
and  averages  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight.  It  has  very  short  and  stout  legs, 
terminating  in  broad  and  blunted  hoofs,  pointed  ears,  and  jet  black  horns,  curving 
backward,  and  ringed  for  about  half  their  length,  but  smooth  above  this.  The 
body  is  covered  with  a  long  coat  of  white  hair,  which  is  nearly  straight,  and  falls 
on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  limbs,  but  is  erect  along  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  as  it  becomes  longer  over  the  withers  and  haunches  the  animal  looks  as  though 
it  had  two  humps.  Beneath  the  hair  there  is  a  thick  coat  of  wool.  There  are  no 
glands  below  the  eyes.  In  length  the  horns  vary  from  six  to  ten  and  one-half 
inches,  and  the  skeleton  is  remarkable  for  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  canon 
bones. 

The  range  of  this  animal  extends  through  the  Rocky  mountains 
from  about  latitude  36°  in  California  at  least  as  far  north  as  latitude 
62°,  but  Mr.  J.  Fannin  believes  that  it  will  be  found  as  far  north  as  the  mountains 
reach.     The  same  writer  observes  that  it  "is  extremely  abundant  in  British  Columbia, 
54 


Distribution 


85o  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

ranging  from  its  southern  boundary  to  the  watershed  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 
from  the  coast  line  to  the  Rockies.  Here  amid  nature's  wildest  scenes,  amid  storm- 
swept  canons  and  beetling  crags,  amid  steel-blue  glaciers  and  snowy  peaks,  where 
the  silence  is  seldom  broken  save  by  the  rush  of  mountain  torrent,  the  howling  of 
the  storm,  or  the  crashing  of  the  treacherous  avalanche, —  here,  far  removed  from 
the  trail  of  the  ordinary  hunter,  the  mountain  goat,  solitary  in  its  habits,  and  con- 
tented with  its  chaotic  and  gloomy  surroundings,  increases  and  multiplies." 

Although  chiefly  a  mountain  animal,    this  species  is  occasionally 
Habits  observed  close  to  the  sea  level,  and  has  even   been  seen  swimming 

salt-water  estuaries  or  rivers.  Such  occurrences  are,  however,  rare;  and,  as  a  rule, 
the  Rocky-mountain  goat  lives  above  or  close  to  the  upper  limits  of  forests.  But 
when  driven  by  hunger,  these  animals  sometimes  descend  to  lower  levels  in  the 
forest,  while  they  will  not  unfrequently  traverse  the  lowlands  separating  one  moun- 
tain or  range  from  another.  During  the  pairing  season  in  November  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  winter  they  are  gregarious,  although  not  markedly  so  at  other  seasons  of  the 
year.  As  might  be  inferred,  from  their  short  and  clumsy  limbs,  these  animals  have 
but  little  speed;  and  when  disturbed  they  move  leisurely  off,  trusting  rather  to  con- 
cealment behind  sheltering  rocks  than  in  rapidity  of  pace.  Formerly  the  Rocky- 
mountain  goat  was  much  hunted  by  the  Indians  for  the  sake  of  its  fleece,  but  now 
that  the  demand  for  blankets  made  from  its  wool  has  well-nigh  ceased,  the  pursuit 
itself  has  been  abandoned  in  many  districts. 

Although  extremely  agile  among  its  native  mountains,  the  Rocky-mountain 
goat,  in  spite  of  many  statements  to  the  contrary,  does  not  appear  to  be  a  very  wary 
animal.  Indeed,  Mr.  Fannin  states  that  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most  stupid  animal  in 
the  mountains,  and  little  or  no  skill  is  required  in  hunting  it.  The  great  difficulty 
is  in  reaching  the  almost  inaccessible  places  which  it  usually  inhabits.  The  best 
time  for  hunting  is  in  September  and  October,  before  the  rainy  season  sets  in, 
although  the  skins  are  not  in  their  best  condition  till  later  on.  In  coloration  this 
animal  is  unique  among  Ruminants;  and  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  few  Mammals  that 
are  white  at  all  seasons.  Its  white  coat  is  admirably  adapted  to  harmonize  with  the 
snows  of  its  highest  haunts,  but  would  seem  to  be  conspicuous  when  the  animal  is 
among  dark  rocks  or  on  its  grazing  grounds. 


THE  CHAMOIS 
Genus  Rupicapra 

The  last  representative  of  the  goat-like  antelopes  is  the  well-known  chamois  or 
gems  (Rupicapra  tragus)  of  the  mountains  of  Europe,  readily  distinguished  from 
all  the  others  by  the  short  and  cylindrical  black  horns  rising  for  a  considerable 
distance  vertically  from  the  forehead,  and  then  bending  sharply  backward  and 
downward  in  a  hook-like  manner.  The  chamois  is  a  strongly-built  animal,  with 
relatively -long  and  stout  limbs,  and  a  very  short,  stumpy  tail;  in  height  it  stands 
about  two  feet  at  the  withers.  The  hair  is  close  and  rather  long,  with  a  thick, 


THE   CHAMOIS 


851 


woolly  under-fur.  During  the  winter  the  general  color  is  a  chestnut  brown,  paler 
on  the  face  and  under  parts,  and  there  is  a  well-marked  brown  streak  extending 
from  below  the  eye  nearly  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth;  the  tail  being  black.  In  the 
summer  the  coat  13  lighter  colored,  having  in  spring  a  more  or  less  marked  gray 
hue.  The  erect  ears  are  sharply  pointed;  and  the  horns,  except  at  their  tips,  are 
marked  both  by  slight  transverse  rings  and  by  longitudinal  striae.  Fair-sized  horns 


THE  CHAMOIS. 
(One-twelfth   natural   size.) 

are  about  seven  inches  in  length,  but  some  specimens  measure  as  much  as  nine 
inches,  or  rather  more,  while  a  few  reach  ten  and  one-fourth  inches.  The  weight  of 
a  buck  chamois  may  vary  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds.  lyight  colored  or  even  white 
varieties  are  occasionally  met  with.  The  face  has  a  small  gland  below  the  eye,  and 
there  is  a  corresponding  shallow  depression  in  the  skull  for  its  reception,  while  the 
muzzle  is  completely  covered  with  hair.  The  hoofs  have  their  outer  edges,  higher 


(852) 


CHAMOIS    AT    BAY. 


THE    CHAMOIS  853 

than   the   central   portion,    and   are   thus   adapted    for   securing   a   firm   foothold 
on  rocks. 

The  chamois  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  mountains  of  Europe, 
occurring  in  the  Pyrenees  (where  it  is  known  as  the  izard),  the  moun- 
tains of  the  coast  of  Spain,  in  Dalmatia  and  Greece,  in  the  Carpathians,  the  Swiss 
and  Transylvanian  Alps,  the  Caucasus,  the  Taurus  range,  and  in  the  mountains  of 
Georgia.  The  Pyrenean  izard  is  a  smaller  form,  with  shorter  horns  and  a  more 
foxy-red  color  than  the  typical  Alpine  gems;  and  the  variety  found  in  the  Caucasus, 
where  it  is  known  as  atchi,  has  also  certain  distinctive  differences.  Neither  of  these 
can,  however,  be  regarded  as  more  than  local  races.  At  the  present  day  the  chamois 
has  become  rare  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  but  in  the  Eastern  Alps,  in  the  districts  of  Ba- 
varia, Salzburg,  Styria,  and  Carinthia,  it  is  far  more  common,  while  it  is  abundant 
on  the  precipitous  summits  of  the  central  Carpathians.  Fossil  remains  of  the  cham- 
ois are  found  in  caverns  at  low  elevations  in  several  parts  of  the  European  conti- 
nent, thus  indicating  very  different  climatic  conditions  from  those  now  prevailing. 
As  regards  its  habits,  the  general  notion  is  that  the  chamois  is  an 
essentially  Alpine  animal;  that  is,  one  frequenting  the  glaciers  and 
snowy  peaks  above  the  forest  level.  This,  however,  according  to  Brehm,  is  a  mis- 
taken idea;  the  truth  being  that  the  chamois  is  really  a  forest-dwelling  animal,  and 
that  most  individuals  of  the  species  live  from  year's  end  to  year's  end  within  the 
limits  of  the  forest.  A  certain  number  during  the  summer  always  leave,  however, 
the  main  flock,  to  take  up  their  abode  for  a  period  of  weeks  or  months  among  the 
glaciers  and  snow  fields  above  the  upper  limits  of  forests.  These  adventurous  indi- 
viduals are  known  to  the  hunters  as  glacier-chamois,  in  contradistinction  to  wood- 
chamois;  but  a  short  spell  of  severe  weather  is  sufficient  to  drive  even  these  back  to 
the  shelter  of  the  forests.  The  favorite  haunts  of  the  chamois  are  the  western  and 
northwestern  slopes  of  the  Alps  in  summer;  while  in  the  winter  they  prefer  the  spots 
with  an  easterly  or  southerly  aspect. 

Chamois  are  essentially  gregarious  animals,  usually  associating  together  in 
herds  of  fifteen  or  twenty  individuals.  They  repose  during  the  night,  but  with  the 
first  glimmer  of  dawn  commence  feeding;  towards  the  middle  of  the  day  they  again 
seek  the  shelter  of  rocks  or  trees,  where  they  lie  in  the  shade  till  evening,  when  they 
once  more  issue  forth  to  feed. 

Their  chief  nutriment  consists  of  lichens  and  the  scanty  mountain  herbage. 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  old  males  live  a  solitary  life  apart  from  the 
flocks;  but  during  the  pairing  season  in  October  and  November  they  join  the  flocks 
of  females,  from  which  they  drive  away  the  young  bucks.  During  this  period  the 
old  bucks  engage  in  fierce  contests  among  themselves,  which  occasionally  terminate 
fatally. 

The  young,  generally  one,  but  occasionally  two  in  number,  are  born  in  May  or 
June,  after  a  gestation  of  about  twenty-eight  weeks,  and  are  clothed  with  a  thick, 
woolly  coat  of  a  reddish  color.  When  but  a  day  old  they  are  able  to  follow  their 
dams  almost  anywhere;  and  in  three  months  first  show  their  horns.  In  three  years 
they  attain  their  full  size;  and  it  is  stated  that  the  span  of  life  of  a  chamois  will  ex- 
tend from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years,  although  this  requires  confirmation. 


854 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


All  who  have  seen  chamois  in  their  native  haunts  are  agreed  as  to  their  ex- 
treme agility  and  wariness,  and  their  sure-footedness  has  become  proverbial.     When 


THE    LEAP   OF   THE   CHAMOIS. 


THE  ELAND 


855 


all  its  four  feet  gathered  into  a  space  of  the  size  of  a  crown  piece;  and  as  its  sense  of 
sight,  smell,  and  hearing,  are  of  the  acutest,  its  pursuit  taxes  the  utmost  powers  of 
the  hunter. 

ELAND 
Genus    Orias 

With  the  large  and  handsome  African  animals  known  as  eland,  or  impofo,  we 
come  to  the  first  representatives  of  the  extensive  group  of  antelopes  which 
includes  the  whole  of  the  remain- 
ing members  of  the  Bovine 
family.  Although  the  term 
antelope  is  one  in  common  use, 
and  most  of  the  members  of 
the  group  are  easily  recognized, 
yet,  owing  to  the  number  of 
generic  types  and  the  diversity 
of  their  structure,  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  distinguish 
antelopes  as  a  whole  from  the 
oxen  on  the  one  hand  and  from 
the  goats  on  the  other;  the 
transition  to  the  former  group 
being  effected  by  means  of  the 
anoa,  and  to  the  latter  by  the 
goat-like  antelopes  just  described. 
Antelopes  are,  indeed,  the  most 
generalized  members  of  the  pres- 
ent family  now  existing,  and 
since  they  are  also  its  oldest 
known  representatives,  it  is  prob- 
able that  from  them  have  been 
derived  the  more  specialized 
types  already  treated  of,  so  that 
the  above-mentioned  transitions 
are  precisely  what  we  might  naturally  expect  to  occur. 

As  a  whole,  antelopes  are  characterized  by  their  graceful  build,  and 
ChofTn\?lope?  b^  the  head  being  carried  considerably  above  the  level  of  the  back. 
The  horns,  which  may  or  may  not.  be  present  in  the  females,  are  gen- 
erally long,  more  or  less  cylindrical,  and  often  lyre  shaped;  while  they  are  fre- 
quently marked  with  prominent  rings,  and  have  an  upright  direction.  Their  bony 
internal  cores,  instead  of  being  honeycombed,  as  in  the  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats,  are 
nearly  solid  throughout.  These  animals  very  generally  have  a  gland  beneath  the  eye, 
by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  oxen  and  goats;  but,  as  regards  their  teeth, 
some  of  them  resemble  the  oxen,  while  others  approximate  to  the  sheep  and  goats. 


HEAD  OF    BULL  ELAND. 

(After  Nicolls  and  Eglington.) 


856  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Antelopes  (in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word)  are  strictly  confined  to 
Distribution  the  Qld  Worid;  and  by  far  the  greater  majority  of  them  are  now  re- 
stricted to  Africa,  with  the  adjacent  regions  of  Syria  and  Arabia.  Indeed,  if  we  ex- 
cept the  widely-spread  group  of  gazelles,  the  only  antelopes  found  beyond  those 
regions  are  the  black  buck,  four-horned  antelope,  and  nylghau  of  India,  the  saiga  of 
Tartary,  and  the  chiru  of  Tibet.  It  was  not,  however,  always  so,  since  in  early 
times  antelopes  of  African  types  were  distributed  over  a  large  portion  of  India  and 
Southern  Europe;  and  it  is  still  one  of  the  problems  of  zoology  to  account  satis- 
factorily for  the  disappearance  of  these  animals  from  the  latter  regions.  The  intro- 


SKEI.ETON   OF    THE  ADDAX. 

duction  of  antelopes  into  Africa  appears  to  have  been  comparatively  recent;  but 
having  once  made  good  their  footing  on  that  continent  they  multiplied,  both  as  re- 
gards individuals  and  species,  in  a  manner  quite  unparalleled  in  any  other  region, 
the  total  number  of  African  antelopes  exceeding  ninety.  Unfortunately,  this 
profusion  and  exuberance  of  ruminant  life,  which,  but  a  few  decades  back,  charac- 
terized the  dark  continent,  is  rapidly  disappearing  before  the  advance  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

The  eland  belongs  to  a  group  of  large  and  almost  exclusively  Afri- 
can antelopes,  characterized  by  the  general  absence  of  horns  in  the 
females,  and  by  those  of  the  male  being  devoid  of  rings,  angulated  in  front,  and 


Eland 


THE  ELAND 


857 


usually  spirally  twisted.     There  is  a  small  gland  below  the  eye^  the  muzzle  is  naked, 
the  tail  long,  and  the  upper  molar  teeth  generally  have  short  crowns. 

Eland  are  the  largest  of  all  antelopes,  and  differ  from  the  other  members  of  the 
group  in  having  horns  in  both  sexes;  these  being  spirally  twisted  on  their  own  axis 
and  directed  upward  and  outward.  The  horns  have  a  sharp  ridge  both  in  front 


THE  ELAND. 
(One-twentieth   natural   size.) 

and  behind,  and  are  directed  upward  and  outward  in  the  plane  of  the  face.  The 
naked  muzzle  is  broad,  the  gland  below  the  eye  small,  and  the  tufted  tail  reaches 
below  the  hocks.  Both  sexes  have  a  large  dewlap,  and  the  crowns  of  the  upper 
molar  teeth  are  low  and  broad.  The  common  eland  (Orias  canna),  which  formerly 
ranged  over  the  greater  part  of  South,  East,  and  Central  Africa,  is  characterized  by 


858  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  horns  of  the  cows  being  longer  and  thinner  than  those  of  the  bulls.  The  bulls 
have  a  tuft  of  long  dark  brown  hair  covering  the  forehead;  but  the  color  of  the  rest 
of  the  head  and  body  varies  from  pale  fawn  to  bluish  gray;  the  blue  tint  being  most 
marked  in  old  individuals  —  more  especially  bulls,  in  which,  owing  to  the  scanti- 
ness of  the  hair,  the  color  of  the  skin  shows  through.  In  the  southern  part  of  its 
range  the  eland  is  uniformly  colored,  but  further  north  there  occurs  a  variety  in 
which  the  body  is  marked  with  vertical  white  stripes,  descending  from  a  dark  stripe 
on  the  back.  The  degree  of  distinctness  of  these  stripes  varies  greatly  in  different 
individuals,  and  frequently  in  this  variety  there  is  a  white  stripe  across  the  nose, 
while  there  is  always  a  dark  patch  on  the  inner  side  of  the  knee.  Mr.  Crawshay 
states  that  in  Nyassaland,  among  a  single  troop,  individuals  may  be  seen  varying 
from  a  light  tawny  yellow  to  a  slaty  blue  in  very  old  age,  while  in  some  the  stripes 
are  clearly  defined,  in  others  faintly,  and  in  others  again  they  are  not  distinguish- 
able at  all.  An  average-sized  bull  eland  shot  by  Mr.  Selous  stood  five  feet  nine 
inches  at  the  withers,  but  some  specimens  are  doubtless  taller.  Mr.  Drummond 
states  that  the  average  weight  varies  from  800  to  1,100  pounds,  but  that  in  old  bulls 
it  may  reach  1,400  or  even  1,500  pounds.  The  average  length  of  the  horns  may  be 
set  down  at  twenty-five  inches  for  bulls  and  twenty-six  inches  for  cows;  but  Mr. 
Selous  has  recorded  a  length  of  thirty  inches  in  the  former  and  thirty-four  inches 
in  the  latter.  In  old  bulls  the  horns  may  be  worn  down  to  less  than  a  foot  in 
length. 

The  eland  was  formerly  distributed  over  all  Southern  and  Eastern 

Africa,  but  has  now  disappeared  from  the  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  the 
Orange  Free  State,  Griqualand  West,  and  the  Transvaal.  A  few  years  ago  these 
antelopes  were,  however,  abundant  in  the  districts  between  the  Chobe  and  Zam- 
bezi rivers,  as  well  as  in  the  country  to  the  north  of  the  latter;  while  they  are  still 
plentiful  in  parts  of  Nyassaland,  and  are  not  uncommon  in  the  Kilima-Njaro  district. 
Their  complete  extirpation  is,  however,  probably  merely  a  matter  of  time;  the 
animal  being  slaughtered  on  account  of  its  hide. 

Eland  are  found  both  in  the  desert  country,  and  in  wooded  districts, 

both  hilly  and  flat.  In  Nyassaland,  Mr.  Crawshay  says  that  their 
favorite  haunts  are  undulating,  well-timbered  country,  where  the  grass  is  not  too 
long,  and  where  there  are  intervening  open  plains;  as  a  rule,  they  visit  the  plains  at 
night  or  in  the  early  morning  to  drink,  and  then  wander  back  long  distances  to  the 
forest,  where  they  spend  the  hot  hours  of  the  day.  In  the  great  Kalahari  desert, 
where  they  are  still  common,  Mr.  Selous  states,  however,  that  eland  go  a  long 
period  without  drinking  any  water,  except  that  which  they  may  .obtain  by  eating 
watermelons  and .  other  plants.  Eland  are  generally  found  in  large  herds,  number- 
ing from  fifty  to  upward  of  a  hundred  head,  but  solitary  bulls  or  small  parties  of 
bulls  are  not  unfrequently  observed. 

Eland  are  generally  accompanied  by  "rhinoceros  birds,"  which,  in  addition  to 
their  natural  timidity,  make  them  difficult  to  approach  on  foot.  Consequently  they 
are  generally  hunted  on  horseback.  The  bulls,  when  fat,  can  be  easily  ridden  down 
by  a  good  horse;  but  the  cows  have  greater  speed  and  staying  power.  When  pur- 
sued, eland  frequently  leap  high  in  the  air.  The  calves  are  born  in  July  and 


THE  KUDUS  859 

August;  and  it  appears  that  the  females  do  not  breed  oftener  than  once  in  every 
two  years,  so  that  the  rate  of  increase  is  slow.  When  they  have  their  calves  with 
them,  the  cows  will  attack  and  impale  dogs  on  their  horns;  but  at  other  seasons 
both  sexes  are  quite  harmless.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  flesh  of  the  eland  has 
been  very  generally  overestimated;  and  during  the  dry  season,  when  these  animals 
often  subsist  entirely  upon  leaves,  it  is  quite  uneatable.  In  captivity  the  eland 
breeds  freely;  and  it  was  at  one  time  considered  that  it  might  be  profitably  accli- 
matized in  England. 

Occasionally,  cow  eland  are  found  with  one  or  both  horns  abnor- 
mally formed,  such  abnormal  horns  being  long  and  nearly  straight,  with 
Horns  .  . 

a  triangular  cross  section.     Such  a  pair,  measuring  thirty  inches  in  a 

straight  line,  were  described  a  few  years  ago  under  the  name  of  Antilope  triangu- 
laris,  and  were  supposed  to  indicate  an  extinct  species  of  antelope,  which  was  subse- 
quently referred  to  a  new  genus. 

The  magnificent  animal  known  as  the  Derbian  eland  (O.  derbianus) 
'  an  replaces  the  common  species  on  the  West  Coast  in  the  districts  of  An- 
gola and  Senegambia.  It  is  considerably  larger  than  the  southern  and  eastern 
form,  and  the  bulls  have  a  large  dark  brown  mane  and  much  finer  horns.  The  horns 
of  the  cows  are,  however,  relatively  small.  Male  horns  have  been  measured  of 
thirty-four  and  one-half  inches  in  length. 


KUDUS 
Genus  Strepsiceros 

The  graceful  and  beautifully-marked  antelopes-  known  as  kudus,  of  which  there 
are  likewise  two  species,  are  distinguished  from  eland  by  the  absence  of  horns  in  the 
female,  and  by  the  corkscrew-like  spiral  formed  by  those  of  the  male,  as  well  as 
by  the  much-shorter  tail,  which  does  not  reach  the  hocks.  The  horns  are  char- 
acterized by  the  great  development  of  the  front  ridge,  and  rise  from  the  skull  at  an 
obtuse  angle  to  the  plane  of  the  face.  The  neck  is  maned,  and  the  throat  may  be 
furnished  with  a  fringe  of  long  hair.  The  body  is  marked  with  narrow  vertical 
white  stripes  descending  from  a  white  line  on  the  back;  and  there  is  also  a  white 
chevron  on  the  face,  together  with  white  spots  on  the  cheek,  and  splashes  of  the 
same  color  on  the  throat  and  limbs.  The  hoofs  are  short. 

The  common  kudu  (  Strepsiceros  kudu~},  which  is  the  species  repre- 
Common  Kudu          ,     ,    .  .,,  .  ,.     .         .  ,     j   ,       .       ,  .         ,, 

sented  in  our  illustration,  is  distinguished  by  its  large  size,  the  open 

spiral  formed  by  the  enormous  horns  of  the  male,  and  the  presence  of  a  thick  fringe 
of  hair  on  the  throat.  The  ground  color  of  females  and  young  males  is  reddish  or 
grayish  brown,  marked  with  eight  or  nine  white  stripes;  but  in  old  males  it  becomes 
bluish  gray,  apparently  owing  to  the  skin  showing  through  the  scanty  hair.  The 
kudu  is  only  inferior  in  size  to  the  eland,  a  full-grown  bull  standing  about  four 
feet  four  inches  at  the  shoulder.  The  horns  may  attain  a  length  of  three  feet  five 
or  six  inches  in  a  straight  line,  while  one  instance  is  recorded  where  the  one  horn 
measured  three  feet  nine  inches,  and  the  other  three  feet  nine  and  one-half  inches. 


860  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

In  a  pair  measuring  three  feet  five  inches  in  a  straight  line,  the  length  along  the 

curve  was  five  feet  four  inches. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  kudus  extend  from  the  Cape  to  the 
Distribution  Abyssinian  highlands,  embracing  all  Eastern  Africa  and  extending 
westward  to  Angola.  Some  years  ago  Mr.  Selous  stated  that  a  few  kudus  still  lin- 

gered    in    the    Cape    Colony, 
while  in  Griqualand  West  they 
were    not    uncommon.     From 
the  Limpopo   to  the   Zambezi 
they  were  at  that  time  abundant, 
and  Mr.  Crawshay  records  them 
as  distributed  all  over  Nyassa- 
land.       In    the     Kilima-Njaro 
district  they  appear  to  be  rare. 
Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  kudu 
is  usually  partial  to  hilly  coun- 
try covered  with  dense  thickets; 
but  hills  are  by  no  means  neces- 
sary to   its  existence,  as  it  is 
common    in    the    thick    bush 
along  both  banks  of  the  river 
Chobe,  where  there  are  no  hills 
whatever,  and  it  is  also  plentiful 
in  the  wait-a-bit  thorn  jungles 
on  the  Lower  Molapo,  just  on 
the  edge  of  the  flat  and  sandy 
Kalahari  desert.   In  Nyassaland 
they  are  never  found  far  away 
from  the  hills.     Mr.  Crawshay 
states  that  kudus  are  fond  of 
browsing   on    the    young   and 
tender     shoots    of     trees    and 

shrubs,  especially  in  the  dry  season,  when  the  grass  has  been  burnt  off,  and  has  not 
had  time  to  grow.  When  alarmed,  kudus  sometimes  give  vent  to  a  low  bark,  but 
this  is  only  audible  at  close  quarters. 

Kudus  are  generally  found  in  pairs  or  in  small  parties.  Their  speed 
is  not  great;  but  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  when  disturbed  they 
invariably  make  for  the  roughest  ground,  while  the  districts  they  haunt  are  fre- 
quently infested  with  the  tsetse  fly,  it  is  but  seldom  that  they  can  be  hunted  on 
horseback.  With  dogs,  however,  they  afford  excellent  sport;  and  Mr.  Drummond 
gives  the  following  graphic  account  of  two  bull  kudus  brought  to  bay  by  a  pack  of 
Kaffir  dogs.  "  My  eyes,"  writes  Mr.  Drummond,  "were  fixed  upon  the  river,  for 
there,  on  a  small  sandbank,  stood  the  two  noble  kudus  bulls  at  bay.  Two  or  three 
dogs  had  also  gained  a  footing,  and  made  the  air  ring  with  their  sharp  barking, 
re-echoed  back  again  and  again  by  the  precipice  on  which  I  stood;  while  several  more 


HEAD.  OF   KUDU. 
(After  Nicolls  and  Eglington.) 


Habits 


MALE    AND    FEMALE    KUDU. 


(861) 


862  THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 

swam  about  trying  to  stem  the  current  and  regain  the  ground  which  they  had  lost. 
One  of  the  antelopes  stood  with  lowered  head,  and  his  long  circling  horns  pointed 
toward  the  dogs,  and  in  his  side  I  now  saw  that  a  spear  was  half  buried;  the  other, 
evidently  unwounded  but  unwilling  to  leave  its  companion,  remained  motionless,  his 
nostrils  thrown  forward,  as  if  to  catch  the  first  taint  of  the  human  pursuers  sure  to 
follow  in  their  dogs'  wake,  and  his  equally  magnificent  horns  resting  almost  on  his 

haunches. ' ' 

The  lesser  kudu  (S.  imberbis)  is  a  much  smaller  animal,  apparently 
Lesser  Kudu  restricted  to  Somaliland  and  the  Kilima-Njaro  district.  In  addition 
to  its  inferior  dimensions,  this  species  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  fringe  of 
long  hair  down  the  throat,  and  by  the  more  compressed  spiral  of  its  horns.  Meas- 
ured in  a  straight  line,  the  horns  vary  from  about  seventeen  to  twenty-five  inches 
in  length.  The  lesser  kudu,  although  very  common  about  Kilima-Njaro,  is  but 
seldom  seen,  as  it  rarely  leaves  the  bush.  In  Somaliland  Captain  Swayne  states  that 
while  the  large  kudu  frequents  the  mountain  ranges,  the  present  species  inhabits  the 
thicket-clad  slopes  at  their  feet. 

An  imperfect  skull  appears  to  indicate  the  occurrence  of  a  kudu  in  India  during 
the  Pliocene  period. 

THE  HARNESSED  ANTELOPES 
Genus   Tragelaphus 

The  harnessed  antelopes,  or  bush  bucks,  of  which  five  species  are  now  recog- 
nized, come  so  close  to  the  kudus  that  it  may  be  a  question  whether  they  ought  not 
to  be  included  in  the  same  genus.  They  are,  perhaps,  the  handsomest  of  all  the 
antelopes,  being  generally  ornamented  with  vertical  stripes  like  the  kudus,  while  in 
some  cases  the  ground  color  is  of  a  most  brilliant  hue.  The  harnessed  antelopes 
resemble  kudus  in  the  females  being  hornless;  but  they  differ  in  that  the  horns, 
which  are  placed  behind  the  eyes,  have  but  one  or  two  turns  to  the  spiral,  while  the 
ridge  on  their  front  surface  is  less  strongly  marked.  Moreover,  the  skull  generally 
lacks  the  deep  depression  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead  characteristic  of  the  kudus, 
and  the  vacuity  below  the  eye  is  of  smaller  size.  The  throat  may  be  either  fringed 
or  smooth;  and  in  some  species  the  hoofs  are  extraordinarily  elongated.  The  col- 
oration of  the  two  sexes  is  usually  very  different.  The'  group  is  confined  to  Africa, 
and  whereas  four  of  the  species  are  of  large  size,  the  fifth  does  not  exceed  the 
dimensions  of  an  ordinary  goat. 

The  largest  of  all  is  the  West- African  bongo  (  Tragelaphus  euryceros~) 
from  Liberia,  Fanti,  the  Ashkankolu  mountains,  and  the  Gabun.  It 
has  short  hoofs,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  short  hair,  the  deep  chestnut  color  of 
the  males,  the  numerous  and  distinct  narrow  white  stripes,  the  want  of  a  fringe  on 
the  throat,  and  the  smooth  and  massive  horns,  forming  rather  more  thau  a  single 
turn,  and  wearing  yellow  at  their  tips.  The  chest  is  marked  by  a  white  crescent, 
and  there  are  two  white  spots  on  the  face  below  the  eye.  The  males  attain  a  height 
of  three  feet  seven  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  the  horns  may  reach  a  length  of 
thirty  or  thirty-one  and  one-half  inches  in  a  straight  line.  We  have  practically  no 


THE   HARNESSED  ANTELOPES 


863 


knowledge  of  the  habits  of  this  species,  except  that,  like  the  rest,  it  is  a  forest- 
dwelling  one. 

In  East  Africa,  in  Zululand,  and  St.  Lucia  bay,  the  bongo  is  re- 
placed by  the  nyala  (  T.  angasi).  The  males  stand  about  three  feet 
four  inches  at  the  withers,  and  have  horns  varying  from  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
eight  inches  in  length.  The  hair  is  long,  and  the  general  color  of  the  males  dark 
bluish  gray,  with  the  white  stripes  faintly  marked  and  few  in  number,  and  a  fringe 
of  long  hair  on  the  neck  and  under  parts  of  the  body.  The  horns  are  characterized 
by  their  rough  surface.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  these  antelopes  are  only  to  be 
found  in  low-lying,  fever-stricken  swamps,  where  they  frequent  the  densest  jungle 
they  can  find.  They  are  shy  and  difficult  to  stalk;  and  from  this  circumstance, 
coupled  with  the  feverish  nature  of  their  haunts,  comparatively  few  are  killed  by 
Europeans.  The  ground  color  of  the  female's  fur  is  reddish. 

The   third   species  is   the   West -African  harnessed   antelope    (T. 
West-African 

Harnessed  gratus} ,    from   the   Camerun   mountains  and  the    Gabun  district   of 

Antelope  which  the  head  is  figured  in  the  accompanying  cut.  This  antelope 
agrees  with  the  last  in  having  white 
spots  on  the  head  and  stripes  on 
the  body,  but  differs  from  all 
those  yet  noticed  in  the  extreme 
elongation  of  the  main  hoofs,  which 
are  evidently  specially  adapted  for 
walking  on  swampy  ground.  The 
lateral  hoofs,  moreover,  which  in 
most  of  the  foregoing  species  are 
extremely  small,  are  in  this  ante- 
lope large  and  elongated.  The 
male  stands  about  three  and  one- 
half  feet  at  the  shoulder;  and  is 
characterized  by  the  absence  of  a 
fringe  of  long  hair  on  the  throat, 
and  the  dark  olive  tint  of  the  coat. 
In  the  female  the  ground  color  of 
the  fur  is  bright  rufous,  orna- 
mented, as  in  the  male,  with  white 
spots  on  the  face  and  stripes  on  the 
body.  The  horns  of  the  male  are 
generally  about  eighteen  or  nine- 
teen inches  in  length,  measured  in  a 
straight  line.  Little  or  nothing  ap- 
pears to  be  known  as  to  the  habits 
of  this  species  in  its  wild  state,  but 
several  examples  have  been  exhi- 
bited in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at 
Amsterdam,  where  they  have  bred. 


HEAD    OF    \VFST-AFRIC.\N     HARXKSSRD    ANTELOPE. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc..  1883.) 


864 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


The  last  of  the  four  large  species  of  harnessed  antelopes  is  the 
nakong  or  sititunga  (  T.  spekei)  of  the  swamps  of  Central  and  South- 
Central,  and  East  Africa.  This  species,  while  agreeing  with  the  last  in  its  elongated 
hoofs,  differs  from  all  those  yet  noticed  in  its  perfectly  uniform  grayish-brown  color. 
The  young  are,  however,  faintly  striped  and  spotted.  The  hair  is  longer  and  more 
silky  than  that  of  the  others;  and  the  smooth,  slender,  and  strongly-ridged 
horns  form  nearly  two  complete  turns,  and  thus  approximate  to  those  of  the 
kudus.  The  height  of  the  male  is  three  feet  seven  inches.  Mr.  Selous  states  that 
the  longest  horns  he  met  with  measured  twenty-five  inches  in  a  straight  line,  but  a 


MALE    AND    FEMALE    GUIB. 
.      (One-fourteenth  natural  size.) 

pair  of  twenty-seven  inches  has  been  subsequently  recorded.     Like  the  other  mem- 

bers  of  the  genus,  the  nakong  goes  in  pairs,  and  is  never  found  in  herds      Mr 

lous  observes  that  he  once  saw  a  female  nakong  "standing  breast  deep  in  the 

water,  m  the  midst  of  a  bed  of  reeds,  feeding  on  the  young  shoots  that  just  appeared 

xm i  the  water.     When  she  saw  us,  she  at  once  made  off,  making  a  tremendous 

splashing  as  she  plunged  through  the  water.     The  natives  told  me  that  very  often 

those  antelopes  are  met  with  under  similar  circumstances  they  do  not  attempt 

un,  but,  sinking  down  in  the  water,  submerge  their  whole  bodies,  leaving  only 

their  nostrils  above  the  surface,   and  trusting  that  their  enemies  will  pass  them 


THE  NYLGHAU  865 

Srx 
unobserved.     They  (the  Kaffirs)  then  paddle  alongside,  and  assagai  them  from  the 

canoe.  Another  way  the  natives  have  of  killing  them  is  by  setting  fire  to  the  reeds 
when  they  become  quite  dry,  and  then  waiting  for  the  sititunga  in  their  canoes  in 
one  of  the  channels  of  open  water  by  which  the  marsh  is  intersected."  Further  up 
the  Chobe  river  it  is  stated  that  these  antelopes  are  in  the  habit  of  diving,  and  even 
sleeping  beneath  the  water  with  only  their  nostrils  exposed. 

,,  ..  The  guib  (  T.  scriptus}  is  the  last  representative  of  the  harnessed  an- 

telopes, and  differs  from  all  the  others  by  its  inferior  size,  being  about 
equal  in  dimensions  to  an  ordinary  goat.  The  average  length  of  the  horns  is  about 
twelve  inches,  but  specimens  of  fourteen  inches  and  one  of  sixteen  and  one-fourth 
inches  have  been  recorded.  This  species  has  a  wide  distribution,  ranging  from 
Abyssinia  to  the  Cape;  and  it  exhibits  such  variations  in  color  that  it  was  originally 
split  up  into  four  distinct  species,  now  regarded  as  varieties.  In  the  Abyssinian 
variety,  which  is  shorter  and  stouter  than  the  others,  the  general  color  is  yellowish, 
and  the  stripes  are  nearly  obsolete;  but  there  is  one  distinct  longitudinal  band,  some- 
times broken  into  spots,  and  the  haunches  are  spotted,  while  the  back  has  a  dark  line. 
In  the  typical  variety,  from  West,  Central,  and  South- Central  Africa  (which  is  the 
one  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  864),  the  color  is  bright  rufous,  brilliantly 
marked  all  over  the  body  with  white  spots  and  longitudinal  and  vertical  stripes.  In 
the  males  the  line  down  the  middle  of  the  back  is  white;  and  the  chest  has  a  fringe 
of  blackish  hair.  In  East  Africa  we  come  across  a  third  variety  in  wrhich  the  gen- 
eral color  of  the  bucks  is  dark  brown,  with  two  or  three  obscure  vertical  stripes  on 
the  hind -quarters,  and  even  these  occasionally  absent.  The  spots  are  variable, 
although  less  numerous  than  in  the  preceding  variety.  Lastty,  we  have  the  true 
bush  buck  of  the  Cape;  in  which  the  coloration  is  of  a  uniform  dark  brown  at  all 
ages,  with  no  trace  of  stripes,  and  the  spots  reduced-  to  a  few  indistinct  ones  on  the 
haunches. 

Guib,  or  bush  buck,  are  very  common  in  most  parts  of  Africa.     Writing  of  this 
species,  Mr.  Selous  says  that  it  is  "  never  met  with  except  in  places  where  dense 
bush  comes  right  down  to  the  water's  edge;  and  on  the  Chobe,  where  I  have  seen 
most  of  these  antelopes,  I  have  never  found  one  at  a  distance  of  more  than  a  hun- 
dred yards  from  the  river. ' ' 

Species          Remains  of  antelopes  more  or  less  nearly  allied  to  Tragelaphus  are 
common  in  the  Tertiaries  of  Europe,  as  far  down  as  the  middle  Miocene, 
so  that  the  group  is  evidently  a  very  old  one. 

THE  NYLGHAU 
Genus   Boselaphus 

The  nylghau  (Boselaphus  tragocamelus}  which  is  the  largest  of  the  Indian  ante- 
lopes, appears  to  be  the  Oriental  representative  of  the  group  of  African  species  described 
above,  although  it  differs  from  them  in  several  important  structural  features.  The 
males  only  are  horned,  and  the  horns  themselves  are  short,  smooth,  nearly  straight, 
and  direct  upward  and  backward,  with  a  triangular  section  at  the  base,  but  becoming 
55 


866 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


cylindrical  at  the  tip.  In  front  the  horns  have  a  distinct  ridge,  comparable  to 
that  found  in  those  of  the  eland,  and  in  very  old  individuals  this  ridge  extends  for- 
ward and  inward,  till  the  horns  almost  touch  at  their  bases.  The  nylghau  is  pecul- 
iar in  having  the  fore-limbs  longer  than  the  hinder,  and  the  withers  very  high,  in 
consequence  of  which  its  whole  appearance  is  somewhat  ungainly.  The  tail  is 
tufted,  and  reaches  the  hocks;  and  in  both  sexes  the  neck  is  maned,  while  the  throat 
of  the  male  has  a  small  tuft  of  hair.  The  gland  below  the  eye  is  very  small  and  the 


THE   NYLGHAU. 

(One-nineteenth  natural  size.) 

muzzle  naked.  The  upper  molar  teeth  (one  of  which  is  figured  on  p.  745)  differ 
from  those  of  the  foregoing  species  by  their  tall  crowns,  with  a  large  additional 
column  on  the  inner  side.  In  general  color  the  adult  bull  nylghau  is  dark  gray, 
with  either  a  brownish  or  bluish  tinge.  The  long  hairs  on  the  neck,  throat,  and 
tail,  and  some  portions  of  the  ear,  are,  however,  black;  and  there  are  white  markings 
on  the  face,  ears,  and  throat,  while  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  the  under  parts  of 
the  body,  and  a  ring  above  and  below  each  fetlock  are  likewise  white.  In  young 
males  and  females  the  color  is  brown.  A  bull  nylghau  usually  stands  from  four  feet 


THE   ADDAX  867 

four  inches  to  four  feet  eight  inches  at  the  withers,  but  it  is  stated  that  four  feet  ten 
inches  has  been  measured.  The  cows  are  much  smaller.  The  black  horns  average 
eight  or  nine  inches  in  length,  with  a  basal  girth  of  eight  inches;  but  one  pair  has 
been  recorded  with  a  length  of  eleven  and  three-fourths,  and  a  girth  of  nine  and 
one-half  inches. 

The  nylghau  is  exclusively  an  Indian  animal,  being  quite  unknown 

in  Ceylon.  Even  in  India  its  distribution  is  restricted,  as  it  does  not 
occur  in  Eastern  Bengal,  Assam  nor,  apparently,  near  the  Malabar  coast.  Fossil 
species  occur  in  the  river-gravels  of  Central  India,  and  also  in  the  Pliocene  sand- 
stones of  the  Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas. 

Nylghau  may  be  found  either  on  the  plains  or  in  low  hills,  generally 

preferring  ground  covered  with  thin  bush,  among  which  are  scattered 
low  trees,  or  alternations  of  scrub  jungle  with  open  grassy  plains.  They  are  but 
seldom  met  with  in  thick  forests,  although  far  from  unfrequent  on  cultivated  grounds. 
The  bulls  are  generally  solitary,  but  occasionally  assemble  in  small  parties,  which, 
according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  may  include  as  many  as  a  dozen  head.  The  females  and 
calves  are  generally  found  in  parties  of  from  four  to  ten,  but  sometimes  in  herds  of 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  or  more,  and  they  are  on  some  occasions  accompanied  by  one 
or  more  full-grown  bulls.  Nylghau  both  graze  and  browse,  and  will  feed  at  any  time 
of  the  day  although  they  resort  sometimes  to  the  shade  for  repose.  Mr.  Blanford  be- 
lieves that,  in  the  cold  season,  at  least,  they  drink  but  once  in  two  or  three  days. 
General  Kinloch  writes  that  "  in  places  where  they  are  not  disturbed,  especially  in 
some  of  the  native  states,  nylghau  are  absurdly  tame,  but  in  districts  where  they 
are  much  molested  they  become  extremely  shy  and  wary.  It  must  not,  therefore, 
be  supposed  that  they  can  always  be  easily  shot,  but  they  afford  such  a  poor  trophy 
that  they  are  not  much  sought  after.  When  they  can  be  found  sufficiently  far  from 
thick  cover  they  may  be  speared,  and  they  then  show  capital  sport,  as  they  will 
probably  lead  a  well-mounted  horseman  a  chase  of  several  miles.  On  hard  ground 
I  doubt  if  a  cow  nylghau  could  be  speared  by  a  solitary  hunter;  the  bull,  being  much 
heavier,  is  more  easily  ridden  down."  They  can  be  readily  tamed,  but  the  bulls  are 
apt  to  be  savage.  Either  one  or  two"  young  are  produced  at  a  birth. 


THE  ADDAX 
Genus  Addax 

With  the  addax  {Addax  nasomaculatus]  we  come  to  a  group  of  African  and 
Arabian  antelopes  of  large  size,  including  the  genera  Addax,  Oryx,  and  Hippotragus, 
which  present  the  following  distinctive  characteristics.  They  have  long  cylindrical 
horns  in  both  sexes,  which  are  placed  over  or  above  the  eyes,  and  are  either  sub- 
spiral,  straight,  or  recurved.  The  muzzle  is  covered  with  hair,  and  there  is  no 
gland  below  the  eye;  while  the  skull  has  no  depression  below  the  socket  of  the  eye, 
and  but  a  very  narrow  unossified  space  in  the  same  region.  The  tail  is  long  and 
tufted,  and  the  upper  molar  teeth  resemble  those  of  the  oxen,  having  very  tall  and 


868 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


broad  crowns,  with  a  large  additional  column  on  the  inner  side.  It  is  probable  that 
this  group  is  very  closely  related  to  the  oxen,  and  all  the  members  are  desert- 
haunting  animals. 

The  addax,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  North  Africa  and  Arabia,  has  the  horns 
ringed  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length,  and  ascending  in  an  open  spiral  nearly  in 
the  plane  of  the  face.  In  height  this  antelope  stands  a  little  over  three  feet,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  body  is  covered  with  short  and  thick  hair.  There  is,  however,  a 
tuft  of  long  hair  on  the  forehead  and  a  mane  extending  down  the  neck  to  the  shoul- 
ders, and  also  a  fringe  of  long  hair  on  the  throat.  The  general  color  is  yellowish 
white,  in  marked  contrast  to  which  is  the  brown  of  the  head,  neck,  and  mane. 


THE;  ADDAX. 
(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

There  is  a  transverse  white  band  below  the  eyes,  while  the  lips  and  a  spot  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  ears  are  also  white.  In  the  males  the  long  hair  is  more  abun- 
dant and  darker  in  color  than  in  the  other  sex,  and  during  the  winter  the  yellowish 
white  of  the  body  tends  to  gray.  The  horns  attain  a  length  of  from  twenty  to 
twenty-eight  inches  in  a  straight  line,  and  from  twenty-six  to  thirty-five  and  three- 
fourths  along  the  spiral. 

Distribution          The  range  °f  the  addax  in  Africa  lies  to  the  northward  of  the  eight- 
and  Habits  eenth  Parallel  of  north  latitude,  and,  like  the  gemsbok,  the  animal  in- 
habits barren,  sandy  deserts,  where  water  is  scarce.     It  is  a  shy  and 
wary  creature,  and  is  doubtless  able  to  go  for  long  periods  without  slaking  its  thirst. 


THE   ORYX  869 

r'"' 

Our  accounts  of  its  habits  are  far  from  full,  but  its  general  mode  of  life  is  probably 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  gemsbok.  The  addax  is  hunted  by  the  Bedouins,  partly 
for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  partly  in  order  to  capture  the  young,  and  also  to  test  the 
speed  of  their  horses  and  greyhounds.  Large  hunting  parties  are  assembled  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  expeditions  may  last  for  several  weeks.  The  skeleton  of  the  addax 
is  figured  on  p.  856. 

ORYX 
Genus  Oryx 

Under  the  title  of  oryx  may  be  included  five  species  of  antelope,  distinguished 
from  the  addax  by  their  straight  or  recurved  horns,  their  longer  and  more  bushy 
tails,  the  small  size  of  the  mane  on  the  neck,  and  by  the  throat  being  either  short 
haired  or  furnished  with  a  single  tuft  of  long  hair.  The  horns,  which  are  of  great 
length,  slope  backward  more  or  less  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  face.  Oryx  are  found 
throughout  the  desert  regions  of  Africa,  and  also  range  into  Arabia  and  Syria. 

Commencing  with  South  Africa,  we  find  the  group  represented  by 

the  gemsbok  (Oryx  gazella),  characterized  by  its  long  straight  horns, 
ringed  for  about  half  their  length,  the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  throat,  and  the  black 
markings  on  the  head,  body,  and  limbs.  The  gemsbok  stands  about  four  feet  in 
height,  and  its  general  color  is  grayish,  becoming  white  beneath.  A  black  stripe  on 
the  flanks  divides  the  gray  of  the  sides  from  the  white  below,  and  there  is  also  a 
black  area  on  the  haunches  extending  as  a  line  on  the  back,  and  continued  over  the 
whole  of  the  tail.  In  addition  to  this,  there  is  also  black  on  the  upper  parts  of  the 
limbs,  on  the  front  of  the  legs  above  the  fetlocks,  and  along  the  throat;  the  throat 
stripe  dividing  and  running  up 
the  sides  of  the  head  nearly  to 
the  ears.  On  the  face  a  black 
stripe  runs  from  each  horn 
through  the  eye  nearly  to  the 
muzzle,  wrhich  is  connected  by  a 
narrow  stripe  with  a  broad  black 
patch  on  the  centre  of  the  fore- 
head, thus  completely  isolating 

the   white   of    the   muzzle   from  HEAD  OF  GEMSBOK. 

that  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face. 
Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  longest  male  horns  of  this  species  which  he  saw  measured 
forty-two  inches  in  length,  while  those  of  the  female  may  reach  forty-six  and  one- 
half  inches.  Horns  have,  however,  been  recorded  measuring  forty-seven  and  one- 
half  inches. 

Gemsbok  inhabit  the  desert  regions  of  Southwestern  Africa,  and  are 

_.MI  r_.-_i__  common  jn  tjje  Kalahari  desert,  while  in  Damaraland  they 


are  reported  to  occur  in  large  herds;  north  of  the  Chobe  river  they 
appear  to  be  unknown.  On  the  West  Coast  they  occur  in  Senegambia,  Timbuktu, 
and  the  Niger  district.  Mr.  Selous  says  that  they  are  generally  met  with  where  the 


87o  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

country  is  either  completely  open  or  covered  with  stunted  scrub.  Gordon  Gumming 
writes  that  the  gemsbok  "thrives  and  attains  high  condition  in  barren  regions  where 
it  might  be  imagined  that  a  locust  would  not  find  subsistence;  and,  burning  as  is 
the  climate,  it  is  perfectly  independent  of  water.which,  from  my  own  observation  and 
the  repeated  reports  both  of  the  Boers  and  Aborigines,  I  am  convinced  it  never  by 
any  chance  tastes.  Its  flesh  is  deservedly  esteemed,  and  ranks  next  to  the  eland." 


THE    BEISA. 

(One-sixteenth   natural   size.) 

Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  gemsbok  is  by  no  means  fleet,  and  that  it  can  be  run  to  a 
standstill  by  a  hunter  on  foot.  According  to  Boer  reports,  the  gemsbok  is  enabled 
to  beat  off  the  lion  with  its  spear-like  horns;  and  several  instances  are  recorded 
where  the  skeletons  of  the  two  animals  have  been  found  together,  the  body  of  the 
lion  having  been  transfixed  by  the  horns  of  the  antelope,  which  remained  too  firmly 
fixed  in  the  flesh  to  admit  of  their  withdrawal  during  life. 


THE    ORYX 


871 


Beisa 


In  Abyssinia  and  Somaliland  as  well  as  on  trie  Red  Sea  littoral  near 
Suakin,  the  gemsbok  is  replaced  by  the  beisa  (O.  beisa),  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  absence  of  the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  throat,  and  by  the  black  patch 
on  the  front  of  the  face  being  completely  separated  from  the  stripe  running  through 
the  eye.  There  is  no  black  on  the  haunches  and  thighs,  and  the  horns  also  are 
shorter  and  less  divergent,  their  maximum  recorded  length  being  thirty-six  inches  in 
the  male  and  thirty-seven  inches  in  the  female.  The  beisa  is  probably  the  true  oryx 
of  the  ancients,  and  may  be  the  animal  which  gave  rise  to  the  legend  of  the  unicorn. 


THE    SABRE-HORNED    ANTELOPE. 
(One-tenth  natural  size.) 

Mr.  Blanford  says  that  in  Abyssinia  these  animals  are  found  in  herds  of  considera- 
ble size,  when  they  present  an  imposing  appearance.  Their  favorite  pace  is  a  quick 
walk  or  trot,  and  they  only  break  into  a  gallop  when  frightened.  At  such  times 
they  dash  off  with  lowered  heads  and  upraised  tails,  at  the  same  time  puffing  and 
snorting.  In  Somaliland  the  beisa,  according  to  Captain  Swayne,  chiefly  frequents 
open  stony  grounds  or  grassy  plains,  but  it  may  be  found  in  any  kind  of  country  ex- 
cept thick  jungle  or  the  cedar  forests.  The  herds  are  chiefly  composed  of  cows,  the 


872  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

bulls  wandering  about  by  themselves.  The  Midgans  of  Somaliland  hunt  the  beisa 
with  packs  of  yellow  pariah  dogs.  One  of  the  largest  pair  of  horns  measured  thirty- 
four  and  one-half  inches  in  length. 

In  the  Kilima-Njaro  district  the  genus  is  represented  by  the  fringe- 
Fringe-Eared  eared  oryx  ^  Q  cauotis} }  distinguished  from  the  beisa  by  the  ground 
DryX  color  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face  being  of  a  rich  fawn,  and  by  the 
sharply-pointed  ears  terminating  in  a  tuft  of  long  black  hair,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration on  p.  874.  This  species  is  common  in  the  plains  and  the  tracts  of  thin 
thorny  bush.  In  examples  killed  by  Sir.  J.  Willoughby  the  horns  in  the  females 
measured  from  thirty  to  thirty-two  inches  in  length,  while  those  of  the  males  were 
shorter,  but  thicker. 

The  beatrix  antelope   (O.  beatrix],  of  Western  Arabia,  and,  it  is 

said,  of  the  Bushire  district,  is  a  much  smaller  animal  than  either  of 

the  above,  standing  about  two  feet  eight  inches  in  height,  and  is  of  a 

whitish  color,  with  a  dark  spot  on  the  face,  and  a  large  dark  patch  on  each  cheek 

meeting  beneath  the  throat;  the  knees  and  the  front  of  the  lower  part  of  both  legs. 

are  also  blackish  brown,  and  the  end  of  the  tail  is  black.     The  horns  are  only  about 

fifteen  inches  in  length. 

The  last  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  sabre-horned  antelope,  or 
leucoryx  (O.  leucoryx},  which,  while  agreeing  nearly  in  size  with  the 
beisa,  differs  from  the  other  four  species  in  its  recurved  scimiter-like 
horns,  and  uniform  whitish  coloration,  which  frequently  shows  a  reddish  tinge.  The 
reddish  tinge  is  more  marked  in  the  under  parts  and  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs 
than  elsewhere,  and  the  neck  is  darker  than  the  body.  The  head  is  marked  by  six 
brown  patches,  of  which  there  are  one  between  the  horns,  two  between  the  ears, 
and  two  between  the  horns  and  eyes,  while  the  sixth  forms  a  streak  on  the  nose. 
The  horns  vary  from  thirty-four  to  thirty-nine  and  one-half  inches  in  length.  The 
leucoryx  is  confined  to  the  northeastern  portion  of  Central  Africa,  being  abundant 
in  Sennar  and  Kordofan,  less  common  in  the  Central- Western  Sudan,  and  also  oc- 
curring in  parts  of  Nubia. 

In  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  various  parts  of  Europe,  there  occur  re- 
Extinct  Forms       .        . 

mains  or  antelopes  closely  allied  to  the  oryx,  some  of  which  have  been 

generically  separated  under  the  name  of  Paleeoreas,  and  are  said  to  show  signs  of 
affinity  with  the  sable  antelope  and  its  kindred. 

THE  SABLE  ANTELOPE  AND  ROAN  ANTELOPE 
Genus  Hippotragus 

The  sable  and  roan  antelopes,  together  with  some  allied  species,  constitute  an  ex- 
clusively African  genus  nearly  allied  to  the  oryx.  They  are  distinguished  by  the 
stout  horns,  which  are  ringed  nearly  to  their  tips,  rising  vertically  from  a  ridge  on 
the  skull  immediately  over  the  eyes  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  the  plane  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  face,  and  then  curving  in  a  bold  sweep  backward.  The  neck  is  clothed 
with  a  distinct,  erect,  and  often-recurving  mane,  the  tail  is  rather  short  and  dis- 


THE   SABLE  ANTELOPE  AND  ROAN  ANTELOPE  87$ 

The  horns  of  the  females  are  shorter 


tinctly  tufted,  and  the  ears  are  enormous, 
than  those  of  the  males. 

The  roan  or  equine  antelope   (Hippotragus  equinus]  —  the  bastard 
gemsbok  of  the  Boers  —  is  represented  in  the  right-hand  figure  of  the 
accompanying   illustration,   and   is  the  largest  and  one  of  the   best-known  repre- 


Roan  Antelope 


THE  SABLE  ANTELOPE    AND  THE  ROAN   ANTELOPE. 
(  One-twentieth  natural  size. ) 

sentatives  of  the  genus,  standing  rather  over  four  and  one-half  feet  at  the  withers. 
There  is  considerable  individual  variation  in  color,  some  specimens,  according  to- 
Mr.  Selous,  being  of  a  strawberry  roan,  others  of  a  deep  dark  gray  or  brown,  and 
others  again  so  light  in  color  as  to  appear  almost  white  at  a  distance.  The  undei 
parts  are  but  little  lighter  than  the  body,  while  the  head  and  jaw  have  dark  brown 


874  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

markings.  The  latter  markings  are  characterized  by  the  white  streak  in  front  of 
the  eye  being  separated  by  a  dark  band  from  the  white  of  the  muzzle.  The  ears  are 
very  large,  and  the  mane  small  and  erect.  The  horns  of  the  bull  seldom  exceed 
thirty-six  inches  in  length,  measured  along  the  curve,  but  specimens  measuring 
thirty-three  and  forty-two  inches  have  been  recorded.  This  species  has  a  large  range 


FRINGE-EARED    ORYX. 


SABLE   ANTELOPE. 


ROAN   ANTELOPE. 


in  central  South  Africa,  and  has  also  been  recorded  from  Senegal.     Mr.  Selous  states 

that  it  is  nowhere  numerous,  and  it  is  seldom  that  as  many  as  twenty  are  seen  together. 

The  blaubok  (H.  leucophceus]  was  a  smaller  but  nearly-allied  species 

from  the  Cape,  which  now  appears  to  be  extinct.     It  derived  its  Dutch 

name  from  the  bluish  hue  of  the  hairs,  and  its  head  was  uniformly  colored. 


THE  SABLE  ANTELOPE  AND  ROAN  ANTELOPE  875 

c^ 
Perhaps  the  handsomest  member  of  the  genus  is  the  sable  antelope 

?e  (H.  niger),  represented  in  the  left-hand  figure  of  the  cut  on  p.  873. 
This  species  is  rather  smaller  than  the  roan  antelope,  but  has  much  longer  horns, 
smaller  ears,  and  a  longer  and  more  abundant  mane,  which  is  partly  pendent.  With 
the  exception  of  portions  of  the  face,  buttocks,  and  the  under  parts,  the  fur  is  en- 
tirely of  a  deep  glossy  black ;  the  contrast  formed  by  the  white  of  the  under  parts 
being  very  striking;  the  markings  on  the  face  differ  from  those  of  the  roan 
antelope  in  that  the  white  streak  in  front  of  the  eyes  is  continued  to  join  the 
white  of  the  muzzle,  and  is  separated  by  a  dark  streak  from  that  of  the  throat. 
The  horns  of  the  males  not  unfrequently  attain  a  length  of  forty-two  or 
forty-three  inches,  but  they  may  reach  as  much  as  forty-four  and  one-half  or 
even  forty-six  inches  along  the  curve.  In  the  females  thirty-six  inches  seems  to 
be  the  maximum. 

The  sable  antelope  is  a  southern  species,  ranging  some  distance  to  the 

north  of  the  Zambezi,  and  being  now  most  abundant  in  Mashonaland. 
and  Habits 

This  antelope,  unlike  the  various  species  of  oryx,  generally  frequents 

forest-clad  highlands.  In  Mashonaland,  according  to  Mr.  Selous,  it  is  commonly 
met  with  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  twenty  individuals,  although  occasionally  as  many 
as  fifty  may  be  seen  together.  The  same  writer  observes  that,  "  as  a  rule,  the  sable 
antelope  runs  very  swiftly  and  has  good  bottom;  but  in  this  respect  different  indi- 
viduals differ  considerably,  as  is  the  case  with  all  animals,  and  I  have  run  down 
without  much  difficulty  individual  sable  antelopes  and  roan  antelopes,  and  one 
gemsbok,  while  others  have  gone  entirely  away  from  me.  The  sable  antelope 
is  often  very  savage  when  wounded,  and,  like  the  roan  antelope  and  gemsbok, 
will  commit  terrible  havoc  among  a  pack  of  dogs.  Indeed,  I  have  known  one 
to  kill  three  dogs  with  three  consecutive  sweeps  of  its  long  scimiter-shaped 
horns."  As  mentioned  on  p.  578  in  the  first  volume,  the  sable  antelope  is  some- 
times successfully  chased  by  the  Cape  hunting-dog.  From  having  been  dis- 
covered by  Sir  C.  Harris,  it  is  frequently  termed  the  Harris  buck  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Cape. 

All  who  have  seen  this  antelope  in  its  native  wilds  seem  to  be  impressed  with 
its  beauty  and  majestic  appearance.  Gordon  Cumming,  writing  of  his  first  sight  of 
the  sable  antelope,  says,  that  "  I  shall  never  forget  the  sensation  I  experienced  on 
beholding  a  sight  so  thrilling  to  the  sportsman's  eye;  he  stood  with  a  small  troop  of 
palas  right  in  our  path,  and  had,  unfortunately,  detected  us  before  we  saw  him. 
Shouting  to  my  pack,  I  galloped  after  him,  but  the  day  was  close  and  warm,  and  the 
dogs  had  lost  their  spirit.  My  horse  being  an  indifferent  one  soon  lost  ground,  and 
the  beautiful  creature,  gaining  a  rocky  ridge,  was  quickly  beyond  my  reach,  and 
vanished  for  ever  from  my  view.  I  sought  in  vain  to  close  my  eyelids  that  night, 
for  the  image  of  the  sable  antelope  was  still  before  me. ' ' 

Baker's  Ante        *n  the  Sudan  tne  genus  is  represented  by    Baker's    antelope   (H. 
lope  bakcri) ,  standing  upward  of  four  feet  eight  inches  at  the  withers,  and 

distinguished  by  its  pale  liver-colored,  penciled  ears,  and  some  black 
stripes  across  the  shoulders.     Its  horns  are  of  a  massive  type. 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Fossil  antelopes  from  the  Pliocene  deposits  at  the  foot  of  the  Him- 
"species      alayas  indicate  the  existence  of  the  genus  Hippotragus  at  a  former 
period  of  the  earth's  history  i'n  India,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it 
was  also  represented  in  Europe  during  the  same  epoch. 


Extinct 


HEAD    OF    SABI.E    ANTELOPE. 
(After  Nicolls  and  Eglington.) 


UJ 

_J 
_J 

UJ 
M 

CD 
CD 

CJ 

cr 
a 
CD 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  UNGULATES — continued 


THE    HOLLOW-HORNED   RUMINANTS  —  continued 
THE   GAZELLES  —  Genus  Gazella 


A  "TREK"  OF  SPRINGBOK. 


THE  large  and  extensive  group 
of  antelopes  known  as  gazelles  brings 
us  to  the  first  of  an  assemblage  of 
several  widely-spread  genera,  differ- 
ing considerably  from  those  yet 
noticed.  Most  of  these  antelopes 
are  of  small  or  moderate  size,  and  the  majority  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  the 
deserts  of  the  Old  World.  The  whole  of  them  have  narrow  upper  molar  teeth  like 
sheep,  and  their  muzzles  are  similarly  covered  with  hair.  There  is  very  frequently 
a  gland  below  the  eye,  and  the  tail  is  either  short  or  of  moderate  length.  As  a  rule, 
the  horns  are  compressed  and  lyrate  or  recurved,  or  cylindrical  and  spiral,  with  dis- 
tinct rings  for  a  considerable  portion  of  their  length.  The  skull  has  large  pits  in  the 
forehead. 

The  gazelles  are  among  the  most  elegant  of  all  antelopes,  and  are  characterized 
by  their  sandy  color  and  the  presence  of  a  white  streak  on  the  side  of  the  face  from 
the  base  of  the  horn  nearly  to  the  nose,  thus  cutting  off  a  dark  triangular  patch  in 

(877) 


8;8 


THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


or 


the  middle  of  the  forehead,  while  the  streak  itself  is  bordered  externally  by  a 
diffused  dark  line.*  The  horns,  which  are  generally  present  in  both  sexes,  are  lyrate 
recurved  and  are  compressed,  oval  in  section,  and  completely  ringed  throughout 

trie  greater  part  of  their  length. 
The  knees  are  generally  furnished 
with  tufts  of  hair.  Glands  are 
present  in  the  feet,  and  the  gland 
below  the  eye,  if  present,  is  small 
and  covered  with  hair.  Most  of  the 
gazelles  do  not  exceed  thirty  inches 
in  height,  although  the  mohr 
reaches  thirty-six  inches.  There 
are  about  twenty -one  living  species 
belonging  to  the  genus  Gazella, 
which  are  mainly  found  in  the  des- 
erts of  Asia  and  North  Africa, 
although  the  group  is  represented 
in  South  Africa  by  the  springbok. 
Two  of  the  Asiatic  species  are  found 
at  great  elevations.  Several  species 
of  fossil  gazelles  occur  in  the  Pleis- 
tocene and  Pliocene  deposits  of  both 
Europe  and  India. 

The  existing  gazelles  may  be 
divided  into  several  groups  accord- 
ing to  coloration  and  the  presence 
or  absence  of  horns  in  the  females, 
and,  since  the  species  are  so  num- 
erous, we  shall  content  ourselves 
with  selecting  one  from  each  group 
for  special  notice. 
Our  first  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  South- African  springbok 
( Gazella  euchore) ,  which  differs  from  all  the  other  species  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  stripe  of  long  white  erectile  hairs  running  down  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  also  by  having  only  two  premolar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw.  Both  sexes  are  horned. 
In  height  the  springbok  stands  about  thirty  inches,  and  the  black  horns  are  lyrate, 
with  about  twenty  complete  rings,  and  in  the  males  attain  a  length  of  from  ten  to 
fifteen  inches.  The  general  color  is  dark  cinnamon  yellow,  but  there  is  a  dark 
brown  stripe  on  the  flanks  dividing  the  cinnamon  color  of  the  sides  from  the  white 
of  the  under  parts,  and  a  dark  streak  running  through  the  eye.  The  general  dis- 
tribution of  the  white  is  shown  in  our  figure,  but  it  may  be  remarked  that  there  is 
more  white  on  the  face  than  in  any  other  species,  the  dark  central  area  of  the  fore- 
head being  reduced  to  a  small  patch  below  the  horns.  The  snow-white  hairs  on  the 
back  have  a  length  of  three  or  four  inches. 

*  These  markings  are  absent  in  the  Tibetan  gazelle. 


HEAD    OF  GRANT'S    GAZELLE. 
(From  Sir  V.  Brooke,  Pt-oc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1878.) 


THE    GAZELLES 


879 


,- 


In  eastern  South  Africa  the  northern  range  of  the  springbok  extends  to  about 
latitude  20°,  its  limits  being  marked  by  the  forests  south  the  Mababi  river;  west- 
ward of  Lake  Ngami  it  extends,  however,  further  north,  reaching  Benguela  and 
Angola  on  the  west  coast.  According  to  Mr.  Selous,  this  antelope  is  still  found  in 
the  northwest  of  the  Cape  Colony,  and  throughout  the  Transvaal  and  Griqualand 
West;  while  it  is  abundant  on  the  borders  of  the  Kalahari  desert.  The  springbok 
derives  its  name  from  its  habit  of  suddenly  leaping  in  the  air;  and  is  remarkable  both 
for  the  vast  numbers  in  which  it  formerly  occurred,  and  for  its  periodical  migrations. 
Writing  of  one  of  these  migrations,  Gordon  Cumming  states  that  ' '  for  about  two 


THE    SPRINGBOK. 

(One-fourteenth   natural   size.) 

hours  before  dawn  I  had  been  lying  awake  in  my  wagon,  listening  to  the  grunting 
of  the  buck  within  two  hundred  yards  of  me,  imagining  that  some  large  herd  of 
springboks  was  feeding  beside  my  camp;  but,  rising  when  it  was  light  and  looking 
about  me,  I  beheld  the  ground  to  the  northward  of  my  camp  actually  covered  with 
a  dense  living  mass  of  springboks,  marching  slowly  and  steadily  along.  They  ex- 
tended from  an  opening  in  a  long  range  of  hills  on  the  west,  through  which  they 
continued  pouring  like  the  flood  of  some  great  river,  to  a  ridge  about  a  mile  to  the 
northeast,  over  which  they  disappeared  —  the  breadth  they  covered  might  have  been 
somewhere  about  half  a  mile.  I  stood  upon  the  fore-chest  of  my  wagon  for  nearly 


88o 

two  hours,  lost  in  astonishment  at  the  novel  and  wonderful  scene  before  me  and  had 
some  difficulty  in  convincing  myself  that  it  was  a  reality  which  I  beheld,  not  the  wild 
and  exaggerated  picture  of  a  hunter's  dream.  During  this  time,  these  vast  legions 
continued  streaming  through  the  neck  of  the  hills  in  one  unbroken  phalanx, 
on  the  same  writer  continues  that,  "  on  our  climbing  the  low  range  of  hills  through 
which  the  springboks  had  been  pouring,  I  beheld  the  plains  and  even  the  hillsides 
which  stretched  away  on  every  side  of  me  thickly  covered,  not  with  herds,  but  with 
one  vast  mass  of  springboks;  as  far  as  the  eye  could  strain,  the  landscape  was  alive 
with  them  until  they  softened  down  into  a  dim  red  mass  of  living  creatures, 
endeavor  to  form  any  idea  of  the  amount  of  antelopes  which  I  had  that  day  beheld 
was  vain-  but  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  some  hundreds  of  thousands  were 
within  the  compass  of  my  vision."  Vast,  however,  as  must  have  been  the  numbers 


DORCAS  OAZETXE. 

on  this  occasion,  the  Boers  informed  the  narrator  that  they  were  nothing  to  those 
that  had  been  witnessed  in  some  trekbokken,  when  the  animals  extended  over  a  suc- 
cession of  flats,  instead  of  being  confined  to  one  alone,  and  were  crowded  together  like 
sheep  in  a  fold  throughout  a  long  day's  journey,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  So 
dense  are  the  moving  masses  that  if  a  flock  of  sheep  becomes  intermingled  with  the 
herd  they  are  swept  along  without  hope  of  escape;  and  it  is  said  that  even  the  lion 
may  be  thus  entrapped.  Livingstone  suggests  that  these  migrations  are  due  to  the 
grass  in  the  Kalahari  desert  becoming  so  tall  as  to  impede  the  sprinkbok  from  obtain- 
ing a  clear  view  of  the  surrounding  country. 

The  Dorcas  gazelle  (G.  donas'),   as  shown  in  above  cut,   may  be 
'taken  as  the  representative  of  a  group  in  which  the  white  of  the  rump 
does  not  encroach  on  the  fawn  color  of  the  haunches,  while  both  sexes  have  lyrate 


Dorcas  Gazelle, 


THE    GAZELLES 


88 1 


Indian  Gazelle 


or  sublyrate  horns.  This  well-known  species  inhabits  the  deserts  of  Egypt,  Al- 
geria, Syria,  Palestine,  and  parts  of  Asia  Minor.  It  stands  barely  twenty-four 
inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  the  horns  are  relatively  long  and  slender,  with  their  tips 
incurved,  their  length  being  sometimes  a  little  over  thirteen  inches.  L,ike  most  other 
gazelles,  this  beautiful  little  animal  is  of  extremely  delicate  build,  and  is  remark- 
able for  its  great  speed.  When  running  it  appears  to  skim  the  ground  like  a  bird, 
and  often  takes  leaps  of  a  yard  or  more  in  height.  Closely  allied  to  this  species  is 
the  isabelline  gazelle  (G.  isabellina)  of  Kordofan  and  Sennar,  distinguished  by  the 
tail  being  rufous,  instead  of  black,  above.  Other  species  are  the  korin  (G.  rufi- 
frons)  of  Senegal,  Sundevall's  gazelle  (G.  Icevipes)  of  Sennar,  and  the  black-tailed 
gazelle  (G.  tilonura)  of  Bogosland;  the  latter  being  characterized  by  its  superior 
size,  reaching  twenty-nine  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  the  horns  varying  from  seven 
to  ten  and  three-fourths  inches  in  length. 

The  Indian  gazelle  (G.  bennetti)  brings  us  to  a  subgroup  distin- 
guished from  the  preceding  by  the  horns  not  being  distinctly  lyrate, 
but  generally  having  a  slight  S-shaped  curvature  when  seen  from  the  side.  The 
general  color  of  this  well-known  species  —  the  ravine-deer  of  Indian  sportsmen  —  is 
light  chestnut  above,  while  the  tail  is  blackish.  In 
height  the  buck  stands  twenty-six  inches  at  the  withers, 
and  the  horns,  which  usually  have  fifteen  or  sixteen 
rings,  average  ten  to  twelves  inches  in  length  along  the 
curve.  This  species  inhabits  the  plains  of  Central  and 
Northwestern  India,  whence  it  extends  through  Balu- 
chistan to  Persia.  It  is  commonly  found  in  parties  of 
from  two  to  six,  although  occasionally  from  ten  to 
twenty  may  be  found  together.  Its  swiftness  is  such 
that  it  can  but  seldom  be  taken  with  dogs,  but  it  does 
not  leap  in  the  air  like  the  dorcas.  Mr.  Blanford  writes 
that  this  gazelle  "keeps  much  to  waste  ground,  espe- 
cially where  that  is  broken  up  by  ravines,  but  it  is  seldom 
seen  on  alluvial  plains,  and  it  haunts  cultivation  less 
than  the  [Indian]  antelope.  It  is  frequently  found  among 
scattered  bushes  or  thin  tree  jungle,  and  may  be  met 
with  on  undulating  ground  even  on  the  top  of  hills;  it  is 
commonly  found  among  sand  hills,  and  is  nowhere  so  SKUIJ<  ov  INDIAN  GAZEU.E. 
abundant  as  in  parts  of  the  Indian  desert.  It  lives  on 

grass  and  the  leaves  of  bushes,  and  I  believe  never  drinks,  for  it  is  common  in  tracts 
where  there  is  no  water  except  from  deep  wrells."  Other  members  of  this  group 
are  the  mountain  gazelle  (G.  cuvieri)  of  Morocco  and  Algeria,  which  reaches  a 
height  of  twenty-seven  and  one-half  inches;  the  small-horned  gazelle  (G.  leptoceros) 
of  the  Sudan;  the  well-known  Arabian  gazelle  (G.  arabica);  and  Speke's  gazelle 
( G.  spekei]  of  the  plateau  of  Somaliland.  The  latter  species  is  of  very  small  size, 
and  remarkable  for  the  loose  flabby  skin  of  the  nose,  and  is  further  distinguished  by 
the  length  of  its  hair  and  dull  coloration.  The  length  of  the  horns  ranges  from 
nine  and  one-half  to  eleven  and  one-half  inches. 
56 


882  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Another  group  is  formed  by  three  Asiatic  gazelles,  which  differ 
Persian  Gazelle  frQm  ^  Qther  members  of  the  genus  by  the  females  being  hornless. 
Of  these,  the  Persian  gazelle  (G.  subgutturosa)  inhabits  the  highlands  of  Persia  and 
a  large  area  in  Central  Asia,  extending  as  far  as  Gobi  desert.  This  species  has 
lyrate  horns,  with  incurved  tips,  which  may  have  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  rings, 
and  the  tail  is  not  surrounded  by  a  white  disc.  The  longest  pair  of  horns  known 
measure  fourteen  and  one-half  inches.  In  Mongolia,  this  species  is  replaced  by 
the  larger  Mongolian  gazelle  (G.  gutturosa),  characterized  by  its  extremely  pale 
colored  horns.  The  third  member  of  the  group  is  the  goa  or  Tibetan  gazelle  (G. 
picticaudata],  distinguished  by  the  white  disc  round  the  tail,  the  long  winter  coat, 
short  ears  and  tail,  the  greatly  curved  horns,  and  the  uniform  color  of  the  face. 
The  height  of  the  animal  is  twenty-four  inches,  and  the  largest  recorded  horns  meas- 
ured fifteen  and  three-fourths  inches  in  length,  the  number  of  rings  varying  from 
twenty  to  thirty.  This  gazelle  inhabits  the  Tibetan  plateau  at  elevations  of  from 
13,000  to  18,000  feet,  and  goes  in  small  parties  of  from  two  or  three  to  a  dozen.  It 
is  less  shy  than  other  species. 

The  last  group  of  the  true  gazelles  is  characterized  by  the  white  of 
6  the  rump  extending  forward  in  an  angle  into  the  fawn  color  of  the 
haunches;  both  sexes  having  horns,  which  are  frequently  longer  than  in  the  other 
groups;  the  animals  themselves  being  also  relatively  large.  Perhaps  the  handsom- 
est member  of  the  whole  genus  is  the  East- African  Grant's  gazelle  ( G.  granti} , 
from  the  Kilima-Njaro  district  and  the  neighborhood  of  Zanzibar,  of  which  the  head 
is  show  in  the  cut  on  p.  878. 

Grant's  gazelle  has  longer  and  finer  horns  than  any  other  species  of  the  genus; 
their  length  being  frequently  as  much  as  twenty-six  inches,  while  in  one  instance  a 
length  of  thirty  inches  has  been  recorded.  The  general  color  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  is  fawn,  and  there  is  no  dark  band  on  the  flanks  dividing 
the  fawn  color  from  the  white  of  the  under  parts.  On  the  neck 
and  back'  the  hair  has  a  kind  of  wavy  appearance,  somewhat  like 
the  pattern  on  watered  silk.  This  gazelle  is  common  on  the  open 
plains  of  East  Africa,  and  is  generally  found  in  small  parties  com- 
prising from  ten  to  fifteen  does  and  fawns  accompanied  by  a  single 
adult  buck.  Sir  J.  Willoughby  states  that  in  the  Kilima-Njaro 
district  these  gazelles  "were  in  extraordinary  profusion,  though 
extremely  wild,  and  among  the  herds  we  noticed  many  fine  bucks. 
It  may  be  worthy  of  record  that  they  would  often  allow  us  to  crawl 
toward  them  without  showing  any  sign  of  alarm,  until  we  were 
within  a  fair  rifle  range;  whereas  if  we  attempted  to  walk  toward 
them,  even  in  a  stooping  position  they  would  invariably  start  off 
before  we  had  approached  within  four  hundred  yards. ' ' 

,  In  Masailand,  on  the  east  coast  to  the  north  of  Zan- 

Gazelle       zibar>   Grant's  gazelle  is  replaced  by   the  allied  but 
HORNS  OF  THOM-  smaller  Thomson's  gazelle   (G.   thomsoni},  of  which 

SON'S  GAZEi,i,i5.    the  horns  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.     In  this  species  the 
(From  Giinther.\     horns  are  relatively  smaller  and  thinner  than  in  the  last,  not  ex- 


CLARKE'S  ANTELOPE 


883 


ceeding  fifteen  inches  in  length.  This  gazelle  is  also  distinguished  from  the  preced- 
ing by  the  broad  dark  brown  band  on  the  flanks,  dividing  the  fawn  color  of  the 
body  from  the  white  of  the  belly. 

The  largest  of  all  the  group  is  the  swift  gazelle  (G.  mohr),  which 
is  a  West- African  species  from  Senegal,  standing  upward  of  thirty- 
two  inches  at  the  withers,  and  still  higher  at  the  rump.  Allied  to  this  is  the  dama 
gazelle  (G.  dama),  from  the  Sudan,  with  relatively-short  lyrate  horns,  and  no  dark 
band  on  the  flanks.  Another  fine  species  is  the  aoul  (G.  scemmerringi)  inhabiting 
the  lowlands  of  Somaliland,  and  also  found  in  Abyssinia  and  the  Sudan.  In  the 
swift  gazelle  the  length  of  the  horns  may  be  twelve  inches,  while  in  the  aoul  or 
Soemmerring's  gazelle  this  varies  from  about  twelve  to  upward  of  nineteen  and  one- 
half  inches.  The  height  of  the  latter  species  at  the  shoulder  is  about  thirty  inches. 
It  is  characterized  by  its  very  massive  lyrate  horns,  marked  with  about  eighteen 
rings,  and  may  be  distinguished  from  the  dama  by  its  longer  ears,  bordered  with 
black  externally,  and  the  more  strongly-defined  and  nearly  black  markings  on  the 
face.  This  is  the  finest  of  the  Somaliland  gazelles,  and  was  formerly  found  in  small 
herds  close  to  the  shore. 


CLARKE'S  ANTELOPE 


Genus  Ammodorcas 

Nearly  allied  to  the  true  gazelles  is  a  remark- 
able antelope  {Ammodorcas  darkei],  recently  dis- 
covered in  Somaliland,  which  serves  to  connect  • 
the  preceding  with  the  following  species. 
Clarke's  antelope,  while  having  the  facial  mark- 
ings of  the  gazelles,  is  distinguished  by  the  regu- 
lar upward  and  forward  curvature  of  the  rather 
short  horns,  which  are  ringed  in  front  at  the 
base.  The  females  are  hornless,  and  the  skull 
is  intermediate  between  that  of  the  gazelles  and 
the  under-mentioned  gerenuk.  The  neck  is  very 
long,  and  the  tail  thin  and  long.  The  number  of 
rings  on  the  horn  varies  from  five  to  ten.  The 
general  color  is  a  deep  cinnamon,  darker  than  in 
any  of  the  true  gazelles.  These  antelopes  ap- 
pear to  be  local  in  Somaliland,  but  are  said  to  be 
common  in  parts  of  the  interior.  Mr.  Clarke 
states  that  when  running  they  throw  the  tail  up- 
ward and  forward,  and  at  the  same  time  incline 
the  long  neck  backward,  so  that  the  two  look 
as  if  they  would  touch  each  other.  It  is  locally 
known  as  the  dibatag. 


HEAD  OF  CLARKE'S  ANTELOPE- 

(After  Thomas.) 


884 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


THE  GERENUK 
Genus  Lithocranius 

Still  more  remarkable  than  the  preceding  is  the  gerenuk,  or  Waller's  gazelle 
(Lithocranius  walleri)  which  is  also  an  East- African  species,  ranging  from  Somali- 
land  to  the  Kilima-Njaro  district.  The  most  peculiar  external  feature  about  this  an- 
imal is  the  excessively-long  neck  (as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure),  which  has 
led  to  it  being  likened  to  a  miniature  giraffe.  The  horns  of  the  bucks  curve  forward 
at  the  tips  in  a  peculiar  hook-like  manner,  and  are  usually  about  thirteen  inches  in 

length,  although  they  may  reach  fourteen  inches. 
The  skin  of  this  antelope  is  distinguished  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  very  broad  dark  brown  band  running  down 
the  middle  of  the  back,  which  in  its  widest  part 
measures  some  seven  or  eight  inches  across,  and  stands 
out  in  striking  contrast  to  the  rufous  fawn  of  the 
flanks  and  limbs. 

The  skull  differs  from  those  of  the  true  gazelles 
by  its  extremely  dense  and  solid  structure,  as  well  as 
by  the  relative  shortness  of  its  facial  portion,  its  re- 
markable straightness,  and  the  unusually  small  size 
of  the  cheek-teeth. 

Captain  Swayne  says  that  ' '  the  gere- 
nuk is  found  all  over  the  Somali  coun- 
try in  small  families,  never  in  large  herds,  and  gener- 
ally in  scattered  bush,  ravines,  and  rocky  ground.  I 
have  never  seen  it  in  the  cedar  forests,  nor  in  the  tree- 
less plains.  Gerenuk  are  not  necessarily  found  near 
water;  in  fact,  generally  in  stony  ground  with  a 
sprinkling  of  thorn  jungle.  The  gait  of  this  antelope 
is  peculiar.  When  first  seen,  a  buck  gerenuk  will 
generally  be  standing  motionless,  head  well  up,  look- 
ing at  the  intruder,  and  trusting  to  its  invisibility. 
Then  the  head  dives  under  the  bushes,  and  the  ani- 
mal goes  off  at  a  long,  crouching  trot,  stopping  now 
and  again  behind  some  bush  to  gaze.  The  trot  is 
awkward  looking,  and  very  like  that  of  a  camel;  the 
gerenuk  seldom  gallops,  and  its  pace  is  never  very 
fast.  In  the  whole  shape  of  the  head  and  neck,  and 
in  the  slender  lower  jaw,  there  is  a  marked  resemblance 
between  the  gerenuk  and  the  dibatag."  This  antelope  subsists  more  by  browsing 
than  by  grazing,  and  may  not  unfrequently  be  observed  standing  up  on  its  hind- 
legs,  with  outstretched  neck,  and  its  fore-feet  resting  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  in 
order  to  pluck  the  foliage. 


HEAD 


THE 


AND     NECK     OF 

GERENUK. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool  Soc.,  1892.) 


THE  CHIRU,  OR   TIBETAN  ANTELOPE 


885 


THE  CHIRU,  OR  TIBETAN  ANTELOPE 
Genus  Pantholops 

In  addition  to  possessing  a  peculiar  species  of  gazelle,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made,  the  elevated  and  barren  plateau  of  Tibet  is  further  characterized 
by  an  antelope  remarkable  for  the  swollen  nose  and  long  elegant  horns  of  the  bucks. 
This  antelope  is  the  chiru  (Pantholops  hodgsoni],  the  sole  representative  of  the 
genus  to  which  it  belongs.  In  many  respects  the  chiru  is  allied  to  the  saiga, 
mentioned  next,  but  the  nose  is  less  convex,  and  the  nostrils  open  anteriorly  instead 
of  downward.  The  horns  (which,  as  in 
aD.  the  following  members  of  this  group 
are  present  only  in  the  bucks)  are  black, 
long,  erect,  laterally  compressed,  and  sub- 
lyrate,  with  rings  in  front  for  the  lower 
two-thirds  of  their  length.  There  is  no 
gland  below  the  eye;  and  the  skull  lacks 
the  pits  between  the  eyes  found  in  the 
other  members  of  the  group.  In  height 
the  male  chiru  stands  thirty-two  inches  at 
the  shoulder;  and  it  is  covered  with  very 
thick,  close  fur  becoming  woolly  near  the 
skin.  The  color  is  pale  fawn  above  and 
white  below;  the  whole  face  and  a  stripe 
down  the  front  of  each  leg  being  black 
or  dark  brown  in  the  bucks.  The  horns 
frequently  reach  twenty-four  and  twenty- 
six  inches  in  length,  and  one  pair  has  been 
recorded  of  twenty -seven  and  one-half 
inches.  The  chiru  probably  inhabits  the 
whole  of  the  Tibetan  plateau,  at  the  same 
elevations  as  the  Tibetan  gazelle. 

In  summer  the  sexes  live 
apart;  and  these  antelopes 
are  often  found  in  parties  of  from  three  to 
four  individuals,  but  sometimes  in  large 
herds.  They  frequent  the  open  rolling 
plains,  or  broad  river  valleys,  and  gener- 
ally feed  at  morning  and  evening.  Al- 
though usually  difficult  to  approach,  a 
solitary  buck  will  sometimes  start  up  from 
a  ravine  close  to  the  traveler's  feet,  as 

once  happened  to  the  present  writer.  General  Kinloch  states  that  the  chiru  is  in 
the  habit  of  excavating  hollows  in  the  sand,  in  which  it  will  lie  concealed  during 
the  day.  The  young  are  born  in  summer;  one  only  being  produced  at  a  birth. 


Habits 


HEAD   OF   CHIRU. 


886  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

THE  SAIGA 
Genus    Saiga 

From  the  peculiarly  bloated  appearance  of  the  nose  of  the  male,  the  saiga  (Saiga 
tartarica)  of  the  steppes  of  Eastern  Europe  and  Western  Asia  is  one  of  the  most 
ungainly  of  the  antelopes,  and  thereby  presents  a  marked  contrast  to  the  gazelles. 
In  size  this  animal  may  be  compared  to  a  sheep,  and  its  whole  build  is  clumsy. 
The  nose  is  very  large,  convex,  and  inflated,  with  the  nostrils  opening  downward; 


THE   SAIGA. 

(One-twelfth  natural   size.) 

and  the  face  has  a  small  gland  below  the  eye.  The  ears  are  small  and  rounded; 
and  the  tail  is  of  moderate  length.  The  lyrate  horns  are  rather  short,  completely 
ringed,  and  of  an  amber-yellow  color.  In  summer  the  general  color  of  the  upper 
parts  is  tawny  yellow;  but  in  winter,  when  the  hair  increases  in  length,  the  tint  is 
grayish,  and,  in  fact,  externally  nearly  white;  the  face,  under  parts,  and  the  lower 
surface  of  the  tail  are  always  white.  The  horns  usually  attain  a  length  of  from  ten 
to  twelve  inches  along  the  curve,  but  may  be  over  fourteen  inches. 

The  saiga  is  found  in  large  herds,  sometimes  comprising  several  hundred  in- 
dividuals during  the  summer,  but  these  split  up  into  small  parties  in  the  winter;  the 


THE  PA  LAS  ^  887 

old  males  always  remaining  with  the  herds.     According  to  Pallas,  some  members 

of  the  herd  keep  watch  while  the  others  sleep.     Although  the  saiga, 

when  first  started,  can  run  swiftly  for  a  short  distance,  it  soon  becomes 

blown.     When  caught  young  these  animals  can  be  easily  tamed,  and  will  follow 

their  owners  about  like  a  dog. 

Distribution  ^  t^ie  Present  day  ^e  range  of  the  saiga  embraces  Southern  Russia 
and  Southwestern  Siberia,  its  headquarters  being  the  Kirghiz  Steppes. 
A  century  ago  the  saiga  extended,  however,  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Poland,  and  it  is 
now  gradually  retreating  toward  the  east  of  the  Volga.  In  summer  the  saiga  wan- 
ders as  far  north  as  the  districts  inhabited  by  the  reindeer;  while  in  winter  it  migrates 
south,  and  thus  comes  in  contact  with  the  Persian  gazelle.  When  we  pass  back  to 
the  Pleistocene  period,  the  saiga  had  a  much  more  extensive  range  to  the  westward, 
its  fossilized  remains  having  been  obtained  from  the  caverns  and  superficial  deposits 
of  Hungary,  Belgium  and  the  south  of  France.  Moreover,  from  the  frontlet  of  a 
male  having  been  discovered  in  the  gravels  of  Twickenham,  it  is  evident  that  the 
animal  occasionally  wandered  as  far  as  Britain.  In  Moravia  there  have  been  found 
the  remains  of  a  saiga  differing  from  the  living  species  by  having  six,  in  place  of 
five,  lower  cheek-teeth.  From  the  occurrence  of  saiga  remains,  together  with  those 
of  other  Mammals  now  characteristic  of  the  steppes,  in  Western  Europe,  it  has  been 
inferred  that  steppe-like  conditions  and  climate  must  formerly  have  prevailed  over 
portions  of  that  area. 

PALAS 
Genus   sEpyceros 

The  South-African  antelope,  known  by  the  name  of  pala  or  impala  (sEpyceros 
melampus],  is  a  rather  large  animal,  standing  a  little  over  three  feet  in  height,  and 
of  a  dark  red  color  above,  gradually  shading  into  white  below.  There  is  no  gland 
on  the  face  below  the  eye,  and  the  feet  are  distinguished 
by  the  total  absence  of  the  lateral  hoofs.  The  horns  of 
the  males  are  lyrate,  widely  divergent,  and  somewhat 
spiral,  with  about  a  dozen  complete  and  widely-separated 
rings.  The  ordinary  length  of  pala  horns  does  not 
•exceed  sixteen  inches,  but  Mr.  Selous  records  specimens  of 
twenty  and  twenty-one  inches,  measured  in  a  straight  line. 
The  pala  is  found  throughout  Southern  and  Southeast- 
ern Africa.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  these  antelopes  are 
nowhere  more  plentiful  than  along  the  Chobe,  and  may 
often  be  seen  in  herds  of  from  twenty  to  one  hundred 
together.  ' '  There  are  very  few  males  in  comparison 
with  the  number  of  females,  though  I  have  sometimes 
seen  a  herd  composed  entirely  of  rams,  ten  or  fifteen  in  HEAD  OF  PALA. 

number.     They  are  like  thick  corn  along  the  river's  bank,  (After  Selous-) 

and  are  seldom  seen  at  a  distance  of  more  than  a  mile  from  water,  and  there  is  no 
more  certain  sign  of  the  proximity  of  water  than  the  presence  of  impala  antelopes. ' ' 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

In  Nyassaland,  Mr.  Crawshay  states  that  they  frequent  sandy  plains  covered  with 
mimosas  and  low  scrub  near  the  rivers.  The  same  writer  observes  that  "no  ante- 
lope I  have  seen  can  compare  with  the  impala  in  fleetness  of  foot,  and  certainly  no 
other  can  display  such  wonderful  leaping  power;  they  go  off  like  the  proverbial  arrow 
from  the  bow,  and,  with  most  beautiful  gliding  bounds,  cover  the  ground,  without 
apparently  the  least  effort.  When  alarmed  they  often  give  utterance  to  a  sharp 
bark."  From  its  red  color,  the  pala  is  known  to  the  Dutch  Boers  as  the  roybok. 

Gordon  Gumming  relates  that  on  one  occasion  near  his  camp  "a  loud  rushing 
noise  was  heard  coming  on  like  a  hurricane;  this  was  a  large  troop  of  pala  pursued 


AND  FEMALE  OF  THE  BLACK  BUCK. 

(One-tenth  natural  size.) 


by  a  pack  of  about  twenty  wild  dogs.  They  passed  our  camp  in  fine  style  within  a 
hundred  yards  of  us,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  dogs  had  fastened  upon  two  of  the 
palas,  which  my  Bechuanas  ran  up  and  secured.  One  of  these  animals  cleared  a  dis- 
tance of  fifty  feet  in  two  successive  bounds,  and  this  on  unfavorable  ground,  it  being 
very  soft  and  slippery. ' ' 

Lesser  Pala          ^e  lesser  Pa^a  is  a  smaller  variety  inhabiting  part  of  Nyassaland,  in 
the  very  heart  of    the  distributional  area  of    the  typical   form  from 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  more  slender  skull  and  smaller  horns. 


THE   BLACK  BUCK 


Angola  Pala 


On  the  West  Coast,  in  Angola  and  Hasholand,  the  genus  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Angola  pala  (/£.  petersi}.  This  pala  is  distinguished  by 
the  presence  of  a  black  streak  down  the  middle  of  the  face,  from  the  eyes  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  nose,  and  also  by  a  black  patch  below  each  eye. 


THE   BLACK   BUCK 
Genus  Antilope 

The  handsomely -colored  black  buck  or  Indian  antelope  (Antilope  cervicapra)  is 
the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  and  at  the  same  time  the  last  member  of  the 
present  group.  The  black  buck  stands  about  thirty-two  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and 
has  a  short  and  compressed  tail,  large  glands,  with  a  linear  aperture  below  the  eyes, 
tufts  of  hair  on  the  knees,  and  small  but  distinct  lateral  hoofs.  The  horns  of  the 
bucks  rise  close  together,  and  are  cylindrical,  divergent,  and  spiral,  with  complete 
blunt  rings  throughout  their  length.  The  number  of  turns  in  the  spiral  of  the  horns 
varies  from  less  than  three  to  as  many  as 
five,  and  there  is  great  individual  variation 
in  regard  to  the  degree  of  divergence  of 
the  .  horns.  The  usual  length  of  horns 
varies  from  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  in  a 
straight  line,  and  in  Peninsular  India  the 
length  seldom  exceeds  twenty-two  inches; 
but  in  Rajputana  and  Harriana  the  horns 
are  longer,  and  have  been  known  to  attain 
a  length  of  twenty-eight  and  three-fourths 
inches.  Does  and  young  bucks  are  yellowish- 
fawn  color  above  and  on  the  outer  sides  of  the 
limbs,  and  white  on  the  under  parts;  the  two 
colors  are  sharply  defined,  and  just  above  the 
line  of  division  there  is  a  distinct  pale  streak. 
Save  for  a  rufous  patch  on  the  nape  of  the 
neck,  the  old  bucks  are  blackish  brown  above, 
and  also  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  the 
whole  of  the  face,  with  the  exception  of  a 
white  ring  round  each  eye.  In  very  old  indi- 
viduals the  blackish  brown  becomes  almost 
completely  black.  Occasionally  does  are  met 
with  having  small  recurved  horns. 

The  black  buck  is  an  inhabit- 
ant of  open  plains  from  the  foot 
of  the  Himalayas  nearly  to  Cape  Comorin, 
and  from  the  Punjab  to  Lower  Assam,  and  is 

most   abundant   in   the    Northwest    Provinces,    Rajputana,    and   portions  of   the 
Deccan.     It  frequents  either  grassy  districts  or  cultivated  lands,  and  is  generally 


Habits 


SKULI,  OF  BI.ACK  BUCK. 


890  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

found  in  herds,  which  may  comprise  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  individuals, 
but  more  usually  number  from  ten  to  thirty,  or  even  fifty  does,  accompanied 
by  a  single  old  buck.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  frequently  ' '  two  or  three 
younger  bucks,  colored  like  the  does,  remain  with  the  latter,  but  these  young 
males  are  sometimes  driven  away  by  older  bucks,  and  form  separate  herds. 
This  antelope  never  enters  forest  nor  high  grass,  and  is  but  rarely  seen  among 
bushes.  When  not  much  pursued  or  fired  at,  it  will  often  allow  men  to  come 
in  the  open  within  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards,  sometimes  nearer." 
Carts  and  natives  can  approach  still  closer.  The  black  buck  feeds  at  all  hours,  al- 
though it  generally  rests  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  certain  districts,  where 
there  is  no  fresh  water  except  in  deep  wells,  it  is  certain  that  these  animals  never 
drink;  but  several  observers  have  proved  that  in  other  places  they,  at  least  occasion- 
ally, drink  freely.  lyike  the  springbok,  the  black  buck  frequently  leaps  high  in  the 
air  when  running.  The  speed  and  endurance  of  these  animals  are  well  known,  and 
it  is  but  very  seldom  that  they  are  pulled  down  on  good  ground  by  greyhounds.  In 
heavy  sand,  or  on  soft  ground  during  the  rains,  they  are,  however,  easily  overtaken 
by  good  dogs,  and  wounded  buck  may  be  ridden  down.  An  account  of  black  buck 
coursing  with  the  hunting-leopard  will  be  found  on  p.  449  in  the  first  volume;  and 
antelope  stalking  is  a  favorite  Indian  sport. 

Young  fawns  are  generally  concealed  by  the  does  in  long  grass.  The  bucks  ut- 
ter a  short  grunt,  and  the  does  a  kind  of  a  hissing  sound  when  alarmed.  During 
the  pairing  season  the  bucks  engage  in  frequent  combats  among  themselves.  When 
taken  young,  the  black  buck  can  be  easily  tamed,  but  the  males  are  apt  to  be  dan- 
gerous at  certain  seasons. 

THE  RIETBOC 
Genus  Cervicapra 

The  rietboc,  or  reedbuck  {Cervicapra  arundineum),  introduces  us  to  a  totally 
different  group  of  large  or  small  antelopes  confined  to  Africa.  These  animals  have 
horns  only  in  the  males,  narrow,  goat-like,  upper  molar  teeth,  and  either  a  hairy  or 
a  naked  muzzle.  There  is  generally  a  gland  below  the  eye,  which  may,  however, 
be  very  small,  and  the  skull  usually  has  a  large  unossified  space  below  the  eye,  and 
distinct  pits  in  the  forehead.  The  horns  may  be  either  large,  lyrate,  widely  spread- 
ing, and  thickly  ringed,  or  small  and  upright.  The  tail  is  either  of  medium  length, 
or  very  short. 

The  rietboc  is  characterized  by  its  comparatively-small  horns,  which  bend  for- 
ward somewhat  after  the  manner  of  those  of  Clarke's  antelope.  The  tail  is  bushy 
and  comparatively  short,  not  reaching  to  within  some  distance  of  the  hocks,  and  the 
lateral  hoofs  are  very  small.  In  height  this  antelope  stands  nearly  three  feet,  and 
the  short,  smooth,  and  almost  woolly  fur  is  of  a  pale  brownish  fawn  on  the  upper 
parts,  with  a  tinge  of  orange  on  the  head;  the  under  parts  and  inner  sides  of  the 
limbs  being  dirty  white.  Very  old  does  become  much  paler,  in  fact  almost  white. 
The  ordinary  length  of  the  horns  is  from  twelve  to  thirteen  inches  along  the  curves, 
although  they  occasionally  reach  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches. 


THE  WATER  BUCK,   LICHI,   ETC  891 

<-"' 

Formerly  rietboc  were  to  be  met  with  throughout  central  South 
dH  b't  Africa,  wherever  there  are  open  grassy  or  reedy  valleys  traversed  by 
streams,  but  they  are  now  practically  exterminated  in  Bechuanaland , 
and  rare  in  the  Transvaal,  although  still  common  in  many  districts,  such  as  the 
Chobe  region.  They  generally  associate  in  pairs,  and  it  is  seldom  that  more  than 
three  or  four  individuals  (of  which  one  or  two  will  be  young)  are  seen  together,  al- 
though sometimes  as  many  as  eight  may  be  observed  feeding  within  a  short  distance 
of  one  another.  Mr.  Selous  mentions  that  "  although  the  reedbuck  is  never  found 
far  from  water,  it  always  keeps  on  dry  ground,  and  when  chased  I  have  never  seen 
one  take  to  boggy  ground,  but  have  noticed  that  rather  than  cross  a  narrow  stream 
of  water  they  will  make  a  long  detour."  Indeed,  when  hunted  these  antelopes  will 
invariably  seek  refuge  in  bush,  or  by  flight  into  the  open  dry  country.  The  males, 
if  suddenly  frightened,  sometimes  utter  a  whistling  sound.  In  pace  this  species  is 
slow,  and  it  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  African  antelopes  to  stalk. 

The  South- African  antelope  known  as  the  roi  rheeboc  (C.  lalandi), 
which,  by  the  way,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  true  or  vaal  rhee- 
"boc,  is  a  smaller  but  nearly-allied  species,  standing  only  about  twenty-eight  inches 
at  the  shoulder.  It  has  long  and  coarse  reddish-brown  hair  on  the  upper  parts, 
while  beneath  it  is  white.  The  horns  are  seldom  more  than  eight  or  nine  inches  in 
length,  and  bend  forward  in  a  sharp  sweep,  without  any  outward  inclination.  The 
West- African  nagor  (C.  redunca)  is  closely  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  this 
species;  the  coloration  being  similar,  and  the  small  horns  not  usually  exceeding  six 
inches  in  length.  The  other  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  bohor  (C.  bohor),  ex- 
tending in  East  Africa  from  Abyssinia  to  Masailand;  it  is  a  larger  and  brighter- 
colored  animal  than  the  last,  from  which  it  is  also,  distinguished  by  certain  charac- 
teristics of  the  skull. 

WATER  BUCK,  LICHI,  ETC. 
Genus  Cobus 

The  antelopes  included  in  the  genus  Cobus  are  water-loving  animals,  generally 
of  larger  size  than  the  rietboc,  and  associating  in  herds.  Their  horns  are  long, 
sublyrate,  and  ringed  nearly  throughout;  the  tail  is  longer  than  the  rietboc,  and 
tufted  at  the  end.  As  in  the  latter,  the  gland  below  the  eye  is  rudimentary, 
and  the  color,  with  the  exception  of  some  patches  on  the  rump  and  the  head  is 
uniform.  The  muzzle  is  naked.  The  skull  may  be  distinguished  from  that  of 
Cervicapra  by  the  premaxillary  bones  reaching  upward  to  join  the  nasals. 

The  water  buck  ( C.  ellipsiprymnus}  stands  upward  of  four  feet  or 
more  at  the  withers,  and  is  characterized  by  its  long  and  very  coarse 
hair,  which  varies  in  color  from  reddish  brown  to  dark  gray,  with  an  oval  ring  of 
white  on  the  buttocks,  extending  above  the  tail,  a  white  gorget  on  the  throat,  a 
streak  of  the  same  color  on  part  of  each  eye,  and  some  white  near  the  muzzle.  Good 
horns  average  about  twenty-eight  inches  along  the  curve,  but  they  may  measure 
thirty,  thirty-one,  or  even  thirty-three  and  one-half  inches;  their  color  is  pale. 


892 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


Water  buck  inhabit  Southern  and  Eastern  Africa  to  some  distance  north  of  the 
Zambezi,  and  they  are  never  found  in  herds  of  more  than  twenty  individuals.     Mr. 

Selous  states  that  the  water  buck  is  most  partial  to  steep, 
stony  hills,  and  is  often  found  at  a  distance  of  more  than 
a  mile  from  the  nearest  river,  for  which,  however,  it 
always  makes  when  pursued.  Though  a  heavy-looking 
beast,  it  can  clamber  with  wonderful  speed  and  sureness 
of  foot  up  and  down  the  steepest  hillsides.  In  Nyassa- 
land  Mr.  Crawshay  writes,  that  water  buck  are  always 
found  in  greatest  numbers  on  large  swampy  plains  over- 
grown with  coarse  grass,  tall  reeds,  and  papyrus,  where  in 
the  wet  season  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  at  them; 
unlike  other  antelopes,  except  the  reedbuck,  they  do  not 
appear  to  leave  the  lowlands  in  the  rains,  but  keep  to  the 
plains  all  the  year  round.  The  water  buck  is  less  difficult 
to  stalk  than  the  rietboc,  but  its  flesh  is  so  coarse  and 
stringy  as  to  be  almost  uneatable. 

The  sing-sing  (C.  dejassa},  from  Western 
and  Central  Africa,  which  stands  three  feet 
ten  inches  at  the  shoulder,  differs  from  the  water  buck 
by  its  fine  and  soft  hair,  and  the  presence  of  a  continuous 
whitish  patch  on  the  buttocks,  which  does  not  rise  above 
the  level  of  the  rest  of  the  tail;  while  there  is  no  white 
gorget.  The  horns  do  not  exceed  twenty-seven  and  one- 
fourth  inches  in  length,  or  a  fraction  over.  The  sUnu  (C.  leucotis},  from  Uganda, 
is  another  large  species,  distinguished  by  the  blackish  color  of  its  fur,  and  the  white 
ears,  rings  round  the  eyes,  and  under  parts.  The  horns  are  relatively  long  and 
thin,  reaching  from  seventeen  to  nearly  twenty  inches  in  length. 

The  remaining  species  are  of  smaller  size,  and  distinguished  by  their 
more  reddish  or  foxy- colored  hair.  It  is  probably  to  one  of  these 
smaller  species  that  the  species  of  Cobus  found  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  Northern  In- 
dia is  allied.  The  West  and  East  Africa  sequitun  (C.  cob]  is  a  much  smaller 
animal  than  the  under-mentioned  lichi,  and  has  shorter  horns,  coming  more  forward. 
It  has  a  relatively-shorter  tail  than  the  water  buck,  and  is  of  a  general  pale  reddish- 
brown  color,  with  white  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  ears,  the  under  parts,  the  inner  sur- 
faces of  the  limbs,  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  a  ring  round  each  fetlock.  Good  horns 
vary  in  length  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  inches.  This  is  one  of  the  few  antelopes 
that  range  across  Africa,  occurring  both  in  Uganda  and  in  Gambia. 

The  lichi  (C.  leche]  and  the  puku  (C.  vardoni}  are  two  allied  species  from  south 
Central  Africa,  both  of  which  were  discovered  by  Livingstone.  The  puku  is 
about  the  size  of  the  pala,  standing  some  three  feet  three  inches  at  the  shoul- 
der; its  hair  is  of  a  uniform  foxy-red  color,  with  the  tips  of  the  ears  black  and 
black  markings  down  the  front  of  the  fore-legs.  The  horns  are  rather  small, 
without  much  forward  curvature,  and  with  the  rings  not  extending  so  high  up 
as  in  the  lichi;  their  length  varying  from  thirteen  to  sixteen,  and  in  one  instance 


HEAD  OF  WATER  BUCK. 
(After  Selous.) 


Other  Species 


THE  RHEEBOC 


393 


reaching  nineteen  inches.  The  puku  is  a  plumply-built  animal,  with  a  very  erect 
carriage,  and  its  horns  may  attain  a  length  of  sixteen  inches  along  the  curve. 
The  lichi  is  distinguished  by  its 
superior  size,  less  erect  carriage, 
and  the  completely  fawn-colored 
ears  of-  the  adult;  the  general  color 
being  pale  brown,  with  the  under 
parts  and  rings  round  the  eyes 
whitish.  The  horns  seldom  ex- 
ceed twenty-four  inches  in  length, 
although  they  have  been  recorded 
of  twenty-seven  and  one-half  inches. 
The  lichi  is  strictly  a  swamp- 
dwelling  animal,  and,  when  undis- 
turbed, can  be  approached  very 
easily.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  when 
these  antelopes  "  first  make  up  their 
minds  to  run,  they  stretch  out  their 
noses,  the  males  laying  their  horns 
flat  along  their  sides  and  trot;  but 
on  being  pressed  they  break  into  a 
springing  gallop,  now  and  then 
bounding  high  into  the  air.  Even 
when  in  water  up  to  their  necks 
they  do  not  swim,  but  get  along 
by  a  succession  of  bounds,  making 
a  tremendous  splashing.  Of  course,  when  the  water  becomes  too  deep  for  them 
to  bottom  they  are  forced  to  swim,  which  they  do  well  and  strongly,  though 
not  so  fast  as  the  natives  can  paddle;  and  when  the  country  is  flooded,  great 
numbers  are  driven  into  deep  water  and  speared."  Generally  these  animals  are  to 
be  seen  standing  knee  or  belly- deep  in  the  water,  lazily  cropping  the  aquatic  plants, 
or  reposing  close  to  the  water's  edge.  Puku  are  usually  met  with  in  herds  of  from 
three  to  twelve  in  number,  although  occasionally  as  many  as  fifty  may  be  seen  to- 
gether. They  are  generally  found  on  dry  ground  close  to  the  edges  of  the  rivers, 
but  when  pursued  will  take  readily  to  the  water.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  puku  and 
lichi  are  never  found  together,  although  the  latter  may  a  sociate  with  pala. 


THE  PUKU. 

(After  Livingstone.) 


THE  RHEEBOC 
Genus   Pelea 

The  rheeboc,  or  vaal  rheeboc  (Pelea  capreola],  is  the  first  representative  of  the 
second  division  of  the  Cervicaprine  group,  in  which  the  species  are  mostly  of  small 
size,  and  characterized  by  their  short  and  nearly  upright  horns.  Of  this  subgroup 
the  rheeboc,  which  stands  about  thirty  inches  at  the  withers,  is  the  largest  species. 


894  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  horns  are  placed  wide  apart  over  the  eyes,  and  are  sharp,  slender,  and  well 
ringed,  rising  nearly  vertically  with  a  slight  forward  bend,  but  with  little  divergence. 
Their  cross  section  is  elliptical,  and  their  length  from  five  and  one-half  to  eight 
and  one-half  inches.  The  gland  below  the  eye  and  the  corresponding  depression  in 
the  skull  are  wanting.  The  muzzle  is  naked;  the  tail  short,  broad,  fan-like,  and 
bushy;  and  the  hair  thick  and  rather  woolly.  The  color  is  a  light  grayish  brown, 
passing  into  white  beneath. 

This  antelope  is  an  inhabitant  of  hilly  and  mountainous  districts  in 
Southern  and  Eastern  Africa,  and  its  habits  much  resemble  those  of 
the  chamois.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  rheeboc  ' '  are  never  found  but  on  the 
bare  hills  among  rocks  and  stones,  and  their  habits  of  springing  are  wonderful.  It 
seems  extraordinary  how  their  delicate  limbs  escape  injury,  when  they  take  bound 
after  bound,  like  an  India-rubber  ball,  in  places  that  a  cat  would  shudder  at.  I  do 
not  suppose  that  they  are  really  more  shy  than  some  of  the  other  antelopes,  but  the 
nature  of  the  ground  which  they  inhabit  makes  it  appear  so.  That  it  is  hard  to  get 
at  them  no  one  will  deny,  and  it  is  equally  difficult  to  drive  them,  unless,  indeed, 
you  happen  to  know  the  particular  troop,  have  often  seen  it,  and  been  accustomed 
to  notice  the  direction  they  usually  take  when  disturbed."  Rheeboc  only  descend 
from  the  mountain  tops  and  ridges  at  night  for  the  purpose  of  drinking.  They  are 
usually  found  in  parties  of  from  six  or  seven  to  as  many  as  a  dozen.  From  their 
wary  nature,  the  best  way  of  shooting  rheeboc  is  by  driving.  At  the  present  time,, 
although  widely  distributed,  these  antelopes  are  nowhere  abundant. 


THE  KUPSPRINGER 
Genus    Oreotragus 

Even  more  active  than  the  rheeboc  is  the  diminutive  klipspringer  ( Oreotragus 
saltator} ,  which  derives  its  name  —  meaning  "  rock  -jumper  " — from  its  unrivaled 
power  of  leaping  from  crag  to  crag.  This  little  antelope  stands  about  twenty-two 
inches  in  height,  and  is  characterized  by  its  peculiarly  thick  and  brittle  hairs,  which 
are  hollow  internally.  The  color  of  the  upper  parts  is  uniform  olive.  The  small 
straight  horns  of  the  male  rise  vertically  from  the  head  and  incline  slightly  forward 
at  their  tips;  their  length  averaging  only  about  four  inches,  so  that  they  are  over- 
topped by  the  large  ears.  The  hoofs,  although  somewhat  clumsily  shaped,  are  so 
small  that  all  the  four  feet  could  easily  stand  upon  a  penny  piece. 
Habits  ^The  range  °f  the  kliPsPringer  extends  from  the  Cape  through 

Eastern  Africa  as  far  north  as  Abyssinia,  and  in  the  latter  country 
these  pretty  little  animals  are  found  as  high  up  as  eight  or  nine  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  small  size  of  their  hoofs  enables  the  klipspringers  to  obtain  foothold 
on  the  smallest  projections,  and  they  are  consequently  enabled  to  bound  up  the 
sides  of  the  steepest  cliffs;  needless  to  say,  these  antelopes  are  exclusively  con- 
fined to  hilly  districts.  They  were  formerly  abundant  at  the  Cape,  but  have  now 
become  comparatively  scarce.  Mr.  Crawshay  writes  that  "  I  have  never  seen  more 


THE  STEINBOCKS 


895 


than  a  pair  together,  though  in  places  where  they  are  numerous,  one  occasionally 
sees  as  many  as  three  or  four  on  the  move  at  the  same  time."  The  flesh  is  tender 
and  well  flavored. 


^>,0  > 


MAI,E    AND    FEMALE    KUPSPRINGER. 

(One-tenth  natural  size.) 


THE  STEINBOCKS 
Genus  Nanotragus 

Although  the  name  steinbock  is  properly  restricted  to  a  single  species  of  ante- 
lopes, it  will  be  found  convenient  in  zoology  to  apply  it  to  all  the  members  of  a  small 
group  of  these  animals  forming  the  genus  Nanotragus.  These  pretty  antelopes 
are  all  of  small  size,  with  short  horns  in  the  males,  no  tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  of 


896  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  head,  a  naked  muzzle,  and  a  distinct  gland  below  the  eye,  of  which  the ^aperture 
is  circular.     The  steinbocks  may  be  divided  into  three  sections,  of  which  the  i 
epresented  by  the  true  steinbock  (N.   canpestris).     This  antelope  stands  about 
went^-three  Lhes  at  the  shoulder,  and  is  usually  of  a  reddish-brown  color  white 
below;  bnt  while  in  one  variety  the  hue  of  the  fur  tends  to  rufous,  m  another  it  is 
more  or  less  silvery.     Together  with  the  other  members  of  the  section  to  which  it 
belongs,  the  steinbock  has  neither  lateral  hoofs  nor  tufts  of  hair  at  the  knees.     T 
horns  usually  attain  a  length  of  about  four  inches,  but  rarely  may  be  five,  and  the 
tail  is  of  moderate  length,  and  of  the  same  color  as  the  back.      Th,s  little  antelope 
frequents  either  open  country  or  thin  forest,  but  avoids  mountainous  districts,  and 


THE   ORIBI. 

(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

is  common  throughout  South  and  East  Africa  as  far  north  as  the  Zambezi.  Al- 
though abundant,  these  animals  are  difficult  to  find,  owing  to  the  careful  manner  in 
which  they  conceal  themselves.  On  the  East  Coast  this  species  is  replaced  by  the 
larger  Zanzibar  steinbock  (N.  moschatus].  The  third  member  of  the  section  is  the 
royal  antelope  (A7!  Pygm&us}  of  the  Guinea  coast,  which  is  the  smallest  of  all 
the  Ruminants  standing  only  twelve  inches  at  the  shoulder.  It  is  of  a  bright  chest- 
nut color,  darker  on  the  back  than  the  flanks,  with  the  under  parts  glistening  white. 
The  oribi  (A7",  scoparia},  which  is  the  species  represented  in  our 
figure,  differs  from  the  preceding  forms  by  the  presence  of  lateral 
hoofs,  and  tufts  of  hair  on  the  knees.  It  stands  twenty-four  inches  in  height,  and  is 


Oribi 


SALTS  ANTELOPE  — DUIKERBOK  897 

of  a  tawny  yellow  above  and  white  beneath,  the  horns  being  about  five  inches  in 
length.  These  antelopes  range  in  South  Africa  to  some  distance  north  of  the  Zam- 
bezi, and  are  found  in  parties  of  two  or  three  on  open  ground,  but  are  very  local. 
Their  color  harmonizes  closely  with  the  ground,  and  their  speed  is  very  great.  The 
flesh  forms  excellent  venison.  There  are  three  other  species  of  this  section,  among 
which  is  the  Abyssinian  steinbock  (IV.  montanus). 

The  grysbok  (TV.  melanotis} ,  which  is  met  with  only  to  the  north 
of  the  lyimpopo,  differs  from  the  oribi  by  the  absence  of  the  tufts  of 
hair  on  the  knees.     It  is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  steinbock,  and  of  a  chocolate- 
red  color.     It  is  fairly  numerous  in  hilly  districts  and  extends  far  into  the  interior. 


SALT'S  ANTELOPE 
Genus  Neotragus 

The  Beni-Israel  or  Salt's  antelope  (Neotragus  saltianus)  of  the  Red  Sea  littoral 
and  Abyssinia,  which  is  only  slightly  larger  than  the  royal  antelope,  is  the  best- 
known  representative  of  a  genus  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  presence 
of  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  by  the  hairy  muzzle,  as  well  as  by 
the  horns  of  the  males  sloping  backward  in  the  plane  of  the  face.  Moreover,  the 
skull  is  distinguished  by  the  great  size  of  the  aperture  for  the  nose  and  the  short- 
ness of  the  nasal  bones,  while  the  last  molar  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw,  instead  of  being 
composed,  as  in  other  Ruminants,  of  three  distinct  lobes,  has  either  only  two 
such  lobes,  or  two  with  a  mere  rudiment  of  the  third.  The  female  of  the 
Beni-Israel  is  only  sixteen  inches  in  height.  In  central  Somaliland,  Kilima-Njaro, 
and  Damaraland,  this  species  is  replaced  by  Kirk's  antelope  (N.  kirki),  differing 
from  the  first  by  having  a  rudiment  of  the  third  lobe  in  the  last  lower  molar. 
Kirk's  antelope  also  has  a  more  puffy  nose  than  the  Beni-Israel,  while  its  horns  are 
cylindrical  instead  of  being  flattened  on  the  inner  side.  So  common  is  Kirk's  ante- 
lope in  parts  of  Somaliland,  that  two  or  three  may  be  killed  at  a  shot.  When  dis- 
turbed, they  start  up  with  great  bounds,  uttering  a  shrill  cry;  the  flesh  has  an 
unpleasant  musky  flavor. 

DUIKERBOK 
Genus  Cephalophus 

The  elegant  little  South-African  duikerbok  brings  us  to  an  assemblage  of  small 
or  medium-sized  antelopes,  differing  in  many  important  respects  from  the  preceding, 
or  Cervicaprine  group,  which  includes  all  the  species  from  the  rietboc  to  the  Beni- 
Israel.  The  name  duikerbok  properly  applies,  of  course,  only  to  the  typical  species, 
but  it  may  be  conveniently  extended  to  include  the  whole  group.  These  antelopes, 
which  are  exclusively  African,  are  mainly  inhabitants  of  thick  forest,  although  the 
typical  form  frequents  brush-covered  or  open  country.  They  are  characterized  by 
their  small  straight  horns,  which  are  generally  present  in  both  sexes,  being  placed 
57 


898 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


far  back  on  the  skull  and  separated  by  a  long  tuft  of  hair.  The  gland  below  the  eye 
is  small,  and  is  peculiar  in  opening  either  in  the  form  of  a  slit  (as  in  the  species  fig- 
ured) or  as  a  row  of  small  pores.  The  muzzle  has  a  large  naked  portion,  and  the 
tail  is  very  short.  The  upper  molar  teeth  have  broad  and  square  crowns  (as  in  the 
figure  on  p.  748),  and  thereby  differ  markedly  from  those  of  the  preceding  group. 
The  majority  of  the  duikers  are  light  and  elegantly-built  animals,  of  a  more  or  less 
uniform  color,  and  are  all  very  similar  in  structure.  From  their  generally  inhabit- 
ing jungly  or  forest  country,  they  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  bush  bucks,  but  since 
that  name  is  also  employed  for  the  guib  (p.  865),  its  use  is  best  avoided. 


THE   DUIKERBOK. 
(One-thirteenth  natural  size.) 

The  common  or  true  duiker  ( Cephalophus  gfimmf)  is  found  in  bush-covered  dis- 
tricts from  the  Cape  to  the  Zambezi  and  Nyassaland,  and  on  the  West  Coast  ranges, 
as  far  north  as  Angola.  It  stands  about  twenty-six  inches  in  height,  and  belongs  to- 
a  group  of  three  species  characterized  by  the  general  absence  of  horns  in  the  female, 
and  by  those  of  the  male  rising  upward  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the  plane  of  the  nose. 
The  ears  are  very  long  and  narrow,  and  the  color  typically  yellowish  brown,  with  a 
more  or  less  marked  gray  tinge;  but  there  is  a  great  variation  in  this  respect,  some 
skins  tending  to  reddish  and  others  to  greenish,  while  the  amount  of  white  on  the 
under  parts  is  also  variable.  The  length  of  the  horns  is  usually  from  three  to  four 
inches,  although  they  may  reach  five  inches.  The  name  duiker,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned, signifies  diver  or  ducker,  in  allusion  to  the  rapidity  of  the  creature's  move- 


THE  DUIKERBOK 


899 


t 

ments  when  in  cover.      The  madoqua  (C.  abyssinicus)  is  a  smaller  but  allied  species 
from  Abyssinia,  distinguished  by  its  grizzled  grayish-brown  color. 

Red  Buck  The  red  bu°k  °r  Natal  duiker  ( C-  natalensis} ,  which  stands  about 

twenty-four  inches  at  the  shoulder,  differs  by  its  horns  (present  in  both 
sexes)  inclining  backward  in  the  plane  of  the  nose,  as  in  the  majority  of  the  genus. 
It  is  also  distinguished  by  its  bright  reddish-bay  color,  shorter  and  broader  ears, 
smaller  horns,  and  larger  head-tuft.  Owing  to  the  sudden  rushes  they  make  when 
disturbed,  these  antelopes  are  difficult  to  shoot,  and  their  flesh  is  unpalatable.  There 
are  many  other  more  or  less  nearly-allied  species,  such  as  the  philantomba  ( C.  max- 
welli]  of  Sierra  Leone,  to  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  refer. 


"  -" *.-<T^ "'"-"       r^l^?S -f    25fef         %,  cr  — 


Blue  Buck 


MALE    AND    FEMALE    FOUR-HORNED    ANTELOPES. 

(One-sixteenth   natural  size.) 

The  little  South -African  blue  buck  or  pigmy  antelope  (C.  monticoid) 
must,  however,  claim  attention  as  being  the  smallest  member  of  the 
genus.  These  tiny  creatures,  which  swarm  in  the  Natal  jungles,  and  stand  only 
thirteen  inches  at  the  shoulder,  are  smaller  and  lighter  in  build  than  a  hare,  and  are 
of  a  bluish-mouse  color,  with  the  tiny  straight  horns  scarcely  showing  above  the  tuft 
of  hair.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  these  antelopes  feed  principally  on  certain  ber- 
ries and  shrubs  found  growing  in  the  jungles,  and  seem  to  be  on  the  move,  more  or 
less,  the  whole  day,  though  they  are  most  often  to  be  seen  at  early  morning  and 
evening.  ' '  Perhaps  the  most  enjoyable  way  of  shooting  them  is  to  steal  about  in 


poo  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  dense  jungle,  and  shoot  them  as  they  patter  about  among  the  dead  leaves  which 
strew  the  game  paths,  or  catch  them  while  feeding  on  some  favorite  bush." 

Another  member  of  the  group  is  the  much  larger  zebra-antelope  (C, 
Zebra"  dorice}  of  West  Africa,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  eight  or  nine 

5l0pe  black  transverse  bands  crossing  the  back  and  loins,  and  gradually  nar- 
rowing to  a  point  on  the  flanks;  the  ground  color  being  a  golden  brown.  This  color- 
ation is  quite  unique  among  Ruminants,  and  rivals  that  of  the  marsupial  thylacine. 

Two  species  of  this  genus  from  West  Africa  also  call  for  mention  on 
Wood"  account  of  their  great  superiority  in  size  over  its  other  representatives. 

One  of  these  is  the  wood-antelope  ( C.  sylvicultor}  of  Sierra  Leone  and 
the  Gabun,  and  the  other  the  black  wood-antelope  ( C.  jentinki)  from  Liberia.  The 
former  stands  about  two  feet  ten  and  one-half  inches  in  height,  and  is  of  a  blackish 
color,  with  the  hinder  part  of  the  middle  of  the  back  marked  by  a  yellowish  white 
line.  The  second  species  is  rather  smaller,  and  is  of  a  grayish  color  on  the  body, 
with  the  head  and  neck  black,  and  the  legs,  lips,  and  inner  sides  of  the  ears  whitish. 
The  tuft  of  hair  on  the  head  is  small  and  inconspicuous.  Altogether  nineteen  spe- 
cies of  these  antelopes  are  recognized  by  Mr.  O.  Thomas. 


FOUR-HORNED  ANTELOPE 


The  chousingha,  or  four-horned  antelope  ( T.  quadricornis)  is  the  Indian  repre- 
sentative of  the  duikerboks,  and  differs  from  all  other  living  Ruminants  in  that  the 
male  generally  has  two  pairs  of  horns,  of  which  the  larger  are  placed  as  in  the  duik- 
ers, while  the  smaller  pair  are  situated  immediately  over  the  eyes.  The  gland  below 
the  eye  has  nearly  the  same  elongated  aperture  as  in  the  duikers;  but  there  is  no 
tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  the  upper  molar  teeth  have  no  additional 
column  on  the  inner  side.  All  the  horns  of  the  male  are  short,  conical,  and  smooth; 
the  front  pair  being  often  reduced  to  mere  knobs,  and  not  unfrequently  absent.  In 

height  the  male  chousingha  stands  twenty-five  and  one- 
half  inches  at  the  withers,  but  an  inch  and  a  half  higher 
over  the  haunches.  The  fur  is  thin,  harsh,  and  short, 
and  longer  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  than  elsewhere. 
The  general  color  is  dull  pale  brown,  with  a  more  or  less 
marked  rufous  tinge  above,  passing  gradually  into  white 
on  the  under  parts  and  inner  sides  and  lower  portions  of 
the  limbs.  There  is  a  dark  streak  down  the  front  of  each 
leg,  which  is  larger  in  the  fore  than  in  the  hind  pair.  The 
second  pair  of  horns  usually  vary  from  three  and  one-half 
to  four  inches  in  length,  and  do  not  appear  to  exceed  four 
SKULL  OF  KOXJR-HORNED  and  one-half  inches.  The  front  pair  are  generally  not 
more  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  but  may 
reach  two  and  one-half  inches;  they  are  frequently  absent  in  specimens  from  Madras. 


THE    WILDEBEESTS 


901 


Distribution          ^e  ch°usingha  is  found  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  from  the 
Punjab  to  Nipal,  and  over  the  greater  part  of  Peninsular  India  in 
wooded  and  hilly  country,  although  it  avoids  dense  jungle.     It  is  unknown  in  the 
plain  of  the  Ganges,  on  the  Malabar  coast  in  Madras,  and  likewise  in  Ceylon. 

Mr.   Blanford  writes  that  the  chousingha  "differs  from  all  other 
Habits  T    ,.  ,   .  .     -    ,  .  , 

Indian  antelopes  in  habits  as  much  as  in  structure.  It  is  not  gregari- 
ous, very  rarely  are  more  than  two  seen  together;  it  haunts  thin  forest  and  bush, 
and  keeps  chiefly  to  undulating  or  hilly  ground.  It  drinks  daily,  and  is  never  seen 
far  from  water.  It  is  a  shy  animal,  and  moves  with  a  peculiar  jerky  action  whether 
walking  or  running.  The  rutting  season  is  in  the  rains,  and  the  young,  one  or  two 
in  number,  are  born  about  January  or  February."  General  Kinloch  writes  that 
these  animals  "conceal  themselves  in  long  grass  or  among  low  bushes,  and  some- 
what resemble  hares  in  their  habits.  They  are  seldom  to  be  seen  out  feeding,  but  usu- 
ally jump  up  at  the  feet  of  the  hunter  and  bound  away  at  a  great  pace."  Fossil  re- 
mains of  the  existing  species  have  been  discovered  in  a  cave  in  Madras,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  genus  is  represented  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  Siwalik  hills 
at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas. 

WILDEBEESTS 
Genus    Connochcetes 

The  last  group  of  the  antelopes  is  represented  by  the  wildebeests  and  their  allies 
the  hartbeests  and  blesbok,  and  is  mainly  confined  to  Africa,  although  one  spe- 
cies of  hartbeests  ranges  into  Syria.  All  these  antelopes  are  of  large  size,  and  are 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  horns  in  both  sexes,  as  well  as  by  the  circumstance 
that  the  withers  are  more  or  less  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  haunches.  The 
muzzle  is  naked,  and  there  is  a  small  gland  below  the  eye,  marked  by  a  tuft  of 
hairs.  The  tail  is  long,  and  the  general  color  mostly  uniform.  The  horns  are  more 
or  less  lyrate  or  recurved,  and  at  their  origin  are  placed  more  or  less  closely  together. 
Unlike  those  of  other  antelopes,  the  bony  cores  of  the  horns  are  honeycombed  with 
cavities,  as  in  the  oxen;  but  the  upper  molar  teeth  differ  entirely  from  those  of  the 
latter  animals,  having  very  narrow  crowns,  without  any  additional  column  on  the 
inner  side. 

The  wildebeests,  or,  as  they  are  often  called,  gnus,  are  ungainly-looking  crea- 
tures, distinguished  by  their  broad  and  short  heads,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  of  great 
width,  and  fringed  with  long  bristles,  so  that  the  nostrils  are  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  a  considerable  interval.  The  neck  is  furnished  with  an  erect  mane  of  stiff 
hairs,  and  the  long  tail  is  thickly  haired  throughout  its  length.  The  nearly  smooth, 
cylindrical  horns  are  situated  on  the  highest  point  of  the  skull,  and  curve  outward, 
or  out  ward  and  downward,  and  then  bend  upward  near  the  tips.  In  the  young  wilde- 
beest the  horns  are,  however,  straight  and  diverging,  placed  at  some  distance  below 
the  highest  point  of  the  skull,  and  separated  from  one  another  by  a  wide  space  at 
the  base  covered  with  hair.  These  straight  horns  persist  as  the  tips  of  those  of  the 
adult,  the  curved  basal  portion  of  the  latter  being  a  subsequent  development.  In 


902 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


very  aged  bulls  the  two  horns  approximate  at  their  bases,  so  as  to  form  a  helmet- 
shaped  mass  completely  covering  the  part  of  the  skull,  as  in  the  Cape  buffalo. 

There  are  two  well-marked  species  of  wildebeest,  confined  to  South  and  East  Af- 
rica, both  of  which  are  represented  in  our  illustrations.  Of  these  the  common,  or 
white-tailed  wildebeest  (Connochcetes gnu] ,  is  strictly  South  African;  while  the  blue, 
or  brindled  wildebeest  (C.  taurina),  is  not  found  to  the  south  of  the  Orange  river, 
and  on  the  east  side  of  the  continent  extends  in  the  Uganda  district  some  distance  to 
the  north  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  The  former  species,  which  stands  about  four  and 


THE  WHITE-TAILED  WILDEBEEST. 
(One-fifteenth  natural  size.) 

one-half  feet  at  the  shoulder,  is  distinguished  by  the  long  hair  fringing  the  chest, 
the  long  white  tail,  and  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  body.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
blue  wildebeest  has  no  long  hair  on  the  chest,  the  tail  is  black  and  shorter,  the  sides 
of  the  withers  are  marked  with  dark  transverse  stripes,  and  the  hair  on  the  face  lies 
more  smoothly.  In  the  ordinary  form  of  this  species,  the  fringe  of  long  hair  on  the 
throat  is  black,  but  it  is  white  in  a  variety  from  Uganda.  The  horns  of  the  males 
of  this  species  have  a  spread  of  from  two  feet  to  two  feet  two  inches;  and  in  a  speci- 
men in  which  the  spread  was  two  feet  one  and  three-fourths  inches,  the  greatest 


THE    WILDEBEESTS 


903 


length  of  each  horn  along  the  hinder  curve  was  nineteen  and  one-half  inches,  and  the 

basal  girth  thirteen  and  one-half  inches.     Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  blue  wildebeest 

is  met  with  on  the  western  borders  of  Griqualand  West  and  the  eastern  edge  of  the 

Kalahari  desert,  and  from  Mashonalaud  to  Lake  Ngami  in  suitable  districts.     Near 

Kilima-Njaro  it  is  found  in  large  herds,  as  is  likewise  the  case  in  some  other  districts. 

Wildebeests  are  found  in  the  open  country,  and  never,  according  to 

Livingstone,  wander  far  away  from  the  neighborhood  of  water.    When 

quagga  were  abundant,  both  these  animals  were  frequently  found  together,  and  Mr. 

Selous  states  that  at  the  present  day  a  solitary  wildebeest  may  frequently  be  ob- 


THE  BUTE  WILDEBEEST. 
(One-twentieth  natural  size.) 

served  feeding  among  a  herd  of  sassaby  or  zebra.  Both  species  of  wildebeests  are 
characterized  by  their  speed  and  endurance.  Describing  the  habits  and  appearance 
of  the  white-tailed  species,  Gordon  Gumming  writes  as  follows:  '  The  black  wilde- 
beests, which  also  cover  the  entire  length  and  breadth  of  the  blesbok  country,  in 
herds  averaging  from  twenty  to  fifty,  have  no  regular  course,  like  the  blesbok. 
Unless  driven  by  a  large  field  of  hunters,  they  do  not  leave  their  ground,  although 
disturbed.  Wheeling  about  in  endless  circles,  and  performing  the  most  extraordi- 
nary varieties  of  intricate  evolutions,  the  shaggy  herds  of  these  eccentric  and  fierce- 
looking  animals  caper  and  gambol  round  the  hunter  on  every  side.  While  he  is 


904  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

riding  hard  to  obtain  a  shot  at  a  herd  in  front  of  him,  other  herds  are  charging  down 
wind  on  his  right  and  left,  and,  having  described  a  number  of  circular  movements, 
they  take  up  positions  upon  the  very  ground  across  which  he  rode  only  a  few  min- 
utes before.  Singly,  and  in  small  troops  of  four  or  five  individuals,  the  old  bull 
wildebeests  may  be  seen  stationed  at  intervals  throughout  the  plains,  standing  mo- 
tionless during  a  whole  forenoon,  coolly  watching  with  a  philosophic  eye  the  move- 
ments of  the  other  game,  uttering  a  loud  snorting  noise,  and  also  a  short  sharp  cry 
which  is  peculiar  to  them.  When  the  hunter  approaches  these  old  bulls,  they  com- 
mence whisking  their  long  white  tails  in  a  most  eccentric  manner;  then,  springing 
into  the  air,  begin  prancing  and  capering,  and  pursue  each  other  in  circles  at  then 


WHITE-TAILED  WILDEBEESTS  CURVETING   ROUND  A  WAGON. 

utmost  speed.  Suddenly  they  all  pull  up  together  to  overhaul  the  intruder,  when 
the  bulls  will  often  commence  fighting  in  the  most  violent  manner,  dropping  on  their 
knees  at  every  shock;  then,  quickly  wheeling  about,  they  kick  up  their  heels,  whirl 
their  tails  with  a  fantastic  flourish,  and  scour  across  the  plain  enveloped  in  a  cloud 
of  dust."  In  addition  to  their  speed,  wildebeests  are  remarkable  for  their  extreme 
tenacity  of  life,  and,  owing  to  the  vigorous  use  they  make  of  their  horns,  are  awk- 
ward creatures  to  hunt  with  dogs.  Mr.  Drummond  states  wildebeests  are  ' '  so  ex- 
tremely wary  that  fewer  are  killed  by  native  hunters  than  of  any  other  species. 
Europeans,  however,  find  them  good  practice  in  rifle  shooting,  as  they  will  stand  in 
herds  at  a  distance  which  they  think  secure,  say  three  hundred  or  four  hundred 


HARTBEESTS,  BLESBOK,  AND  BONTEBOK 


905 


yards,  and  watch  the  passer-by. ' '  Only  occasionally  can  they  be  approached  within 
easy  range  by  fair  stalking,  although  they  may  be  killed  by  watching  at  their  drink- 
ing holes  at  night.  Mr.  Drummond  writes  that,  during  a  thunderstorm  of  unusual 
intensity,  "  I  walked,  hardly  knowing  where  I  was  going,  right  into  a  herd  of  gnu. 
I  did  not  see  them  until  I  was  almost  among  them;  but  even  had  my  gun  not  been 
hopelessly  soaked,  the  fearful  storm  made  self-preservation,  and  not  destruction, 
one's  chief  thought.  They  were  standing  huddled  in  a  mass,  their  heads  together, 
and  their  sterns  outward,  and  they  positively  only  just  moved  out  of  my  way,  much 
the  same  as  a  herd  of  cattle  might  have  done. ' ' 


HARTBEESTS. 
(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

HARTBEESTS,  BLESBOK,  AND  BONTEBOK 
Genus  Bubalis 

The    well-known   hartbeest   of   South    Africa    (so    called   on    account    of    a 
fancied   resemblance   to   a   stag)    is   the   type   of  a  genus  which   may   be   taken 


HARTBEESTS,   BLESBOK,  AND  BONTEBOK  907 

c^ 

to  include   several   nearly-allied   species,   and   likewise   the   aberrant  blesbok   and 
bontebok. 

All  these  animals  differ  from  wildebeests  by  their  long  and  pointed  heads,  termi- 
nating in  a  narrow  muzzle,  their  ringed  and  often  lyrate  horns,  the  absence  of  a 
mane  on  the  head  or  throat,  and  their  shorter  and  less  thickly-haired  tail.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  narrowness  of  the  muzzle,  the  nostrils  are  closely  approximated.  The 
horns  are  compressed,  and  ringed  for  a  considerable  portion  of  their  length,  and  in 
form  are  more  or  less  lyrate,  with  their  tips  frequently  bent  suddenly  backward.  In 
the  typical  forms  the  withers  are  much  higher  than  the  haunches,  and  this  feature, 
together  with  the  great  length  of  the  face,  communicates  an  ugly  and  ungainly  ap- 
pearance to  the  whole  animal.  These  characteristics  are,  however,  far  less  strongly 
marked  in  the  blesbok  and  bontebok,  and  some  of  the  intermediate  species.  The 
cows  of  this  genus  differ  from  those  of  the  wildebeests  in  the  presence  of  only  two, 
in  place  of  four,  teats. 

The  titel,  or  bubaline  antelope  (Bubalis  maiiritanica) ,  of  North  Af- 
rica, Syria,  and  Arabia,  is  the  only  member  of  the  genus  not  confined 
to  the  African  continent.  It  is  the  smallest  representative  of  the  group,  standing 
only  three  feet  seven  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  is  of  a  uniform  bright  bay  color 
throughout.  The  face  is  extremely  elongated,  and  the  horns  are  perched  on  a  crest 
situated  on  the  very  summit  of  the  skull.  The  horns  are  comparatively  short  and 
thick,  of  a  deep  black  color,  with  the  rings  extending  nearly  to  their  tips.  They 
diverge  from  one  another  in  a  U-shaped  form,  and  have  their  tips  bent  suddenly 
backward,  nearly,  but  not  quite,  at  a  right  angle.  Their  length  varies  from  thirteen 
to  fourteen  and  one-half  inches. 

The  Tunisian  hartbeest  (B.  major),  of  west  North  Africa,  is  a  much  larger  but 
closely-allied  species,  with  enormously-massive  horns,  which  may  be  just  over 
twenty  inches  in  length,  with  a  girth  of  ten  and  one-fourth  inches. 

The  true  hartbeest  (B,  cama)  is  a  South- African  species,  not 
ranging  as  far  north  as  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland.  This  fine 
animal  stands  about  four  feet  at  the  withers;  its  general  color  being  grayish 
brown,  with  a  pale  yellowish  patch  on  each  side  of  the  haunches,  and  black  mark- 
ings on  the  forehead  and  nose.  The  hair  of  the  face  is  reversed  as  high  up  as  the 
eyes,  or  even  to  the  horns;  whereas  in  the  preceding  species  it  is  reversed  only  for 
a  distance  of  one  or  two  inches  above  the  muzzle.  The  horns  are  long  and  boldly 
ringed,  diverging  from  one  another  in  the  form  of  a  V,  with  their  tips  directed 
backward  at  a  right  angle,  and  the  bases  curved  away  behind  the  plane  of  the 
forehead.  Their  length  varies  in  good  specimens  from  twenty  to  twenty-four 
inches. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza  the  preceding  species  is  replaced 
by  Jackson's  hartbeest  (B.  jacksoni),  distinguished  by  the  uniform  pale  color  of 
the  face;  the  hair  being  reversed  for  a  distance  of  only  about  four  inches  above  the 
muzzle.  The  horns  are  about  the  same  dimensions  as  those  of  the  hartbeest;  in 
the  typical  specimen  their  length  being  twenty  and  three-fourths  inches  along  the 
front  curves,  with  a  basal  girth  of  twelve  inches,  but  in  a  second  example  the 
length  was  twenty-three  and  one-half  inches. 


908  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Writing  of  the  common  hartbeest,   Mr.   Drummond  states  that  it 
Habits  ig  one  of  the  fastest  antelopes  in  Africa,  and  possesses  such  strength 

as  to  render  it  almost  impossible  for 
anything  under  a  whole  pack  of 
strong  and  swift  hounds  to  bring  it 
to  bay.  "  It  is  common  in  the  great 
level  grass  plains  to  the  northwest  of 
Zululand,  and  on  several  occasions  I 
tried  coursing  them  there  with  two 
very  fast  crossed  Amaponda  grey- 
hounds; but  although  the  latter 
could  run  up  to  them  when  they  had 
a  fair  start,  they  never  once  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  one  to  bay,  or 
even  in  causing  one  to  separate  from 
the  herd."  In  such  districts  it  ap- 
pears that  the  only  way  to  obtain  a 
successful  shot  is  for  the  hunter 
to  conceal  himself  in  a  ravine,  and 
have  the  antelope  driven  in  his 
direction. 

Cooke's  hartbeest  (B.  cookei],  of  British  and  German  East  Africa, 
brings  us  to  a  group  of  three  species,  readily  distinguished  from  all 
the  preceding  forms  by  the  wide  expansion  of  their  horns,  as  shown 
in  the  figure  of  the  skull.  The  other  two  members  of  this  group  are  the  tora  ante- 
lope (B.  tora),  of  Upper  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  which  is  represented  on  the  left  side 
of  our  illustration  on  p.  906;  and  Swayne's  hartbeest  (B.  swaynei],  of  Somali- 
land,  of  which  the  head  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  and  the  skull  on  p.  649. 
In  all  these  species  the  hair  of  the  face  is  reversed  only  for  a  distance  of  two  inches  or 
less  above  the  muzzle.  In  Swayne's  hartbeest — the  sig  of  the  Somalis  —  the  gen- 
eral color  is  reddish  chestnut,  the  face  being  marked  by  a  broad  purplish  streak 
extending  from  a  little  distance  below  the  eyes.  The  horns  expand  very  widely, 
rising  at  first  nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  face,  and  then  forming  a  right  angle  with 
the  middle  line  of  the  forehead;  their  smooth  tips  being  bent  at  right,  angles  to  the 
base,  and  directed  immediately  backward.  Their  length  varies  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  and  one-fourth  inches.  In  regard  to  the  habitat  of  this  species,  Cap- 
tain Swayne  writes,  that  "  to  the  south  of  the  highest  ranges  of  Somaliland,  and  at 
a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  are  open  plains,  some  four 
thousand  or  five  thousand  feet  above  sea  level,  alternating  with  broken  ground 
covered  with  thorn  jungle,  with  an  undergrowth  of  aloes  growing  sometimes  to  a 
height  of  six  feet.  This  elevated  country,  called  the  Hand,  is  waterless  for  three 
months,  from  January  to  March.  Much  of  it  is  bush-covered  wilderness,  or  open 
semidesert,  but  some  of  the  higher  plains  are,  at  the  proper  season,  in  early  season, 
covered  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  with  a  beautiful  carpet  of  green  grass, 
like  English  pasture  land.  At  this  time  of  the  year  pools  of  water  may  be 


UPPER  PART  OP  SKUW,  AND  HORNS  OF  COOKE'S 

HARTBEEST. 
(From  Giinther.) 


Cooke's 

Hartbeest 


HARTBEESTS,   BLESBOK,  AND  BONTEBOK 


909 


country    is 


found,  as  the  rainfall  is  abundant.  This  kind 
called  the  Ban.  Not  a  bush  is  to 
be  seen,  and  some  of  these  plains 
are  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  extent 
each  way.  There  is  not  always 
much  game  to  be  got  in  the  Hand, 
but  a  year  ago  coming  on  to 
ground  which  had  not  been  vis- 
ited by  Europeans,  I  found  one 
of  these  plains  covered  with  herds 
of  hartbeests,  there  being  perhaps 
a  dozen  herds  in  sight  at  one  time, 
each  herd  containing  three  or  four 
hundred  individuals.  Hundreds 
of  bulls  were  scattered  singly  on 
the  outskirts,  and  in  the  spaces 
between  the  herds,  grazing,  fight- 
ing, or  lying  down.  The  scene  I 
describe  was  at  a  distance  of 
over  a  hundred  miles  from  Ber* 
bera,  and  the  game  has  probably 
been  driven  far  beyond  that  point 
by  now. ' ' 

Cooke's  hartbeest  is  of  a  red- 
dish-brown color  on  the  upper  parts 

and  grayish  brown  beneath,  the  head  being  dark  rufous  in  front  and  fulvous  on  the 
sides,  and  thus  very  different  from  that  of  the  sig.  The  horns  are  also  shorter  and 
less  widely  expanded  than  in  the  latter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tora  antelope  has 
the  whole  face  of  a  uniform  pale  isabelline  tint,  like  that  of  the  body;  the  horns 
being  fully  as  long  as  in  the  sig,  but  rising  much  more  rapidly  from  the  base, 
then  coming  farther  forward,  and  projecting  much  more  in  the  backward  direction. 
Tora  horns  vary  from  twelve  to  nineteen  and  one-half  inches  in  length. 

The  konze  (B.  lichtensteini)  is  a  very  distinct  species,  inhabiting 
all  the  Zambezi  region  and  Nyassaland,  characterized  by  its  small 
horns,  which  are  much  expanded  and  flattened  at  their  bases.  These  horns  incline 
at  first  upward  and  outward,  and  then  inward,  with  their  tips  directed  backward 
and  upward  so  as  to  inclose  a  kind  of  vase-shaped  space,  their  length  ranging  from 
fourteen  to  twenty  inches.  The  skull  is  also  shorter  than  in  any  of  the  foregoing 
species.  The  general  color  is  a  little  lighter  than  that  of  the  hartbeest;  the  tail, 
knees,  and  the  front  of  the  legs  being  black,  while  the  face  is  without  any  dark 
markings,  but  the  buttocks  usually  have  a  pale  yellow  patch,  and  the  under  parts 
are  likewise  yellowish.  In  Nyassaland  this  species,  according  to  Mr.  Crawshay,  is 
very  generally  met  with  in  the  hills,  if  not  too  steep  and  rocky,  and  in  the  plains, 
but  it  appears  to  prefer  a  flat  or  undulating  country,  well  wooded  and  with  inter- 
vening open  glades.  It  is  frequently  found  feeding  with  water  buck  or  zebras,  and 


HEAD  OF  SWAYNE'S  HARTBEEST. 
(After  Rowland  Ward.) 


Konze 


9io  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

generally  goes  in  small  herds  of  from  five  or  six  to  fifteen  or  twency.  Its  vitality 
appears  to  be  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  water  buck. 

Perhaps  the  handsomest  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  herota, 
Herota  of   jjunter's  hartbeest  (B.   hunteri] — from  the  southern    borders  of 

Somaliland,  on  the  great  river  Tana  —  which  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  white 

chevron  on  the  forehead,  and  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  long  horns.  This  fine  antelope 
stands  about  four  feet  at  the  withers,  and  is 
of  a  uniform  chestnut-brown  color,  with  a 
rather  long  white  tail,  and  white  under  parts. 
The  chevron  on  the  forehead  has  its  angle 
directed  upward,  and  terminates  in  rings 
surrounding  the  eyes.  The  horns,  after  in- 
clining upward  and  outward  for  a  short  dis- 
tance, run  vertically  upward  for  a  much  greater 
length,  with  long  smooth  tips.  Their  length 
is  about  twenty-two  inches  in  the  males. 
The  face  is  still  of  considerable  length,  but 
the  hind-quarters  do  not  slope  away  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  true  hartbeest.  This 
antelope  is  found  on  the  plains  and  in  thick 
bush  on  the  Tana  river.  Mr.  Hunter  says 
that  his  party  first  met  with  this  antelope 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  up  the 
Tana  river.  "It  is  only  found  for  certain 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river.  It  frequents 
the  grassy  plains  principally,  but  is  also 
found  in  thick  bush.  It  is  generally  met 
with  in  herds  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
individuals.  At  the  time  of  year  when  I 
came  across  them  (October  and  November) 
I  saw  several  young  ones  in  the  herds.  The 
banks  of  the  Tana  river  are  fringed  with  a 
thin  belt  of  forest;  then  the  ground  rises 
slightly,  and  one  sees  extensive  plains,  dotted 
here  and  there  with  large  patches  of  bush, 
composed  principally  of  euphorbias  and  aloes. 
The  lesser  kudu  (see  p.  862)  lives  principally 
in  these  patches,  and  feeds  outside  of  them  in 

the  early  morning  and  evening.  When  I  first  saw  the  new  antelope  I  was  stalk- 
ing two  examples  of  Waller's  gazelle,  and  though  I  saw  Hunter's  antelopes  in 
the  distance  I  mistook  them  for  impalas,  which,  however,  are  not  found  on  the 
Tana  on  either  bank.  It  was  only  when  I  fired  at  the  gazelles  and  Hunter's 
antelopes  ran  away,  that  I  noticed  they  were  new  to  me.  They  ran  with  rather 
a  heavy  gallop,  like  a  hartbeest.  We  did  not  come  across  these  antelopes 


HEAD  OF  HUNTER'S  HARTBEEST. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1890.) 


HARTBEESTS,   BLESBOK,  AND  BONTEBOK 


911 


Korrigum 


again  for  some  days,  but  then  met  with  them  in  large  '"numbers  and  got  sev- 
eral specimens.  They  seemed  to  me  to  have  more  vitality  than  any  other 
antelope  I  ever  killed.  This  species  certainly  does  not  extend  down  to  the  coast, 
but  we  saw  them  as  far  as  the  farthest  point  we  reached  (about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles)  up  the  river,  at  a  place  called  Mussa." 

Ranging  across  Central 
Africa,  from  Senegal  on  the 
west  to  Southern  Somaliland  on  the  east 
is  the  korrigum  or  Senegal  antelope  (B. 
senegalensis}  ,  in  which  the  comparatively- 
short  horns  are  regularly  lyrate,  ringed 
nearly  to  their  tips,  and  curving  backward 
without  any  distinct  angulation.  This 
species  is  represented  in  the  right  upper 
corner  of  the  illustration  on  p.  906.  The 
face  is  only  of  moderate  length,  and  the 
withers  (as  in  the  sassaby)  are  not  greatly 
higher  than  the  rump.  The  face  has  a 
broad  black  band,  extending  from  the  root 
of  the  horns  to  the  nose. 

Better  known  than  the  last 


Sassa  y 


.g  ^  neariy_aiiied  sassaby  or 


bastard  hartbeest  (B.  lunata},  widely  dis- 

tributed in  South  Africa  as  far  north  as  the 

Zambezi.     The  horns,   which  seldom  ex- 

ceed   twelve    inches    in    length,    diverge 

widely  from  their  bases,  and  are  then  in- 

clined inward  and  upward,   without   any 

angulation.      The   general   color    of    the 

coarse  fur  is  dark  purplish  red,  becoming 

almost  black  along  the  back,  and  with  a 

broad  blackish  mark  down  the  face.     In 

height  the  animal  stands  about   three  feet 

ten  inches,   and  has  horns  ranging  from 

thirteen  to  fifteen  and  one-half  inches  in 

length.     Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  sassaby  "  is  never  found  in  hilly  country  or  in 

thick  jungle,  but  frequents  the  open  downs  that  are  quite  free  from  bush,  or  else 

open   forest  country  in  which  treeless  glades  are  to  be  met  with.     On  the  Mabani 

flat  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season  large   herds  of  these  animals  congregate  and 

I  have  often   seen,  I   am    sure,  several    hundreds   of    them  at  once.      They  are 

without  exception  the  fleetest  and  most  enduring  antelopes  in  South  Africa."     In 

regard  to  sassaby  hunting,  Mr.  Drummond  observes  that  "  I  do  not  consider  them  a 

difficult  animal  to  shoot  for  a  good  rifle  shot,  as  standing  chances  at  from  one  hun- 

dred and  fifty  to   two  hundred  yards  are  easy  to  obtain,  and  they  will  often  allow 

one  to  walk  up  to  within  that  distance  in  full  view  before  even  attempting  to  take  to 


HEAD  OF  THE  KORRIGUM  OR  SENEGAL 

ANTELOPE. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1890.) 


9i2  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

flight,  while  when  wounded,  I  have  found  them  unable  to  go  far,  and  easy  to  finish; 
and  their  flesh  may  be  classed  with  that  of  the  best  of  the  choicer  antelopes." 

The  blesbok  (B.  albifrons)  and  the  closely-allied  bontebok  (B. 
bygargus} ,  which  are  represented  in  the  right  lower  corner  of  the  illus- 
tration on  p.  906,  are  smaller  South-African  antelopes,  which  are  the  last  represent- 
atives of  the  genus.  In  both  species  the  horns  are  compressed  and  regularly  lyrate, 
with  the  rings  strongly  marked,  and  extending  nearly  to  the  tips;  for  a  short  dis- 
tance they  run  almost  parallel,  and  then  curve  backward.  Their  usual  length  is 
about  fifteen  inches,  but  a  pair  of  eighteen  and  one-fourth  inches,  is  on  record.  Both 
species  are  characterized  by  their  brilliant  purple-red  color,  and  the  broad  white 
"blaze"  down  the  face,  from  which  the  blesbok  takes  its  name.  The  bontebok 
(the  animal  standing  in  front  of  the  two  on  the  right  side  of  the  illustration)  is 
distinguished  by  the  white  blaze  on  the  face  continuing  without  interruption  right 
up  to  the  root  of  the  horns,  the  white  patch  on  the  buttocks  surrounding  the  tail, 
and  the  white  legs.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  blesbok  (shown  in  the  hind  one  of  the 
two  animals  standing  on  the  right  side  of  the  cut)  the  blaze  on  the  face  is  divided 
by  a  transverse  dark  line  just  above  the  eyes;  there  is  no  white  on  the  rump  above 
the  tail,  but  a  dark  stripe  runs  down  the  outer  side  of  the  legs.  In  height  the 
blesbok  stands  about  three  feet  two  inches  or  rather  more  at  the  withers,  but  the 
bontebok  may  reach  from  three  feet  two  inches  to  three  feet  eleven  inches. 

After  mentioning  that  blesbok  resemble  the  smaller  springbok  in 
manners  and  habits,  Gordon  Cumming  goes  on  to  observe  that  they 
differ  from  the  latter  "in  the  determined  and  invariable  way  in  which  they  scour 
the  plains,  right  in  the  wind's  eye,  and  also  in  the  manner  in  which  they  carry  their 
noses  close  to  the  ground.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year  they  are  very 
wary  and  difficult  of  approach,  but  more  especially  when  the  does  have  young  ones. 
At  that  season,  when  a  herd  is  disturbed  and  takes  away  up  the  wind,  every  other 
herd  in  view  follows  it,  and  the  alarm  extending  for  miles  and  miles  down  the  wind, 
to  endless  herds  beyond  the  vision  of  the  hunter,'  a  continued  stream  of  blesbok  may 
often  be  seen  scouring  up  wind  for  upward  of  an  hour,  and  covering  the  landscape 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  see. ' '  On  one  occasion  when  on  the  Vet  river  the  same  writer 
states:  "On  my  right  and  left  the  plain  exhibited  one  purple  mass  of  graceful 
blesbok,  which  extended  without  a  break  as  far  as  my  eye  could  strain.  The 
depth  of  their  vast  legions  covered  a  breadth  of  about  six  hundred  yards." 

We  may  conclude  this  notice  of  the  hartbeests  and  their  allies  by 
Extinct 

Species       mentioning  that  a  member  of  the  group  occurs  fossil  in  the  Pliocene 

strata  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  and  it  may  be  inferred  from  this 
and  the  facts  above  mentioned  that  the  essentially  African  groups  of  sable  antelopes, 
water  bucks,  and  hartbeests,  and  probably  also  kudus,  were  once  represented  on  the 
plains  of  India. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE  UNGULATES— continued 


THE  PRONGBUCK  —  Family  ANTILOCAPRID^E,  and 
THE  GIRAFFE  —  Family 


THE  prongbuck  of  North  America  and  the  giraffe  of  Africa  differ  so  much  from 
all  other  living  Ruminants,  and  likewise  from  one  another,  that  they  are  referred  by 
common  consent  to  two  distinct  families,  namely,  the  Antilocaprida  and  the  Giraf- 
fidce.  Whereas,  however,  the  former  is  closely  allied  to  the  preceding  family  of  the 
Oxen,  the  affinities  of  the  latter  are  rather  with  the  Deer  family,  to  be  described  in 
the  next  chapter. 

THE  PRONGBUCK 
Family   ANTILOCAPRID^E 

The  prongbuck  or  prong-horned  antelope  (Antilocapra  americana)  much  resem- 
bles an  antelope  in  general  appearance,  but  differs  from  all  members  of  the  family 
Bovida  in  that  the  sheaths  of  the  horns  give  off  a  short  branch  about  the  middle  of 
their  length  from  their  front  edge,  while  the  sheaths  themselves  are  periodically 
shed  and  afterward  replaced  by  a  new  growth. 

The  prongbuck  stands  about  two  feet  ten  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and 
some  three  inches  more  at  the  rump,  and  is  of  a  light  and  graceful  build,  with  the 
head  carried  very  high.  The  head  is  of  moderate  length,  with  the  muzzle  hairy  ex- 
cept for  a  narrow  line  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  lip,  and  large  and  pointed  ears. 
The  horns,  which  are  present  in  both  sexes,  rise  vertically  above  the  eyes;  they  are 
much  compressed  from  side  to  side,  and  curved  slightly  backward  at  the  tips,  while 
the  anterior  process  is  inclined  upward  and  forward  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five 
degrees  with  the  main  axis.  The  bony  cores  of  the  horns  are  dagger  shaped,  with- 
out any  branching.  The  tail  is  extremely  short,  not  exceeding  three  inches  in 
length,  and  the  feet  have  small  hoofs  and  no  traces  of  the  lateral  hoofs  so  commonly 
present  in  the  Bovidcz.  There  is  no  gland  on  the  face  below  the  eye,  neither  are* 
there  any  tufts  of  hair  on  the  knees. 

The  coloration  of  the  prongbuck  is  decidedly  handsome  and  striking;  the  gen- 
eral hair  of  the  upper  parts  and  outer  surfaces  of  the  limbs  being  chestnut.  The 
hair  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  which  is  of  the  general  chestnut  tint,  is  lengthened 
into  a  kind  of  mane.  The  face  is  brownish  black;  but  the  summit  of  the  head  above 
the  eyes,  and  likewise  the  ears,  cheeks,  and  chin  are  white.  White  also  prevails  on 
58  (913) 


9i4  THE   UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  lower  portion  of  the  throat,  and  under  parts,  and  the  inferior  half  of  the  flanks, 
and  extends  upward  to  form  a  large  patch  on  the  rump  which  includes  the  tail, 
ually  the  throat  is  crossed  by  three  russet-yellow  transverse  bars,  of  which  the  up- 
permost is  continuous  with  the  dark  area  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  lower  portion  of  the 
limbs  is  white.  The  horns  are  black,  save  at  the  tips,  where  they  become  yellowish; 
and  their  usual  length  is  about  twelve  inches,  but  Mr.  Otho  Shaw  has  a  pair  meas- 
uring seventeen  inches,  with  a  span  of  twenty  inches. 

s»Sfe 


Distribution 


GROUP  OK  PRONGBUCK. 
(One-thirteenth  natural  size.) 

The  habitat  of  the  pongbuck  appears  to  be  restricted  to  the  temper- 
ate regions  of  the  western  portion  of  North  America,  and  there  is  no- 
evidence  that  it  ever  occurred  to  the  eastward  of  the  Mississippi,  while  it  only  im- 
pinges on  that  river  in  its  upward  reaches.  According  to  Mr.  Caton,  these  animals 
originally  inhabited  all  the  regions,  except  wooded  districts  and  high  mountain 
ranges,  lying  to  the  westward  of  the  Mississippi  within  the  limits  of  the  United 


THE  PRONG  BUCK  915 

r^' 

States.  Up  to  the  year  1855  they  were  abundant  in  California,  and  were  not  un- 
common in  the  open  parts  of  Oregon;  but  they  have  now  almost  if  not  completely 
disappeared  from  both  these  states.  In  latitude  their  range  extended  from  the  trop- 
ics to  the  fifty-fourth  parallel;  and  within  these  limits  they  frequent  by  choice 
the  open  prairie  country,  avoiding  thickly-timbered  districts  or  high,  naked 
mountains. 

That  the  horns  of  the  prongbuck  were  shed  annually  was  long  and 
persistently  urged  by  the  hunters  of  Fort  Union,  but  these  statements 
were  received  with  incredulity  by  naturalists,  who  scouted  the  idea.  Eventually, 
however,  it  was  proved  to  their  satisfaction  that  the  hunters  were  right  and  they 
themselves  in  error.  In  fully  adult  individuals,  the  annual  shedding  of  the  horns 
usually  takes  place  in  October,  but  in  the  young  the  horns  are  retained  till  January. 
In  the  males  the  horns  can  be  felt  as  prominences  beneath  the  skin  even  at  birth,  and 
at  about  four  months  old  they  burst  through  the  skin.  They  are  later  in  making 
their  appearance  in  the  females,  and  cannot  be  detected  at  birth.  One  of  the  best 
accounts  of  the  shedding  and  replacement  of  the  horns  is  given  by  Mr.  Caton,  from 
which  the  following  summary  is  taken.  On  looking  into  the  hollow  of  a  shed  horn, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  cavity  does  not  extend  much  above  the  point  of  bifurca- 
tion, while  it  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  interior  of  the  horn  contains  a  number  of 
coarse  light-colored  hairs,  all  of  which  are  firmly  attached  to  its  substance,  while 
in  the  lower  part  many  pass  completely  through  it.  The  core  from  which  the 
sheath  was  cast  will  also  be  found  to  be  covered  with  similar  hairs  growing  from  an 
investing  skin,  and  it  will  thus  be  evident  that  the  sheath  was  more  or  less  com- 
pletely penetrated  by  a  number  of  the  subjacent  hairs,  which  were  of  course  torn 
asunder  at  the  time  of  shedding.  Indeed,  the  horn  of  the  prongbuck  is  in  reality 
nothing  more  than  a  mass  of  agglomerated  hairs,  arid  thereby  differs  markedly  from 
the  bovine  horn. 

On  examining  the  head  of  a  prougbuck  from  which  the  horns  have  been  freshly 
shed,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  summits  of  the  cores  are  already  capped  with 
small  new  horns,  which  have  evidently  commenced  their  growth  considerably  before 
the  period  of  casting,  as  they  reach  for  several  inches  above  the  tips  of  the  cores. 
The  summits  of  these  new  horns  are  perfectly  hardened,  but  lower  down  they  grad- 
ually become  softer  and  softer,  until  they  pass  into  the  skin  investing  the  greater 
part  of  the  core.  The  condition  presented  by  an  animal  with  newly-growing  horns 
is  shown  in  the  cut  on  the  following  page. 

It  is  thus  clear  that  as  the  new  horn  gradually  inceased  in  length  above  the 
summit  of  the  core,  it  must  have  loosened  and  carried  with  it  the  old  sheath,  which 
eventually  became  completely  detached  from  the  core  by  the  breaking  and  tearing 
away  of  the  hairs  passing  from  the  skin  into  its  substance.  When  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  hairs  were  detached  or  broken,  any  sudden  motion  of  the  animal  would 
doubtless  lead  to  the  loss  of  the  horns;  but  it  does  not  appear  that,  at  least  as  a 
rule,  the  process  is  assisted  by  the  animal  rubbing  its  horns  against  neighboring 
objects.  In  regard  to  the  renovating  process,  Mr.  Caton  writes  that  "  when  the  old 
horn  was  cast  off,  the  new  one,  as  we  have  already  seen,  had  made  a  considerable 
growth  above  the  core,  which  was  already  tipped  with  perfected  horn,  while  a  sec- 


916 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


tion  below  it  was  more  or  less  hardened  or  partially  converted  into  horn.  This 
intervening  section  gradually  moved  down  the  horn,  constantly  invading  the  soft  skm 
below  and  followed  above  with  perfected  horn.  All  this  time  the  horn  was  grow- 
ing in  length  above  the  core,  and  assuming  that  posterior  curvature  near  its  upper 
part  which  so  much  resembles  the  curvature  of  the  horns  of  the  chamois.  After  the 
horn  is  perfected  down  to  the  top  of  the  cores,  it  ceases  to  increase  in  length,  while 
the  apparently  converting  process  steadily  progresses  downward  along  or  around 
the  core.  The  cores  being  laterally  compressed,  the  horn  assumes  the  same  form, 

not,  however,  conform- 
ing precisely  to  the 
shape  of  the  core,  but 
extending  considerably 
in  front  of  it,  where  it 
is  thinner  than  the  pos- 
terior part.  At  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  wide 
flattened  part,  the  snag 
or  prong  is  thrown  out, 
which  consists  of  little 
more  than  an  abrupt 
termination  of  the  wide 
part,  with  an  elevated 
exterior  point.  By  the 
latter  part  of  winter,  in 
the  adult,  the  horn  has 
attained  about  this  stage 
of  growth.  From  this 
it  presses  on,  hardening 
in  its  downward  growth 
till  the  latter  part  of 
summer,  by  which  time 
HEAD  OF  PRONGBUCK,  WITH  NEWLY-GROWING  HORNS.  ^e  growth  is  perfected 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1880,  p.  540.) 

down  to  the  base,  and  is 

a  complete  weapon  for  warfare.  In  this  state  it  continues  until  the  new  horn  has 
commenced  its  growth  and  begun  to  displace  the  old  one  from  its  position,  in  the 
manner  described  above. ' ' 

As  regards  habits,  the  prongbuck  is  a  shy  and  timid  creature,  avoid- 
ing its  enemies  with  great  intelligence,  although  sometimes  betrayed 
into  danger  by  its  extreme  curiosity.  It  is  swifter  than  any  other  native  North- 
American  Ungulate,  but  is  somewhat  short  winded  and  cannot  maintain  its  speed 
for  any  length  of  time.  Prongbucks  are  essentially  gregarious,  and,  according  to 
Dr.  Canfield,  individuals  of  both  sexes  and  of  all  ages  congregate  in  herds  from  the 
beginning  of  September  to  the  end  of  February.  By  the  beginning  of  March, 
the  same  writer  states,  ' '  the  does  separate  themselves  from  the  band  one  by  one  to 
drop  their  kids.  They  produce  two  at  a  birth.  After  a  little  time  the  does  collect 


Habits 


THE  PRONG  BUCK  917 


r 


together  with  their  young,  probably  for  mutual  protection  against  coyotes;  the  old 
bucks  in  the  meantime  go  off  alone,  each  by  himself  or  at  most  two  together,  leav- 
ing the  young  bucks  and  young  does  together  in  small  bands.  The  old  bucks  now 
for  a  month  or  two  wander  a  great  deal,  and  are  seen  in  the  timber  lands,  and  in 
other  places  where  they  never  go  at  any  other  season  of  the  year,  evidently  '  tired 
of  the  world '  and  fleeing  from  society.  After  two  or  three  months,  the  young 
bucks  and  does  join  the  old  does  and  their  kids,  and  finally,  by  the  first  of  Septem- 
ber, all  are  together  once  more  in  bands  of  hundreds. or  thousands.  Any  par- 
ticular band  of  antelopes  does  not  leave  the  locality  where  they  grow  up,  and  never 
ranges  more  than  a  few  miles  in  different  directions. ' ' 

At  the  present  day  prongbuck  are  seldom,  however,  met  with  in  numbers  any- 
thing like  those  just  mentioned.  During  the  pairing  season  the  bucks  are  com- 
bative and  frequently  engage  in  fierce  contests  among  themselves.  In  defense  of  her 
young  the  female  prongbuck  is  said  to  exhibit  great  boldness,  sometimes  even  beat- 
ing off  the  attacks  of  the  coyote  by  the  vigorous  use  of  both  horns  and  hoofs.  Audu- 
bon  and  Backman,  in  describing  the  contests  between  the  bucks,  state  that,  "when  a 
male  sees  another  approaching,  or  accidentally  conies  upon  one  of  his  rivals,  both  parties 
run  at  each  other  with  their  heads  lowered  and  their  eyes  flashing  angrily,  and  while 
they  strike  with  their  horns  they  wheel  and  bound  with  prodigious  rapidity,  giving 
and  receiving  severe  wounds;  sometimes,  like  fencers,  getting  within  each  others' 
'  points,'  and  each  hooking  his  antagonist  with  the  recurved  branches  of  his  horns." 

In  spite  of  their  extreme  speed,  prongbuck  are  but  poor  jumpers,  and  appear 
unable  to  leap  over  any  large  object  that  may  be  in  their  path;  this  incapacity  being 
attributed  to  the  open  nature  of  the  country  which  these  animals  generally  frequent. 
Mr.  Caton  states  that  "this  inability  to  leap  over  high  objects  may  no  doubt  be 
attributable  to  the  fact  that  they  live  upon  the  plains,  where  they  rarely  meet  with 
such  obstructions,  and  so  they  and  their  ancestors  for  untold  generations  have  had 
no  occasion  to  overleap  high  obstructions,  and  thus  from  disuse  they  do  not  know 
how  to  do  it,  and  never  attempt  it  when  they  do  meet  them."  The  same  writer 
also  states  that  if  a  prongbuck  on  the  plains  desires  to  cross  the  railroad  track,  when 
alarmed  by  the  cars,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  he  will  strain  every  muscle  to  outrun 
the  train  and  cross  ahead  of  it,  as  if  he  suspected  a  purpose  to  cut  him  off  from  cross- 
ing; and  thus  many  an  exciting  race  has  been  witnessed  between  muscle  and  steam. 
When  excited  during  its  gambols  with  its  fellows,  or  by  the  emotions  of  rage  or  fear,  the 
appearance  of  the  prongbuck  alters  considerably.  On  such  occasions,  writes  Mr.  Caton, 
' '  the  hair  of  the  white  patch  on  the  rump  rises  up,  and  assumes  a  more  or  less  curved 
radial  position  from  a  central  point  on  each  side  of  the  vertebrae.  From  these  points  the 
hairs  radiate  in  every  direction,  only  they  are  as  nearly  erect  as  their  curved  radial  posi- 
tion will  permit.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  just  idea  of  this  appearance  by  words." 

The  prongbuck  is  readily  tamed  when  in  captivity;  and  all  who  have  eaten  it 
bear  testimony  as  to  the  excellence  of  its  flesh.  The  brittle  nature  of  the  hairs  renders 
the  fur  of  but  little  value,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  skins  are  much  used  as 
leather.  As  might  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  its  habits,  the  prongbuck  is 
exclusively  a  grazing  animal;  and  in  captivity  avoids  browsing  on  leaves,  except 
when  no  other  food  is  available. 


9i8  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

There  are  two  chief  methods  of  hunting  the  prongbuck;  one  by 
stalking  or  "still-hunting,"  and  the  other  by  coursing  with  grey- 
hounds. In  the  northwestern  portion  of  its  habitat,  the  proper  season  for  hunting 
embraces  the  months  of  September,  October,  and  November;  but  in  the  southwest 
the  period  may  be  extended  to  the  end  of  the  year.  In  localities  where  they  have 
not  been  much  disturbed,  prongbuck  are  comparatively  tame  and  not  very  difficult 
to  approach  within  range.  The  case  is,  however,  very  different  in  districts  where 
they  are  frequently  hunted.  Thus  Mr.  Du  Bray  writes,  that  "  the  ostrich,  with  his 
vaunted  power  of  vision,  is  comparatively  nearsighted  when  compared  with  the  an- 
telope.* The  giraffe  may  excell  him,  not  from  having  superior  eyes,  but  from  their 
greater  elevation,  and  therefore  greater  scope.  The  deer  is  simply  nowhere  in  this 
respect.  Even  when  in  the  habit  of  roaming  on  the  prairie,  he  has  not  the  knack  of 
detecting  an  intruder  as  an  antelope  has.  I  never  had  any  trouble  in  getting  within 
two  hundred  yards  of  an  ostrich,  in  any  decent  place;  yet,  with  years  01  experience 
on  these,  and  a  great  deal  of  other  prairie  shooting,  I  at  first  found  it  difficult  to  get 
within  six  hundred  yards  of  an  antelope,  and  then  it  was  invariably  a  wide-awake 
one,  fully  able  to  take  care  of  himself." 

For  coursing  the  prongbuck,  only  the  very  best  bred  and  toughest  greyhounds 
are  of  any  use,  while  it  is  equally  essential  that  the  horse  on  which  the  hunter  is 
mounted  should  be  of  the  swiftest.  With  such  dogs  it  appears,  however,  that  the 
prongbuck  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  pull  down,  and  it  may  accordingly  be  inferred 
that  the  speed  of  the  animal  is  considerably  inferior  to  that  of  the  Indian  black 
buck,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  cannot  be  captured  by  greyhounds  on  good  ground. 
Fossilized  remains  of  the  prongbuck  occur  in  some  of  the  superficial 
Pleistocene  deposits  of  North  America,  but  palaeontology  has  not  hith- 
erto revealed  to  us  the  existence  of  any  nearly-allied  extinct  forms.  It  is  suggested, 
however,  that  a  small  deer-like  animal  (Cosoryx],  with  short  antlers,  may  have  given 
rise  to  the  prongbuck  by  the  loss  of  the  fork  in  the  antlers,  and  the  development  of 
a  superficial  horny  sheath. 

THE  GIRAFFE 
Family 


As  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  the  giraffe  (Giro/a  camelopar- 
dalis],  like  the  prongbuck,  is  the  sole  existing  representative  of  the  family  to  which 
it  belongs.  Whereas,  however,  the  latter  animal  stands  apparently  alone  among 
Ruminants,  species  of  giraffes  were  widely  distributed  in  former  epochs,  while  there 
were  also  several  more  or  less  closely-allied  types  now  extinct. 

Owing  to  the  great  length  of  its  neck  and  limbs,  coupled  with  its  large  bodily 
size,  the  giraffe  is  by  far  the  tallest  of  all  Mammals.  In  addition  to  its  elongated 
neck  and  limbs,  it  is  characterized  by  the  depth  and  shortness  of  the  body,  the  great 
elevation  of  the  withers  as  compared  with  the  hind-quarters,  and  the  long  and  deli- 
cately-formed head,  with  its  large,  full,  and  clear  eyes,  and  the  pair  of  horn-like  ap- 
pendages covered  with  skin  which  surmount  the  occiput. 

*  In  America  the  prongbuck  is  often  termed  the  antelope,  pure  and  simple. 


THE  GIRAFFE 


919 


As  it  is  largely  owing  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  these  horn-like  appendages  that 
the  giraffe  is  referred  to  a  distinct  family,  they  require  somewhat  fuller  notice. 
These  horns,  as  they  may  be  conveniently  called,  are  only  a  few  inches  in  length, 
and  are  present  in  both  sexes,  making  their  appearance  even  before  birth.  They 
are  erect,  subconical  processes  of  bone,  which  at  first  are  entirely  separate  from  the 
bones  of  the  skull,  although  in  later  life  completely  uniting  with  them.  They  are 
thus  essentially  different  from  the  horn  cores  of  the  oxen  and  their  allies,  from 
which  they  are  likewise  distinguished  by  being  invested  with  skin  instead  of  horn; 
while,  as  we  shall  see  in  the 
next  chapter,  they  are  equally 
distinct  from  the  antlers  of 
the  deer.  With  the  excep- 
tion that  they  are  at  first 
separate  bones,  instead  of 
part  and  parcel  of  the  skull, 
they  appear  on  the  whole  to 
come  nearest  to  the  horn 
cores  of  the  prongbuck, 
which,  as  already  mentioned, 
are  coated  with  a  hairy  skin 
beneath  the  deciduous 
horny  sheath.  In  addition 
to  these  paired  horns,  there 
is  a  dome-like  bony  protuber- 
ance occupying  the  middle 
line  of  the  skull  between  the 
eyes,  which  is  frequently  re- 
ferred to  as  the  third  horn. 
The  position  and  relations  of 
these  three  appendages  of  the 
skull  are  well  indicated  in 
our  figure  of  the  giraffe's 
skeleton. 

The  skull  of  the  giraffe 
is  further  characterized  by 
the  great  elevation  of  the 
forehead  and  face  above  the 
level  of  the  eyes,  this  being 
due  to  the  development  of 
a  number  of  air  cells  in  the 
bones.  There  is  also  a  large 
unossified  space  immediately 
below  the  eye.  As  regards  the  teeth,  those  of  the  upper  cheek  series  are  remarkable 
for  the  lowness  and  breadth  of  their  crowns,  and  the  roughness  of  the  enamel 
with  which  they  are  invested,  while  there  are  no  canines  in  the  upper  jaw. 


GIRAFFES  AT   A   POOL. 


92o  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Reverting  to  the  consideration  of  the  external  characteristics  of  the  giraffe,  we 
note  that  the  ears  are  large  and  pointed,  and  that  the  large  and  slit-like  nostrils  can 
be  completely  closed  at  the  will  of  their  owner.  Moreover,  the  tongue  is  remark- 
able for  its  great  length,  and  the  distance  it  can  be  protruded  beyond  the  lips,  thus 
acting  as  a  grasping  organ  of  considerable  power.  From  the  nape  of  the  neck  to 
the  withers  runs  a  relatively-short  and  erect  mane,  and  the  tail  is  of  considerable 
length,  and  terminates  in  a  large  tuft  of  long  hair.  The  feet  of  the  giraffe  are  large 
and  heavy,  and  have  no  trace  of  lateral  hoofs. 

The  coloration  of  the  South- 
African  giraffe  takes  the  form  of  a 
number  of  large  blotches  or  patches 
of  some  shade  of  chestnut  or  brown, 
irregularly  distributed  over  a  paler 
tawny  ground  color;  the  face  being 
uniformly  brownish,  while  the  under 
parts,  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs, 
and  the  lower  portion  of  the  limbs, 
are  whitish  and  devoid  of  darker 
blotches.  The  mane  is  chestnut 
colored,  but  the  tuft  at  the  end  of 
the  tail  is  blackish.  It  is  this  variety 
which  is  represented  in  the  cut  on 
p.  922.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
North-African  giraffe  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  chestnut-colored  animal, 
marked  by  a  network  of  fine  tawny 
lines.  A  full-grown  bull  giraffe  may 
measure  as  much  as  eighteen  or 
even  nineteen  feet  from  the  soles  of 
the  feet  to  the  summit  of  the  head, 
while  females  are  a  foot  or  two 
lower.  We  must  not  omit  to  men- 
tion that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  liver 
of  the  giraffe  is  unprovided  with 
a  gall  bladder,  the  animal  agreeing 
in  this  respect  with  the  deer,  and 
differing  from  the  prongbuck  and 
the  hollow-horned  Ruminants. 

The   giraffe   is   con- 
fined to  Africa  south  of 
the  Sahara,  and  was  formerly  dis- 
tributed in  open  districts  throughout 
the    greater   portion    of    that    con- 
tinent, although  absent  from  the  thickly-wooded  regions  of  the  West  Coast,  its  range 
extending  from  the  Cape  in  the  south  to  Abyssinia  and  Nubia  in  the  north.     I,ike 


Distribution 


SKELETON  OF  GIRAFFE. 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  GIRAFFES. 


THE   GIRAFFE  921 

the  gemsbok  and  eland,  the  giraffe  frequents  more  or  less  desert-like  regions,  but 
of  late  years  its  range  has  been  greatly  restricted,  more  especially  in  South  and 
Central  Africa,  where  Mr.  Bryden  considers  that  it  will  be  almost  exterminated 
within  the  next  twenty  years. 

Writing  in  the  year  1881,  Mr.  Selous  states  that  the  giraffe  was  at  that  time 
' '  still  to  be  found  in  considerable  numbers,  over  a  vast  extent  of  country  to  the 
south  of  the  Zambezi  river.  In  parts  of  the  Kalahari  desert  it  is  said  to  abound, 
and  in  all  the  dry,  sandy  district  between  Bawangwalo  and  L,ake  Ngami,  and  thence 
to  the  Mabebi,  Chobe,  and  Zambezi  rivers,  it  is  also  very  numerous.  Along  por- 
tions of  the  Botlebi  river,  and  in  the  waterless  but  forest-clad  sand  belts  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Chobe,  it  is  particularly  plentiful.  In  the  country  between  the 
Chobe  and  the  Zambezi,  the  giraffe  is  also  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Linyanti, 
but  is  not  nearly  so  numerous  there  as  on  the  other  side  of  the  former  river.  Imme- 
diately north  of  the  Zambezi  it  is  unknown,  although  it  appears  to  be  plentiful  in 
parts  of  Central  and  Eastern  Africa.  In  some  parts  of  the  Matabele  country  it  is 
also  common,  but  till  within  the  last  few  years  was  never  found  eastward  of  the 
river  Gwelo  (a  tributary  of  the  Zambezi  north  of  Matabeleland),  though  it  was 
always  very  plentiful  in  the  sand  belts  to  the  westward  of  that  river.  This  fact  is 
the  more  curious  since  the  soil,  vegetation,  and  general  appearance  of  the  country 
are  precisely  similar  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which,  during  a  great  portion  of  the 
year,  is  only  a  succession  of  pools,  and  therefore  does  not  offer  the  slightest  obstacle 
to  any  animal  desirous  of  crossing  it.  During  the  last  three  or  four  years  a  few 
giraffes  have  extended  their  range  further  eastward." 

Since  the  above  was  written,  Mr.  Bryden  states  that  giraffes  have  practically 
disappeared  from  large  areas  to  the  south  of  the  Zambezi,  and  their  headquarters 
are  now  the  parched  desert  country  forming  the  North  Kalahari.  Probably  giraffes 
are  most  abundant  in  the  districts  lying  immediately  south  of  the  Botlebi  river  on 
the  northern  border  of  the  Kalahari  desert.  Most  of  this  district  is  quite  waterless 
for  a  great  portion  of  the  year,  and  cannot  be  hunted  without  water  carts  accompany- 
ing the  party.  Here  giraffes  may  frequently  be  seen  in  parties  of  fifteen  or  twenty, 
while  it  is  stated  that  as  many  as  seventy  or  eighty  have  been  observed  together. 
To  the  east  of  the  Kalahari,  in  Khama's  country,  giraffes  are  not  uncommon,  as  is  also 
the  case  in  parts  of  the  Chobe  valley,  while  in  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland  they  are 
scarce.  Southward  of  the  Limpopo,  these  animals  have  been  completely  exterminated. 

The  circumstance  that  the  hide  of  a  bull  giraffe  now  fetches  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  dollars  in  the  market  has  been  the  main  cause  of  the  incessant  persecution 
to  which  these  splendid  animals  have  been  subjected.  It  is  probable  that  in  Southern 
Africa  they  will  linger  longest  in  the  more  inaccessible  portions  of  the  Kalahari, 
while  they  are  likewise  likely  to  persist  in  the  deserts  of  Kordofan  and  the  Sudan. 
The  giraffes  inhabiting  the  North  Kalahari  desert  cannot,  according 
to  Mr.  Brydeu,  touch  water  for  some  seven  or  eight  months  of  the 
year,  and  the  same  is  true  in  regard  to  those  found  in  other  waterless  districts. 
Hence  the  bushmen  state  that  these  animals  never  drink  at  all.  This,  however,  is 
disproved  by  the  following  quotation  from  Mr.  Selous,  who  writes  that  on  a  certain 
occasion  he  reached  camp  "a  little  before  sundown,  just  in  time  to  see  three  tall, 


922 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


graceful  giraffes  issue  from  the  forest  a  little  distance  beyond,  and  stalk  across  the 
intervening  flat,  swishing  their  long  tails  to  and  fro,  on  their  way  down  to  the 
water.  It  is  a  curious  sight  to  watch  these  long-legged  animals  drinking,  and  one 
that  I  have  had  several  opportunities  of  enjoying.  Though  their  necks  are  long, 
they  are  not  sufficiently  so  to  enable  them  to  reach  the  water  without  straddling 
their  legs  wide  apart.  In  doing  this,  they  sometimes  place  one  foot  in  front ,  and 
the  other  as  far  back  as  possible,  and  then  by  a  series  of  little  jerks  widen  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two,  until  they  succeed  in  getting  their  mouths  down  to  the 
water;  sometimes  they  sprawl  their  legs  out  sideways  in  a  similar  manner. "  This 
position  having  to  be  assumed,  not  only  when  drinking,  but  likewise  when  the  ani- 
mal desires  to  pick  up  a  leaf  from  the  ground,  or  on  the  rare  occasions  when  it  grazes. 
Writing  at  a  time  when  giraffes  were  still  abundant  in  South  Africa,  Gordon 

Gumming  gives  the  following 
graphic  account  of  their  habits  and 
appearance.  He  says  that,  ' '  in 
countries  unmolested  by  the  in- 
trusive foot  of  man,  the  giraffe  is 
found  generally  in  herds  varying 
from  twelve  to  sixteen;  but  I  have 
not  unfrequently  met  with  thirty, 
and  on  one  occasion  I  counted  forty 
individuals  together,  this,  however, 
was  a  chance,  and  sixteen  may  be 
reckoned  as  the  average  number  of  a 
herd.  These  herds  are  composed  of 
giraffes  of  various  sizes,  from  the 
young  one  of  nine  or  ten  feet  in 
height  to  the  dark  chestnut-colored 
old  bull  of  the  herd,  whose  exalted 
head  towers  above  his  companions, 
generally  attaining  a  height  of 
upward  of  eighteen  feet.  The  fe- 
males are  of  lower  stature,  and  more 
delicately  formed  than  the  males, 
their  height  averaging  from  sixteen 
to  seventeen  feet.  Some  writers 
have  discovered  ugliness  and  a  want 
of  grace  in  the  giraffe,  but  I  con- 
sider that  he  is  one  of  the  most 
strikingly  beautiful  animals  in  the 
creation,  and  when  a  herd  is  seen 

SOUTH-AFRICAN  "GIRAFFE/ 'C^^          scattered    through  a  grove  of  the 

picturesque   parasol-topped  acacias 

h  adorn  their  native  plains,  and  on  whose  uppermost  shoots  they  are  enabled  to 
browse  through  the  colossal  height  with  which  nature  has  so  admirably  endowed 


THE   GIRAFFE 


923 


them,  he  must  indeed  be  slow  of  conception  who  fails  to  discover  both  grace  and 
-dignity  in  all  their  movements.  '  '  Referring  to  the  admirable  protective  resemblance 
of  many  animals  to  their  natural  surroundings,  the  same  author  goes  on  to  observe 
that  "  in  the  case  of  the  giraffe,  which  is  invariably  met  with  among  venerable  for- 
ests, where  innumerable  blasted  and  weather-beaten  trunks  and  stems  occur,  I  have 
repeatedly  been  in  doubt  as  to  the  presence  of  a  troop,  until  I  had  recourse  to  my 
telescope,  and  on  referring  to  my  savage  attendants  I  have  known  even  their 
practiced  eyes  deceived,  at  one  time  mistaking  these  dilapidated  trunks  for  camelo- 
pards,  and  again  confounding  real  camelopards  with  these  aged  veterans  of  the  for- 
ests." It  may  be  added  that  the  dappled  hide  of  the  giraffe  blends  harmoniously 
with  the  splashes  of  light  and  shade  formed  by  the  sun  glinting  through  the  foliage  of 
the  trees  beneath  which  the  animals  are  wont  to  take  their  stand,  and  thus  intensifies 
the  allusion.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  foregoing  account  the  maximum  number 
of  individuals  observed  in  a  single  herd  was  forty.  Larger  numbers  have,  however, 
been  seen  together  by  other  observers  in  Southern  Africa,  while  in  the  Sudan,  Sir  S. 
Baker  states  that  on  one  occasion  he  counted  seventy-three,  on  another  one  hundred 
and  three,  and  on  a  third  upward  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  individuals  in  a  herd. 

The  food  of  the  giraffe  consists  almost  exclusively  of  leaves,  carefully  plucked  one 
by  one  from  the  trees  by  the  aid  of  the  long  flexible  tongue.  The  senses  of  both  sight 
and  hearing  are  highly  developed,  and  the  lofty  position  of  the  head  gives  to  the  soft 
and  liquid  eyes  a  wide  field  of  view.  The  animal's  only  means  of  defense  is  by  kicking 
out  with  its  legs,  and  the  blows  thus  delivered  are  of  terrific  force  and  power.  This 
mode  of  attack  is  employed  by  the  cow  in  defending  her  young  against  Carnivores,  and 
likewise  in  the  contests  which  take  place  among  the  males  during  the  pairing  season. 

From  observations  made  on  individuals  in  menageries,  it  appears  that  the 
pairing  time  is  either  during  March  or  in  the  early  part  of  April,  and  that  the 
young  are  born  in  May  or  June  of  the  following  year;  the  duration  of  the  period  of 
gestation  thus  being  as  much  as  from  four  hundred  and  thirty-one  to  four  hundred 
and  forty-four  days,  or  fourteen  and  one-half  months,  or  a  little  less.  But  a  single 
young  is  produced  at  a  birth,  and  the  little  creature  in  three  days  after  its  appear- 
ance in  the  world  is  able  to  trot  by  the  side  of  its  dam. 

The  speed  and  endurance  of  giraffes  are  alike  considerable.  When  running, 
the  tail  is  carried  twisted  in  a  corkscrew-like  manner  over  the  back,  and  the  neck 
inclined  somewhat  forward.  Their  gait  is  peculiar,  and  takes  the  form  of  a  kind  of 
awkward  gallop,  "  their  hind-legs,"  writes  Mr.  Selous,  "  being  straddled  out  at  each 
step  and  coming  (one  on  each  side)  in  front  of  the  fore-legs.  If  you  only  look  at 
their  bodies  and  necks  from  behind,  they  appear  to  be  sailing  or  gliding  along  with- 
out making  any  movement  at  all.  They  get  over  the  ground,  however,  at  a  great 
rate,  and  it  requires  a  good  horse  to  run  one  down.  The  great  thing  is  to  press 
them  to  their  utmost  speed  at  first,  when,  if  fat,  they  soon  get  blown  and  can  be 
ridden  into,  and,  if  the  wind  is  favorable,  driven  for  miles  right  up  to  one's  wagons, 
just  like  an  ox  or  an  eland.  At  a  hard  gallop  they  can,  however,  spin  along  for  miles.  '  ' 

,,     ..  Giraffe  hunting:  seems  to  be  generally  undertaken  on  horseback,  and 

Hunting 

all  who  have   partaken  of    it  speak  of  the  excitement    of   galloping 

behind  a  line  of  these  magnificent  animals  scouring  across  the  plains.     There  are, 


924  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

however,  but  few  who  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  pathetic  and  half-reproachful  expres- 
sion of  a  fallen  giraffe,  and  whose  hearts  are  so  hardened  as  not  to  feel  some  compunc- 
tion at  thus  ruthlessly  destroying  one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  nature' s  handiwork. 
Mr.  Selous  expresses  his  admiration  at  the  sight  of  a  herd  of  giraffes  galloping 
before  the  hunter  in  the  following  words.  On  the  occasion  to  which  he  refers,  his 
horse  was  not  a  particularly  good  one,  and  the  pace  consequently  not  very  great. 
Eventually  he  got,  however,  within  one  hundred  yards  of  his  quarry,  and  he  then 
writes  that  "  even  in  the  ardor  of  the  chase  it  struck  me  as  a  glorious  sight  to  see 
these  huge  beasts  dashing  along  in  front,  clattering  over  the  stones,  or  bursting  a 
passage  through  opposing  bushes,  their  long,  graceful  necks  stretched  forward, 
sometimes  bent  almost  to  the  earth  to  avoid  horizontal  branches,  and  their  bushy 
black  tails  twisted  up  over  their  backs.  And  how  easily  and  with  what  little  exer- 
tion they  seemed  to  get  over  the  ground,  with  that  long,  sweeping  stride  of  theirs! 
Yet  they  were  going  at  a  great  rate,  for  I  felt  that  my  old  nag  was  doing  his  best, 
and  I  could  not  lessen  the  distance  between  us  by  an  inch." 

All  who  have  eaten  of  it,  testify  to  the  excellence  of  the  flesh  of  the  giraffe, 
and  we  have  already  made  mention  of  the  value  attached  to  its  hide. 

The  giraffe  thrives  well  in  captivity,  where  it  breeds  readily.  On 
the  morning  of  May  24th,  1836,  those  Londoners  who  happened  to  be 
passing  along  what  was  then  called  the  New  Road,  were  startled  by  the  appearance 
of  four  giraffes,  with  their  Nubian  attendants,  on  their  way  from  the  docks  to  the 
Zoological  Society's  Gardens  in  the  Regent's  Park.  Of  these  four  individuals  three 
were  males  and  one  a  female,  and  they  respectively  lived  till  the  years  1837,  1846, 
1849,  and  1852.  Between  1836  and  1892  the  Zoological  Society  had  upward  of  thirty 
giraffes  in  their  menagerie,  no  less  than  seventeen  of  which  were  bred  and  born  there. 
One  of  the  latter  which  was  born  in  the  spring  of  1846  lived  till  January  1867,  or 
close  upon  twenty-one  years.  The  last  of  this  series  of  giraffes  died  in  March 
1892,  and  it  has  hitherto  been  found  impossible  to  replace  its  loss. 

Fossil  giraffes  are  found  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  Greece,  Persia,  the 
Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  and  China.  All  these 
extinct  forms  appear  to  have  been  closely  allied  to  the  living  African 
species,  although  in  some  instances  the  length  of  the  limbs  seems  to  have  been  pro- 
portionately somewhat  less. 

EXTINCT  MAMMALS  AUJED  TO  THE  GIRAFFE 

In  addition  to  the  fossil  giraffes  just  mentioned,  there  are  other  extinct  Mam- 
mals from  the  Pliocene  formations  of  Europe  and  Asia  which,  while  evidently  refer- 
able to  the  same  group  of  Ruminants,  must  be  assigned  to  distinct  genera. 

One  of  the  most  giraffe-like  of  these  creatures  is  the  helladothere  of  Greece,  a 
hornless  animal,  of  larger  dimensions  than  the  giraffe,  but  with  shorter  neck  and 
limbs.  The  limbs  agree,  however,  with  those  of  the  latter  in  the  great  proportion- 
ate length  of  the  front  pair,  and  the  skull  has  a  considerable  general  resemblance, 
although  with  a  smaller  development  of  cells  in  the  bones  of  the  forehead,  and 
without  an  unossified  space  in  front  of  the  eye.  An  allied  animal,  known  as  the 
libythere,  has  left  its  remains  in  the  Pliocene  strata  of  Algeria. 


EXTINCT:  MAMMALS  ALLIED  TO  THE  GIRAFFE        925 


OF    THE    SAMOTHERE. 
(About   one-sixth    natural   size.) 


In  the  samothere 
of  the  Isle  of  Samos 
and  Persia,  of  which 
the  skull  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  cut, 
the  fore  and  hind-limbs 
are  of  nearly  equal 
length,  and  the  fore- 
head, owing  to  the  ab- 
sence of  cells,  is  nearly 
flat,  while  there  is  no 
unossified  space  in  front 
of  the  eye.  The  eyes 
were  surmounted  by  a 
pair  of  flattened  bony 

processes,  which  there  is  some  reason  to  believe  were  detached  from  the  bones  of  the 
forehead  in  the  young  state,  and  which  may  have  been  clothed  either  with  skin  or 
with  horny  sheaths  in  the  living  condition.  In  many  respects  the  skull  of  this  ani- 
mal approximates  to  that  of  the  elk. 

By  far  the  largest  of  all  Ruminants  was  the  gigantic  Indian  sivathere,  whose 
skull  and  limb  bones  rival 
in  magnitude  those  of  the 
biggest  rhinoceroses. 
The  skull  of  this  enor- 
mous creature  was  very 
short  and  wide,  and,  in 
the  male  at  any  rate,  car- 
ried a  pair  of  large  antler- 
like  appendages,  situated 
immediately  over  the  oc- 
ciput, in  addition  to 
which  there  was  a  pair  of 
simple  spike-like  horns 
above  the  eyes.  Al- 
though the  branched  ap- 
pendages of  the  skull  SKUU,  OF  THE  SIVATHERE. 
recall  the  antlers  of  the  (About  one-sixth  natural  size.) 
elk,  it  is  evident  that 

they  were  never  shed,  and  it  is,  therefore,  probable  that  they  were  covered  during 
life  either  with  hairy  skin  or  with  horn.  In  any  case,  they  were  to  a  considerable 
extent  intermediate  in  their  nature  between  the  horns  of  the  oxen  and  the  antlers  of 
the  deer.  Other  kindred  types  were  the  hydaspithere  and  the  bramathere  of  India, 
in  both  of  which  the  appendages  of  the  skull  take  origin  from  an  elevated  common 
base  rising  above  the  forehead.  In  the  former  of  these  animals  there  was  a  large  un- 
ossified space  in  front  of  thereye,  similar  to  that  occurring  in  the  giraffe  and  the  deer. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
THE  UNGULATES — continued 


THE  DEER  TRIBE 
Family  CBRVID^E 

THE  last  representatives  of  the  true  Ruminants,  or,  as  they   are  technically 
called,  Pecora,  include  the  typical  deer,  the  elk,  the  reindeer,  the  musk  deer,  etc. 


SKELETON  OF  MALE  RED  DEER. 


The  great  and  distinctive  feature  of  this  group  is  the  general  presence  in  the  male 
sex  of  the  peculiar  branched  appendages  on  the  skull,  which  are  now  generally 
(926) 


THE  DEER    TRIBE 


927 


Antlers 


known  by  the  name  of  antlers.  Unfortunately,  so  far  as  simplicity  of  classification 
is  concerned,  these  appendages  are  not  present  in  all  the  members  of  the  family,  and 
the  zoologist  has,  therefore,  to  rely  partly  on  other  characteristics  in  defining  the 
group.  Still,  however,  as  these  antlers  are  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the 
deer  tribe  as  a  whole,  their  importance  cannot  be  overrated,  and  we  accordingly  take 
them  first  into  consideration. 

With  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  term  antler,  it  appears  that  the 
word  is  derived  from  the  old  French  antoillcr, —  a  corruption  of  the 
late  Latin  antoculorum  (before  the  eyes), —  which  was  originally  applied  to  that 
branch  of  the  antler  which  descends  over  the  forehead,  and  is  now  designated  the 
brow-tine.  At  a  subsequent  period  the  word  antler  seems  to  have  been  employed 
indifferently  for  all  the  branches  of  these  appendages,  while  still  later  it  was  used 
to  designate  the  entire  appendages  themselves.  It  is  in  the  latter  sense  that  it  is 
now  employed,  the  various  branches  of  the  antlers  being  termed  tines. 

In  addition  to  being  generally  more  or  less  branched,  the  most  characteristic 
feature  of  an  antler  when  fully  developed  is  that  its  outer  surface  is  rugged  and 
devoid  of  any  covering  of  skin  or  horn.  In  fact,  for  all  practical  purposes,  an 
antler  may  be  regarded  as  a  mass  of  dead  bone  borne  for  a  certain  period  by  a  living 
animal.  Except  occasionally,  as  an  individual  peculiarity,  antlers  are  shed  once 
every  year,  and,  save  in  the 
reindeer,  are  present  only  in 
the  male  sex.  They  arise 
from  a  pair  of  longer  or 
shorter  bony  pedicles  situated 
on  the  skull  above  and  behind 
the  eyes,  and  forming  part  of 
the  skull  itself. 

When  the  antlers  of  a 
stag  have  been  recently  shed 
the  above-mentioned  bony 
pedicles  are  completely  cov- 
ered with  skin,  and  merely 
form  small  prominences  upon 
the  upper  part  of  the  fore- 
head. In  a  short  time, ••how- 
ever, there  appear  on  the 
summits  of  these  pedicles 
small  velvety  knobs,  which 
are  highly  sensitive  and 
tender,  and  are  supplied  by 
an  unusual  number  of  blood 
vessels.  These  knobs  are 

formed  by  a  deposition  of  bony  matter,  and  increase  very  rapidly  in  size.  In  young 
deer  and  a  few  of  the  smaller  forms  their  growth  is  limited  to  the  formation  of  a 
simple  spike,  or  a  spike  with  one  fork,  but  in  the  adults  of  the  more  typical  kinds 


HEAD  OF   RED   DEER   WITH   NEW  ANTLERS   IN 
THE   "VELVET." 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


of  deer  they  branch  into  a  smaller  or  larger  number  of  tines,  until  they  finally  assume 
the  form  of  the  complete  antler.  The  whole  antler  is  then  completely  invested  with 
a  soft  and  vascular  skin  clothed  with  exceedingly  fine  hair,  hence  termed  the 
"velvet."  When,  however,  the  growth  of  the  antler  is  completed  in  its  upper 
part,  a  deposition  of  bony  matter  takes  place  at  its  base,  just  above  the  point  of 
union  with  the  pedicle  of  the  skull,  in  the  form  of  a  prominent  ring.  This  ring,  of 
course,  constricts  the  blood  vessels  supplying  the  velvet,  and  ultimately  causes  them 
to  dry  up.  In  conseqence  of  this  cutting  off  of  the  supply  of  blood  by  the  ring  or 
"burr,"  the  velvet  itself  likewise  dries  up,  and  is  eventually  removed  by  the 
animal  rubbing  its  newly-formed  antlers  against  the  stems  of  trees  or  other  con- 
venient objects.  The  antlers  are  then  complete.  They  attain  their  full  develop- 
ment shortly  before  the  commencement  of  the  pairing  season,  and  during  that 
period  they  are  employed  as  most  efficient  weapons  in  the  contests  which  then  take 
place  between  the  males  of  all  the  species  of  the  deer  tribe.  Subsequently  the  living 
bone  beneath  the  skin  below  the  burr  of  the  antlers  is  absorbed,  when  the  antler 
itself  is  shed,  to  be  renewed  in  the  following  season  in  the  same  manner  as  before. 

In  the  fawns  the  antler  takes  the  form  merely  of  a  simple  conical  spike,  and 
this  type  is  retained  in  certain  South-American  species  throughout  life.  In  the 
following  year  the  antler  gives  off  a  branch  near  the  base,  and  this  form  also  con- 
stitutes the  highest  development  attained  by  some  of  the  smaller  species.  In  the 
more  typical  deer  the  antlers,  however,  become  more  and  more  branched  with  each 
succeeding  year,  till  in  the  red  deer  they  may  occasionally  have  as  many  as  forty 
points.  The  amount  of  bony  matter  annually  secreted  to  form  the  antlers  of  the 
larger  deer  is  enormous,  antlers  of  the  red  deer  having  been  obtained  which  weighed 

upward  of  seventy- 
four  pounds,  while 
those  of  the  extinct 
Irish  deer  must  have 
probably  scaled  one 
hundred  pounds  dur- 
ing life. 

The  different  tines 
borne  by  the  antlers 
of  the  red  deer  and 
other  allied  species 
have  received  distinct 
names,  and,  as  it  is  of 
the  highest  impor- 
tance that  these  should 
be  clearly  understood, 
they  may  be  referred 
to  at  once.  In  the  red- 
deer  group  (A  of  the 


r- — a. 


B 


LEFT  ANTLERS  OF  ASIATIC  DEER. 

A .  Hangul,  or  Kashmir  deer  ;   B.  sambar  ;  C.  spotted  deer  ;  D.  swamp  deer  ;  E. 
Eld's  deer;  a.  brow-tine  ;  b.  bez-tine  ;  c.  trez-tine  ;  d.  e.  anterior  and  posterior 


surroyals.—  After  Blanford  and  Forsyth. 

accompanying  figure) 
the  shaft  or  beam  of  each  antler  carries  three  tines  on  its  lower  front  edge,  of  which 


THE   RED-DEER   GROUP  929 

the  lowest  (a)  is  termed  the  brow-tine,  the  second  (d)  the  bez-tine,  and  the  third 
(c)  the  trez-tine,  or  sometimes  the  royal  tine.  The  summit  of  the  beam  may  either 
be  divided  into  two  or  three  tines  (as  in  the  figure  on  p.  928),  or  may  be  split  up 
into  an  almost  indefinite  number  of  snags,  radiating  outward  from  a  kind  of  cup; 
but  in  any  case  these  terminal  snags,  irrespective  of  their  number,  are  collectively 
spoken  of  as  the  surroyals,  or  the  crown  of  the  antler.  It  will  be  seen  from  the 
figure  that  in  many  deer  the  bez-tine  of  the  antler  is  wanting,  but  of  this  and  other 
variations  in  form  more  will  be  said  later  on. 

Having   thus  noticed   that   the  deer  are  more  satisfactorily  distin- 
Other  Charac-        .  ,     ,    ,  .         ,,          .       ., 

.    .         guished   by  the   presence  of   antlers  in  the  males,  we  have  now  to 

mention  certain  characteristics  which  will  aid  in  distinguishing  from 
other  Ruminants  those  members  of  the  family  in  which  the  antlers  are  wanting.  In 
the  first  place,  all  deer  have  a  very  large  unossified  space  in  the  skull  in  advance  of 
the  orbit,  this  space  being  so  extensive  as  to  prevent  the  lachrymal  bone  from  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  nasal  bone,  as  it  does  in  the  Ox  family.  Of  less  importance 
is  the  circumstance  that  the  first  molar  tooth  in  each  jaw  has  a  short  crown.  As  a 
rule,  tusks  or  canine  teeth  are  usually  present  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  since  these  are 
always  developed  in  those  forms  unprovided  with  antlers  we  have  a  ready  means  of 
distinction  from  the  Ox  family,  in  which  there  are  never  upper  tusks.  Moreover, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  musk  deer,  no  member  of  the  family  has  the  gall 
bladder  s.o  constantly  present  in  the  Bovidce.  From  both  the  prongbuck  and  the 
giraffe  the  deer  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  well-developed  lateral  hoofs  in 
both  feet.  It  may  also  be  mentioned  that  whereas  in  the  Bovida  these  lateral  toes 
are  represented  merely  by  the  bones  of  the  toes  themselves  and  the  terminal  hoofs, 
a  large  number  of  deer  have  remnants  of  the  lower  extremities  of  their  supporting 
metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  lying  alongside  of  the  canon  bone.  In  all  deer 
the  end  of  the  muzzle  is  naked,  and  there  is  a  gland  in  front  of  the  eye. 

Although  numerically  far  inferior  to  the  Bovidcs,  the  deer  tribe  in- 
cludes a  large  assemblage  of  species,  which  may  be  grouped  under 
several  generic  headings,  and  have  a  wide  geographical  distribution.  In  the  Old 
World  deer  are  found  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  are  quite  un- 
known in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  —  the  Ethiopian  region  of  zoologists.  Three 
of  the  Old-World  species,  representing  as  many  genera,  extend  into  North  America, 
but  the  other  New- World  forms,  which  range  as  far  south  as  Chili,  belong  to  quite 
a  different  type  from  any  of  those  inhabiting  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

Deer  are  for  the  most  part  inhabitants  of  forests  or  grass  jungles, 

and  are  never  found  in  desert  districts.     They  are  an  older  group  than 

any  of  the  other  typical  Ruminants,  making  their  appearance  in  the  lower  portion 

of  the  Miocene  period,  where  the  species  were  of  small  size,  and  for  the  most  part 

unprovided  with  antlers. 

THE   RED-DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  elaphus,  etc.) 

The  well-known  red  deer  of  Europe  is  the  typical  representative  of  the  genus 
Cervus,   and  belongs  to  a  group  containing  several  species  or  varieties,  which  is 
59 


93o  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

distributed  over  Europe,  Asia  (north  of  the  Himalayas),  Northern  Africa,  and  North 
America,  and  is  mainly  characterized  by  the  conformation  of  the  antlers.  These  (as- 
shown  in  the  illustration  and  in  A  of  the  figure  on  p.  928)  have  both  a  brow  and  a 
bez-tine,  and  a  nearly  cylindrical  beam,  splitting  up  into  two  or  more  points  at  the 
summit.  The  tail  is  short,  and  the  buttocks  are  marked  by  a  light  colored  disc-like 
patch,  which  includes  the  tail,  while  the  rest  of  the  hair  is  uniformly  colored.  All 
the  members  of  the  group  are  of  large  size,  and  their  young  are  spotted. 

The  red  deer  is  characterized  by  the  surroyals  of  the  antlers  of 

the  adult  having  at  least  three  points,  and  thus  forming  a  cup  in  the 

middle  of  the  crown,  the  total  number  of  points  being  not  less  than  twelve.     Such 

a  stag  is  called  in  Scotland  a  Royal  Hart.     The  number  of  points  in  the  crown  may, 

however,  be  greatly  increased,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure  of  an  antler  dug  up  many 
years  ago  in  an  Irish  bog.  In  the  stag  to  which 
this  antler  belonged,  the  total  number  of  points,  if 
the  two  antlers  were  symmetrical,  would  have  been 
thirty,  but  instances  are  recorded  where  there  are 
as  many  as  forty-five  and  even  sixty-six  points. 
The  latter  number  must,  however,  be  regarded  as 
abnormal.  At  the  present  day  no  Scotch  stag  ever 
has  antlers  of  the  complexity  of  the  one  shown  in 
the  cut,  and  it  would  indeed  be  very  doubtful 
if  that  specimen  could  even  be  matched  among  the 
living  deer  of  Eastern  Europe,  where  the  heads  are 
considerably  finer  than  in  Scotland.  Such  antlers, 
and  even  larger  ones,  were,  however,  not  uncom- 
mon on  the  Continent  a  few  centuries  ago;  many 
magnificent  examples  are  preserved  in  some  of  the 
old  German  castles,  the  collection  at  Moritzburg 
being  especially  rich. 

A  fine  specimen  of  the  red  deer  will  stand  fully 
four  feet  at  the  shoulder.  The  hair  on  the  throat  forms  a  long  fringe,  most  de- 
veloped in  the  pairing  season.  During  summer  the  general  color  of  the  pelage  is  a 
bright  reddish  brown,  the  head  and  legs  being  somewhat  grayer,  the  throat  pale 
gray,  and  the  patch  on  the  buttocks  yellowish  white.  In  winter,  when  the  fur 
becomes  longer  and  softer,  the  color  tends  to  a  brownish  gray.  Wild  stags  are  oc- 
casionally found  white,  the  tendency  to  albinism  increasing  in  the  domesticated 
state.  A  fine  Scotch  stag  will  weigh  some  280  pounds  (20  stone),  but  they  range 
up  to  420  pounds  (30  stone),  and  a  stag  was  killed  at  Woburn,  in  1836,  which 
weighed  476  pounds  (34  stone)  as  it  stood.  These  weights  are,  however,  exceeded 
by  the  stags  of  Eastern  Europe  and  Northern  Asia.  The  large  pair  of  antlers  men- 
tioned above  have  a  total  length  of  sixty-eight  inches,  and  examples  have  been 
obtained  from  Eastern  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  varying  from  forty-six  to  forty- 
eight  and  one-half  inches  in  length.  The  antlers  of  Scotch  and  Irish  stags  rarely, 
however,  exceed  thirty-three  inches,  although  some  of  the  latter  may  reach  thirty- 


THE   RIGHT    ANTLER    OF    A    RED 
DEER    FROM    AN    IRISH    BOG. 


THE  RED-DEER   GROUP 


A    FAMILY    OF    RED    DEER. 


932  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

five  inches.     A   Devonshire   stag  with  antlers  of  over  thirty-eight  inches  is  on 

record. 

The  red  deer  has  a  wide  distribution  in  the  temperate  regions  of 
Distribution  Europe  and  Asia>  but  its  eastward  extension  in  the  latter  continent  is  not 
yet  fully  ascertained.  Formerly,  it  was  probably  found  throughout  the  forest  re- 
gions of  Central  Europe,  but  it  has  now  been  exterminated  in  many  districts.  In 
Scandinavia,  it  is  found  only  in  a  few  forests  in  Sweden,  and  in  some  of  the  Norwe- 
gian islands!  It  also  remains  in  the  larger  forests  of  France  and  Germany,  while  it 
is  more  abundant  in  Hungary,  Servia,  Transylvania,  Poland,  and  the  Danubian 
States.  In  parts  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain,  as  well  as  the  islands  of  Corsica  and 
Sardinia,  it  is  less  plentifully  represented.  In  the  British  Islands  it  is  only  in  the 
Scottish  Highlands  to  the  north  of  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth  that  wild  red  deer  are 
met  with  abundantly,  and  then  only  by  the  aid  of  protection.  They  are,  however, 
also  found  on  the  moors  of  Devon  and  Somerset,  in  certain  districts  of  Ireland,  such 
as  Killarney  and  Connemara,  as  well  as  in  the  Hebrides.  As  late  as  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne,  wild  deer  were,  however,  common  in  Wolmer  forest,  Hampshire, 
while  a  few  lingered  in  Epping  forest  till  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 

In  European  Russia  the  red  deer  is  reported  so  be  restricted  to  the  Caucasus. 
Eastward  a  large  deer  ranges  through  Siberia  to  Amurland  and  Northern  China, 
which  is  probably  only  a  variety  of  this  species,  although  on  account  of  the  larger  size 
of  .the  light  colored  patch  on  the  buttocks,  it  has  been  regarded  as  a  distinct  form 
under  the  name  of  C.  xanthopygus.  The  red  deer  is  again  met  with  in  Asia  Minor, 
where  it  attains  large  dimensions,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  enter  Persia,  or  at  least 
only  infringes  on  the  western  borders  of  that  country.  The  so-called  Barbary  deer 
of  Morocco  and  Algiers,  now  regarded  merely  as  a  variety  of  the  present  species,  is 
distinguished  by  the  frequent  absence  of  the  bez-tine  of  the  antlers. 

Fossil  remains  of  the  red  deer  are  found  abundantly  in  the  caverns  and  super- 
ficial deposits  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  these  fossil  antlers  being  far  larger  than 
those  of  any  modern  representatives  of  the  species,  some  of  them  measuring  upward 
of  forty  inches  in  length. 

L,ike  most  of  the  tribe,  the  red  deer  is  gregarious,  but,  except  during 
the  pairing  season,  the  full-grown  stags  remain  apart  from  the  other 
members  of  the  herd,  and  generally  frequent  higher  ground.  On  the  Continent  this 
species  is  almost  exclusively  a  forest  dweller,  remaining  concealed  during  the  day  in 
the  thickest  cover,  and  only  venturing  out  to  feed  in  the  open  glades  or  adjacent 
cultivated  lands  with  the  falling  shades  of  the  evening.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Scottish  red  deer  inhabits  the  open  hills,  and  has  for  its  only  concealment  the  inter- 
vening glens  and  valleys. 

The  pairing  season  commences  in  the  latter  part  of  September  or  beginning  of 
October,  and  lasts  for  about  three  weeks,  during  which  period  the  venison  is  rank 
and  unfit  for  table.  "At  this  season,"  writes  Mr.  Scrope,  "  the  harts  swell  in  their 
necks,  have  a  ruff  of  long  wiry  hair  about  them,  and  are  drawn  up  in  their  bodies 
like  greyhounds.  They  now  roll  restlessly  in  the  peat  pools  till  they  become  almost 
black  with  mire,  and  feed  chiefly  on  the  light  colored  moss  that  grows  on  the  round 
tops  of  the  hills,  so  that  they  do  not  differ  so  entirely  from  the  reindeer  in  their  food 


THE  RED-DEER   GROUP 


933 


as  some  naturalists  have  imagined.  .  .  .  This  is  a  very  wild  and  picturesque 
season.  The  harts  are  heard  roaring  all  over  the  forest,  and  are  engaged  in  savage 
conflicts  with  each  other,  which  sometimes  terminate  fatally.  When  a  master  hart 
has  collected  a  number  of  hinds,  another  will  endeavor  to  take  them  from  him. 
They  will  fight  till  one  of  them,  feeling  himself  worsted,  will  run  in  circles  round  the 
hinds,  being  unwilling  to  leave  them;  the  other  pursues,  and  when  he  touches  the 
fugitive  with  the  points  of  his  horns,  the  animal  thus  gored  either  bounds  suddenly 
to  one  side,  and  then  turns  and  faces  him,  or  will  dash  off  to  the  right  or  the  left, 
and  at  once  give  up  the  contest.  The  conflict,  however,  generally  continues  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  nothing  can  be  more  entertaining  than  to  witness,  as  I  have 
often  done,  the  varied  success  and  address  of  the  combatants.  It  is  a  sort  of  wild 
joust,  in  the  presence  of  the  dames  who,  as  of  old,  bestow  their  favors  on  the  most 
valiant.  ...  In  solitary  encounters,  there  being  no  hinds  to  take  the  alarm, 
the  harts  are  so  occupied  and  possessed  with  such  fury  that  they  may  be  occasionally 
approached  in  a 
manner  that  it 
would  be  vain  to  at- 
tempt at  any  other 
time."  One  in- 
stance has  been  re- 
corded where  the 
antlers  of  two  stags 
fighting  in  this 
manner  became  so 
firmly  interlocked 
that  the  victor  was 
unable  to  disengage 
himself  from  his 
dead  antagonist, 
and  was  thus  held 
captive  until  killed 
by  a  forester.  After 
an  interval  of 
eight  months  and  a 
few  days  from  the 
pairing  season  — 
that  is  to  say,  gen- 
erally in  the  early 
part  of  June  —  the 
fawns  are  produced; 

there  being  but  rarely  more  than  one  at  a  birth.  The  fawn  is  dropped  in  high 
heather,  and  is  left  concealed  there  during  the  day  by  the  hind,  who  returns  to 
visit  it  in  the  evening.  Mr.  Scrope  states  that  the  dam  makes  her  offspring  ' '  lie 
down  by  a  pressure  of  her  nose,  and  it  will  never  stir  or  lift  up  its  head  the  whole 
of  the  day,  unless  you  come  right  upon  it,  as  I  have  often  done.  It  lies  like  a  dog, 


RED    DEER    AT    A    POOI,. 


934  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

with  its  nose  to  its  tail.  The  hind,  however,  although  she  separates  herself  from 
the  young  fawn,  does  not  lose  sight  of  its  welfare,  but  remains  at  a  distance  to 
windward,  and  goes  to  its  succor  in  case  of  an  attack  of  the  wild  cat  or  fox,  or  any 
other  powerful  vermin. ' ' 

The  old  stags  shed  their  antlers  about  February  or  March,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  season,  but  those  of  the  young  bucks  are  retained  for  some  time 
longer.  In  spite  of  traditions  as  to  the  great  age  attained  by  stags,  it  appears  that 
the  ordinary  limit  of  life  is  about  twelve  years,  although  a  few  individuals  may  sur- 
vive to  twenty  years.  Red  deer  are  essentially  shy  and  wary  animals,  and,  in  the 
open  districts  which  they  frequent  in  Scotland,  can  detect  an  enemy  at  an  immense 
distance.  When  all  the  members  of  a  herd  are  together,  the  chief  duty  of  watch- 
ing appears  to  fall  on  the  hinds,  but  at  other  times  the  stags  have  to  depend  on 
their  own  alertness.  When  their  foes  are  in  sight,  deer  will  watch  them  with  the 
greatest  coolness  and  circumspection,  but  they  become  anxious  and  restless  when 
they  have  reason  to  suspect  the  near  presence  of  a  concealed  enemy. 
„  In  Scotland,  deer  are  now  killed  only  by  driving  or  stalking;  although 

wild  red  deer  are  still  hunted  with  hounds  in  Devonshire,  no  less  than 
two  hundred  and  seventy-six  having  been  killed  there  in  five  years  ending  1892. 
Formerly  it  was  the  custom  in  Scotland  to  surround  a  large  tract  of  country  with  a 
circle  of  beaters,  and  deer  driving  on  a  large  scale  is  now  practiced  in  Austria  and 
some  other  parts  of  the  continent.  When  hunted,  as  indeed  at  other  times,  red  deer 
will  take  freely  to  water,  and  'when  a  wounded  stag  is  hotly  pursued  by  deerhounds, 
he  generally  seeks  refuge  in  the  mountain  streams,  where  his  length  of  leg  gives 
him  a  great  advantage  over  his  pursuers.  "Sometimes,"  writes  Mr.  Scrope,  "  a  stag 
will  stand  upon  a  rock  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  making  a  most  majestic  appear- 
ance, and  in  this  case  it  will  always  be  found  that  the  spot  on  which  he  stands  is  not 
approachable  on  his  rear.  In  this  situation  he  takes  such  a  sweep  with  his  antlers, 
that  he  could  exterminate  a  whole  pack  of  the  most  powerful  lurchers  that  were 
pressing  too  close  upon  him  in  front.  He  is  secure  from  all  but  man,  and  the  rifle 
shot  must  end  him.  Superior  dogs  may  pull  him  down  when  running,  but  not  when 
he  stands  at  bay."  It  may  be  added  that,  when  disturbed,  deer  invariably  run  up 
wind. 

Allied  Sue  i  *n  Edition  to  the  red  deer,  Asia  possesses  several  closely  allied  forms, 
which  are  generally  regarded  as  distinct  species,  although  it  may  be  a 
question  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  consider  them  all  as  local  races.  One  of 
the  best  known  of  these  Asiatic  deer  is  the  hangul  or  Kashmir  stag  ( C.  kashmir- 
ianus).  This  species  stands  about  four  feet  four  inches  at  the  shoulder,  and  differs 
from  the  red  deer  in  that  each  antler  (as  shown  in  A  of  the  figure  on  p.  928)  usu- 
ally has  but  five  tines,  so  that  no  cup  is  formed  at  the  crown,  which  is  simply 
forked.  Moreover,  the  whole  beam  of  the  antler  is  much  curved,  with  the  main  tine 
of  the  surroyals  («?)  greatly  inclined  inward,  while  the  bez-tine  is  generally  longer 
than  the  brow-tine,  or  just  the  reverse  of  the  condition  obtaining  in  the  red  deer. 
Occasionally,  six  or  even  seven  points  may  be  counted  in  the  antlers  of  the  hangul. 
In  color,  this  deer  closely  resembles  the  European  species.  Whereas,  however,  the 
call  of  the  red  deer  during  the  pairing  season  is  a  loud  squeal,  ending  in  a  more 


THE  RED-DEER  GROUP  935 

guttural  tone,  in  the  hangul  it  is  distinctly  a  roar,  which  m£y  be  compared  to  that 
of  a  leopard.  The  antlers  of  the  Kashmir  stag  average  about  forty  inches  in  length, 
but  specimens  have  been  obtained  of  which  the  measurements  were  respectively  fifty- 
two,  fifty-three,  and  fifty-five  inches. 

The  true  hangul  is  confined  to  the  mountains  surrounding  the  valley  of  Kashmir 
and  some  of  the  adjacent  districts.  There  is,  however,  a  deer  from  Eastern  Turkes- 
tan known  as  the  Yarkand  stag,  which  appears  to  be  merely  a  variety  of  this  species, 
distinguished  by  its  straighter  antlers  and  the  paler  color  of  the  fur.  In  Kashmir 
the  hangul,  which  is  essentially  a  forest  animal,  is  found  in  summer  at  elevations  of 
from  9,000  to  12,000  feet.  In  winter,  however,  it  descends  to  the  valleys  during 
heavy  falls  of  snow,  and  at  such  times  it  is  ruthlessly  attacked  by  the  villagers,  as 
many  as  five  hundred  head,  it  is  reported,  having  been  thus  slaughtered  upon  a 
single  occasion.  These  indiscriminate  slaughters,  together  with  the  more  orthodox 
pursuit  by  English  sportsmen,  have  so  thinned  the  ranks  of  this  fine  deer,  that  it  is 
now  becoming  comparatively  rare,  and  unless  proper  means  are  taken  for  its  preser- 
vation, it  stands  a  good  chance  of  being  exterminated  at  no  distant  date. 

In  summer,  hangul  are  generally  found  singly  or  in  small  parties,  the  old  stags 
being  usually  solitary,  but  in  winter  they  collect  in  herds.  The  antlers  of  the  stags 
are  usually  shed  about  March,  and  the  new  ones  do  not  attain  their  full  development 
till  October.  In  that  month  and  through  November  the  males  are  continually  call- 
ing, and  it  is  this  time  that  is  the  proper  shooting  season.  The  fawns  are  born  in 
April,  so  that  the  period  of  gestation  appears  to  be  only  about  six  months,  or  con- 
siderably less  than  in  the  red  deer.  Leith  Adams  states,  that  hangul  "are  seldom 
confined  to  one  region,  but  roam  from  forest  to  forest,  preferring  grassy  glades  alter- 
nating with  dense  forests,  where  there  is  a  copious  supply  of  water. ' '  I  have  on  one 
occasion  seen  a  small  party  of  these  deer  on  the  I,adakh  side  of  the  mountains  bound- 
ing Kashmir  where  there  is  no  forest. 

Far  to  the  southeast  of  Kashmir,  probably  in  the  districts  lying  between  Dar- 
jiling  and  L/Hassa,  there  occurs  a  much  larger  deer,  known  as  the  shou  (C.  affinis}, 
In  addition  to  its  superior  dimensions,  this  deer  is  distinguished  from  the  hangul  by 
the  beam  of  the  antlers  being  strongly  bent  forward  just  above  the  trez-tine  while 
the  bez-tine  is  less  constantly  longer  than  the  brow-tine.  Each  antler  seems  to  have 
constantly  but  five  points.  Antlers  have  been  measured  of  fifty-four,  fifty-five,  and 
fifty-five  and  three-fourth  inches  in  length;  anything  like  such  dimensions  being 
only  very  exceptionally  attained  by  those  of  the  Kashmir  stag.  The  height  of  the 
animal  is  from  four  and  one-half  to  five  feet  at  the  shoulder. 

In  the  Caspian  provinces  of  Persia,  and  probably  also  in  Circassia,  the  red-deer 
group  is  represented  by  the  maral  (C.  maral).  This  is  a  large  species  allied  to  the 
last,  but  distinguished  by  the  much  greater  length  of  the  face,  and  by  the  crown  of 
the  antler  having  apparently  always  more  than  two  tines.  Specimens  of  this  species 
in  confinement  are  kept  entirely  apart  from  some  red  deer  inhabiting  the  same  in- 
closure.  These  deer  are  said  to  be  abundant  in  the  thick  forests  of  the  Caspian 
provinces  of  Persia,  but  we  know  very  little  about  their  habits. 

Another  Old- World  deer  of  the  present  group  is  the  great  Thian-Shan  stag  (C 
tustephanus)  from  the  forest  regions  of  the  mountain  barrier  on  the  northwest  fron- 


936 


THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


tier  of  Eastern  Tukestan;  the  so-called  Leudorf's  stag  (C.  letidorfi),  of  Amurland, 
being  in  all  probability  not  specifically  distinct.  The  great  peculiarity  of  this  deer 
is,  that  it  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  American  wapiti,  that  it  is  very  doubtful  if  it 


WAPITI   CHASED   BY  WOI.VRS. 


can  be  regarded  as  anything  more  than  a  variety  of  that  species.  The  antlers  have 
the  peculiar  characteristics  (to  be  noticed  immediately)  of  the  latter;  one  pair  having 
a  length  of  fifty-one  inches  along  the  curve,  with  a  basal  diameter  of  ten  and  one- 


THE  RED-DEER  GROUP  937 

r"' 
half  inches  on  one  side,  and  of  eleven  on  the  other.     The  Thian-Shan  stag  is  said  to 

stand  six  feet  at  the  shoulder,  but  this  requires  confirmation. 

.  .  The  New- World  representative  of  the  present  group  is  the  well- 

known  North- American  wapiti  ( C.  canadensis) ,  persistently  misnamed 
elk  in  its  native  country.  The  wapiti  is  distinguished  from  the  hangul  and  the 
shou  (to  which  it  is  more  closely  related  than  it  is  to  the  red  deer)  by  the  form  and 
proportions  of  its  antlers,  which  are  characterized  by  their  general  smoothness,  and 
the  tendency  to  a  flattening  and  expansion  of  the  surroyal  tines,  which,  in  fully 
adult  stags,  are  usually  three  or  more  in  number;  and  also  by  the  well-marked  back- 
ward curvature  and  want  of  convergence  in  the  upper  part  of  the  beam.  In  color 
the  wapiti  is  dark  brown  on  the  head  and  neck,  while  the  back,  flanks,  and  thighs 
are  creamy  gray,  with  the  under  part  of  the  body  blackish.  The  legs  are  brown, 
and  the  lower  portion  of  the  light  patch  on  the  buttocks  is  bordered  with  black. 
Mr.  Caton  gives  the  height  of  a  full-grown  stag  as  rather  more  than  five  feet  four 
inches  (sixteen  hands),  but  otherwriters  estimate  the  height  of  the  largest  individu- 
als at  five  feet  eight  inches  (seventeen  hands)  at  the  shoulder.  The  usual  weight  is 
about  700  hundred  pounds,  but  it  is  said  that  large  males  will  exceed  1,000  pounds 
in  weight,  although  some  full-grown  females  do  not  scale  more  than  400  pounds. 

In  the  fifth  year  the  antlers  develop  five  points;  but  after  that  period  the  num- 
ber increases  irregularly,  and  there  are  frequently  more  snags  on  the  one  antler  than 
on  the  other.  Very  rarely  is  there  any  approach  to  the  cup  in  the  crown  of  the 
antler  distinctive  of  the  red  deer.  Antlers  of  the  wapiti  attain  very  large  dimensions. 
Of  two  fine  pairs  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Otho  Shaw,  the  dimensions  are  as  follows, 
in  inches, —  No.  i,  length  49^,  span  54,  basal  girth  8;  No.  2,  length  55^-,  span  48!, 
basal  girth  *]\.  In  two  examples  belonging  to  Mr.  E.  S.  Cameron,  the  total  lengths 
are  respectively  53^  and  55^  inches,  the  spans  47^'  and  44^  inches,  and  the  basal 
girths  just  above  the  burr  9^  and  10  inches.  The  maximum  recorded  lengths  are, 
however,  6of ,  61^-,  62,  and  62^-  inches. 

The  range  of  the  wapiti  has  of  late  years  been  greatly  restricted  by  the  advance 
of  civilization,  while  the  same  cause,  coupled  with  constant  persecution  on  the  part 
of  sportsmen,  has  likewise  reduced  its  numbers  in  a  corresponding  degree.  Mr.  W. 
A.  Perry  states,  that  the  wapiti  was  formerly  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United 
States,  in  Mexico,  and  in  British  America  as  far  north  as  the  sixtieth  parallel  of  north 
latitude;  but  it  has  vanished  before  the  approach  of  civilization,  and  is  now  found 
only  in  the  remotest  mountain  fastnesses  west  of  the  Missouri  river,  or  in  the  great 
forests  of  British  America.  The  largest  herds  now  remaining  outside  of  the  National 
Yellowstone  Park  are  found  in  the  Olympic  mountains  of  Washington,  and  among 
the  mountains  of  Vancouver  island.  There  are  still  many  remaining  in  theCascade  and 
Rocky  ranges,  but  they  do  not  congregate  there  in  large  herds  as  they  do  in  the  Coast 
ranges.  Another  recent  writer  states,  that  less  than  ten  years  ago  there  were  many 
secluded  districts  in  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana,  where,  during  the  late  autumn 
and  winter,  wapiti  might  be  seen  banded  together  in  herds  numbering  many  thousands 
of  individuals;  whereas,  now,  it  is  seldom  that  a  hundred  can  be  found  together. 

The  general  habits  of  the  wapiti  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  red 
deer,  the  old  stags  living  apart  from  the  main  herd  during  the  greater  part  of  the 


938  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

year;  and  in  the  pairing  season  taking  exclusive  possession  of  a  party  of  hinds,  after 
having  vanquished  their  rivals  in  fight.  The  shedding  of  the  antlers  is  late,  gener- 
ally taking  place  in  the  full-grown  stags  during  the  latter  part  of  December  or  the 
first  half  of  January.  The  new  antlers  begin  to  sprout  in  March  or  April,  and  are 
fully  complete  by  the  middle  of  August.  At  this  time  the  old  stags  begin  to  call, 
the  note  being  a  roar  very  like  that  of  the  hangul.  It  has,  however,  been  compared 
to  the  bray  of  a  donkey;  and  it  is  suggested  that  it  is  partly  from  this  that  the 
wapiti  has  received  the  nickname  of  "jackass  deer,"  bestowed  upon  it  by  the  traders 
in  the  Rocky  mountains. 

During  May,  Mr.  Perry  states  that  the  wapiti  desert  the  lower  hills  to  take  ref- 
uge in  the  higher  ranges,  getting  as  near  as  possible  to  the  snow  line  without  leav- 
ing the  upper  belt  of  forest.  The  hinds  then  leave  the  herds  to  give  birth  to  their 
fawns  in  the  most  secluded  thickets.  Usually  there  is  but  a  single  fawn  produced 
at  a  birth,  although  two  do  not  appear  to  be  very  unfrequent.  The  hind  will  fight 
to  the  death  in  the  defense  of  her  helpless  offspring  against  the  onslaught  of  puma, 
bear,  or  coyote.  At  such  times  she  gives  utterance  to  a  loud  cry,  which  at  once 
brings  to  her  aid  all  the  members  of  the  herd  which  may  be  in  the  vicinity,  and  all 
of  which  unite  in  driving  off  the  foe. 

The  wapiti  is  a  promiscuous,  not  to  say  a  coarse,  feeder.  Mr.  Caton  says  that 
"  all  the  grasses  and  most  of  the  weeds  within  his  reach  are  taken  freely,  and  the 
leaves  and  trees  of  all  the  deciduous  trees  are  alike  enjoyed.  A  considerable  propor- 
tion of  his  daily  food  he  desires  to  be  arboreous,  yet  if  deprived  of  it  he  will  keep  in 
good  condition  on  herbaceous  food  alone.  In  winter  he  will  take  the  coarsest  food, 
even  that  which  the  horse  and  the  ox  reject,  he  will  eat  freely."  The  venison,  al- 
though unlike  that  of  other  deer,  is  of  fine  flavor,  and  is  said  to  be  more  nutritious 
than  any  other  meat. 

A  combat  between  two  male  wapiti  during  the  pairing  season  is  described  by 
Mr.  Perry  as  follows:  "The  challenger,  when  approaching  a  band,  or  harem,  blows 
a  loud  whistle  of  defiance.  (Take  a  half-pint  bottle  and  blow  strongly  into  it,  and 
the  sound  so  produced  will  be  similar  to  the  call  of  the  male  wapiti  during  the  rut- 
ting season.)  This  whistle  is  at  once  answered  by  the  ruler  of  the  herd,  who  steps 
boldly  forth  to  do  battle  with  the  intruder.  With  heads  lowered  between  their  fore- 
feet, the  two  adversaries  walk  around  waiting  for  an  opening,  and  when  one  is 
thrown  off  his  guard  the  other  makes  a  savage  rush;  but  his  opponent  instantly  re- 
covers, counters  the  charge,  and  as  they  rush  together  the  antlers  strike  each  other 
with  such  terrific  force  that  the  report  can  be  heard  for  a  long  distance.  Slowly  re- 
treating, bellowing,  grumbling  and  grinding  their  teeth  in  a  paroxysm  ofjage,  they 
again  circle  around,  and  when  an  opportunity  is  afforded,  make  another  charge, 
which  is  countered  as  before.  The  challenging  wapiti  usually  does  most  of  the  of- 
fensive fighting  until  he  finds  ( if  such  be  the  case  )  that  he  is  the  weaker,  then  he 
sullenly  retires,  bellowing  as  he  goes.  These  battles  are  seldom  fatal,  and  during 
the  rutting  season  are  an  everyday  occurrence.  Ugly  wounds  often  result  from 
them,  and  sometimes  a  prong  of  an  antler  is  broken  in  the  affray." 

Wapiti  differ  from  the  majority  of  the  deer  tribe  in  that  they  do  not  feed  during 
the  night,  although  they  are  on  the  move  with  the  first  streak  of  dawn.  From  that 


THE  JAPANESE-DEER   GROUP  939 

r^ 

time  until  about  eight  in  the  morning  they  continue  feeding  almost  without  interrup- 
tion, after  which  they  indulge  in  a  midday  siesta.  During  this  midday  rest  they  can 
be  easily  approached.  About  four  o'clock  in  the  evening  they  once  more  commence 
feeding,  in  which  occupation  they  continue  till  dusk.  In  winter  they  are  often 
pressed  for  food,  and  when  the  snow  lies  deep  on  the  ground  each  party  occupies  a 
small  area,  over  which  the  snow  is  trampled  down  as  hard  as  ice,  while  all  the  trees 
are  gnawed  bare  both  of  bark  and  leaves  as  high  as  the  animals  can  reach. 

When  wapiti  were  found  on  the  great  prairies,  the  Indians  were  accustomed  to 
hunt  them  on  horseback  by  forming  a  wide  circle  of  mounted  men,  from  which  a 
•certain  number  were  detached  to  harass  the  unfortunate  animals  until  they  were 
brought  to  a  standstill.  Another  favorite  method  was  by  forming  a  cordon  of  horse- 
men and  driving  a  whole  herd  over  a  precipice.  At  the  present  day  the  more 
sportsman-like  method  of  hunting  is,  however,  almost  exclusively  employed,  and  it 
appears  that  the  wapiti  is  an  animal  far  less  difficult  to  approach  than  the  red  deer, 
while  it  is  killed  by  a  comparatively-slight  wound. 

THE  JAPANESE-DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  sika,  etc.) 

The  prettily-marked  Japanese  deer  represents  a  group  differing  from  the  last  by 
the  antlers  having  no  bez-tine,  so  that  each  has  usually  but  four  points,  and  also  by 
the  coat  being  spotted  with  white  in  summer,  although  uniformly  brown  during 
winter.  Moreover,  the  proportionate  length  of  the  tail  is  much  greater  than  in  the 
red-deer  group,  and  the  large  white  patch  on  the  buttocks  is  completely  bordered 
with  black.  All  the  deer  of  this  group  are  of  medium  dimensions,  and  for  the  most 
part  inhabitants  of  Eastern  Asia. 

The  Japanese  deer,  from  Japan  and  Northern  China,  stands  somewhat  lower  at 
the  shoulder  than  a  fallow  deer,  and  has  the  ground  color  of  the  fur  dark  or  yel- 
lowish brown,  with  the  greater  part  of  the  tail  white.  These  deer  are  very  abundant 
in  Northern  Japan  and  parts  of  China,  where  they  frequent  dense  forests,  generally 
in  hilly  regions.  The  only  way  of  shooting  them  is  by  beating  the  country  with  a 
large  number  of  men.  The  Japanese  deer  has  been  introduced  into  several  parks  in 
Ireland  and  England,  where  it  thrives  well,  sometimes  interbreeding  with  the  red  deer. 
The  Manchurian  deer  (C.  manchuricus) ,  of  Northern  China,  may 
probably  be  regarded  merely  as  a  larger  variety  of  the  last,  in  which 
the  coat  is  generally  darker  colored,  with  a  larger  dark  area  on  the  up- 
per surface  of  the  tail. 

Dybowski's  deer  (C.  dybowskii},  from  Manchuria,  appears,  how- 
1  s  ever,  to  be  a  distinct  species  of  relatively-large  size,  easily  recognized 
by  its  pure  white  muzzle.  The  ordinary  length  of  the  antlers  is  about 
twenty-two  inches,  but  a  pair,  having  five  tines  each,  which  have  been  referred  to 
this  species,  measure  upward  of  thirty-five  and  one-half  inches. 

Better  known  than  the  last  is  the  Formosan  deer  (C.  taevanus)  from 
the  mountains  of  the  island  from  which  it  takes  its  name.     The  body 
color  is  lighter  than  in  the  other  species,  while  the  spots  have  a  tend- 
ency to  persist  during  the  winter;   the  tail  being  white  with  a  black  streak  down  the 


940  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

middle  of  the  upper  surface.      These  deer  are  caught  in  traps  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Formosa,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  the  dwellers  on  the  island  of  Samasana,  they  are 

kept  as  pets. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  imperfectly-known  Caspian  deer  (  C.  caspicus) 
Caspian  Deer  ^om  tlie  falish  mountains,  near  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  in  Northern  Persia,  which  has  been  provisionally  assigned  to  the  pres- 
ent group.  If  rightly  thus  placed,  this  species  is  of  interest  as  showing  that  the 
group  is  represented  in  Western,  as  well  as  in  Eastern  Asia.  The  one  skull,  on  the 
evidence  of  which  the  Caspian  deer  was  considered  to  represent  a  distinct  species, 
differs  from  that  of  the  other  members  of  the  group  in  that  the  antlers  have  only 
three  points  when  fully  adult,  namely,  a  brow-tine  and  a  fork  at  the  extremity. 


THE  INDIAN  SPOTTED  DEER,  OR  CHITAL  (Cervus  axis} 

The  spotted,  or  axis  deer,  of  India  and  Ceylon,  is  our  first  representative  of 
two  very  closely-allied  groups  of  Indian  deer,  in  which  the  cylindrical  antlers  have 
but  three  tines  on  each  side;  the  bez-tine  being  absent,  and  the  beam  terminating  in 
a  simple  fork.  In  the  spotted  deer,  of  which  a  single  antler  is  shown  in  C  of  the 
figure  on  p.  928  and  a  pair  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  accompanying  cut,  the  bez- 
tine  of  the  antlers  is  given  off  nearly  at  a  right  angle  with  the  beam.  The  whole 
length  of  the  antlers  is  about  three  times  that  of  the  skull  in  average  specimens,  and 
the  hinder  tine  of  the  terminal  fork  is  considerably  longer  than  the  one  in  front. 

The  spotted  deer,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  India,  the  chital  or  chitra,  varies  con- 
siderably in  height  in  different  localities,  buck  from  Northern  and  Central  India 
standing,  according  to  Blanford,  from  three  feet  to  three  feet  two  inches  at  the 
withers,  whereas  in  Southern  India  the  height  seldom  exceeds  from  two  feet  six 
inches  to  two  feet  eight  inches.  The  neck  and  throat  of  this  deer  are  devoid  of  any 
mane,  the  tail  is  relatively  long,  pointed,  and  thin,  and  the  cheek-teeth  are  charac- 
terized by  the  great  height  of  their  crowns.  The  ground  color  of  the  fur  is  a  rufous 
fawn;  the  whole  of  the  body  being  marked  by  a  number  of  large  white  spots,  which 
are  present  at  all  ages  of  the  animal  throughout  the  year,  and  tend  to  arrange  them- 
selves in  longitudinal  lines.  The  head  and  neck  are  of  a  uniform  brownish  color, 
and  there  is  a  black  line  running  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  end  of  the  tail. 
White  prevails  on  the  inside  of  the  ears,  the  chin,  the  upper  part  of  the  throat,  the 
under  parts  of.  the  body,  and  the  insides  of  the  limbs,  as  well  as  on  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  tail.  As  in  the  case  of  the  fallow  deer,  a  blackish  variety  is  occasionally 
met  with,  in  which  the  spots  are  only  very  faintly  indicated.  An  individual  stand- 
ing close  upon  three  feet  in  height  weighed  one  hundred  and  forty-five  pounds. 

Although  the  antlers  of  the  spotted  deer  are  typically  but  three  tined,  there  are 
not  unfrequently  a  number  of  small  points  or  "  sports  "  at  the  junction  of  the  brow- 
tine  with  the  beam,  but  such  sports  are  rare  higher  up.  The  average  length  of  the 
antlers  of  the  larger  race  of  this  species  may  be  given  as  about  thirty  inches,  but 
examples  reaching  thirty -eight  and  thirty-eight  and  three-fourths  inches  in  length, 
with  a  girth  of  five  and  three-fourths  inches  above  the  burr,  have  been  recorded. 


THE  INDIAN  SPOTTED  DEER,  OR  CHITA L 


941 


Distribution 


Great  difference  exists  in  regard  to  the  degree  of  divergence  or  span  of  the  antlers; 
thus,  in  two  examples  of  which  the  respective  lengths  were  thirty-four  and  thirty- 
four  and  one-half  inches,  the  span  in  the  former  case  was  only  twenty-four  inches, 
against  thirty  and  one-half  inches  in  the  other. 
This 

deer   is 

found  nearly  through- 
out India  and  Ceylon, 
but  in  the  Himalayas 
it  only  occurs  on  the 
outermost  spurs,  and  it 
is  unknown  on  the 
plains  of  the  Punjab, 
Sind,  a  large  part  of 
Rajputana,  Assam,  and 
the  whole  of  the  coun- 
tries to  the  eastward 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
On  the  hills  of  Southern 
India  it  is  found  at  ele- 
vations of  from  three 
to  four  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  has 
been  introduced  by  Sir 
K.  G.  Loder  into  his 
park  near  Horsham. 

The 

native 

name  chital  refers  to 
the  dappled  hide  of  this 
deer,  which  is,  perhaps, 
the  handsomest  mem- 
ber of  its  tribe  as  re- 
gards color  and  form, 
and  is  certainly  one  of 
the  most  characteristic 
of  the  Mammals  of 
India.  Mr.  Blanford 
states  that  it  is  most 
generally  found  among 
bushes  or  trees  in  the 
neighborhood  of  water, 

and  in  bamboo  jungles,  while  it  frequents  both  hilly  tracts  and  plains,  and 
never  wanders  far  from  its  drinking  places.  "So  long,"  writes  the  author 
named,  "as  it  has  a  wild  tract  of  bush  or  ravines  for  shelter,  it  appears  to  care 


Habits 


ANTHERS   OF  INDIAN   SPOTTED    DKHR  (l),  SWAMP   DEER  (2), 
AND   SAMBUR  (3). 


942  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

little  for  the  neighborhood  of  man.  Many  of  its  favorite  haunts  are  in  some  of 
the  most  beautiful  wild  scenery  of  the  Indian  plains,  and  lower  hills,  on  the  margins 
of  rippling  streams  with  their  banks  overgrown  by  lofty  trees,  or  in  the  grassy 
glades  that  open  out  amidst  the  exquisite  foliage  of  bamboo  clumps.  Spotted  deer 
are  thoroughly  gregarious  and  associate  at  all  times  of  the  year  in  herds,  sometimes 
of  several  hundreds.  They  are  less  nocturnal  than  sambur,  and  may  be  found  feed- 
ing for  three  or  four  hours  after  sunrise,  and  again  in  the  afternoon  for  an  hour  or 
two  before  sunset.  They  generally  drink  between  eight  and  ten  o'clock  in  the 

•\ 


THE  INDIAN  SPOTTED  DEER. 
( One-fifteenth   natural  size. ) 

morning,  the  time  varying  with  the  season  of  the  year,  and  repose  during  the  day  in 
deep  shade.  They  swim  well,  and  take  readily  to  water.  They  both  graze  and  browse. ' ' 

It  appears  that  there  is  a  great  range  of  individual  variation  as  regards  the  date 
of  the  pairing  season  and  the  shedding  of  the  antlers,  bucks  with  fully-developed 
antlers  being  met  with  at  all  times  of  the  year.  In  Northern  India  the  pairing  sea- 
son seems,  however,  to  be  generally  during  the  winter,  although  young  fawns  may 
apparently  be  met  with  at  any  season. 

As  regards  its  usual  habits,  General  Kinloch  writes  that  "  the  chital  is  a  shy 
and  retiring  animal,  lying  quiet  in  the  densest  thickets  during  the  heat  of  the  day,. 


THE   SAM  BUR   GROUP  943 

and  if  disturbed  generally  attempting  to  elude  observation  by  concealment,  or  by 
trying  to  sneak  quietly  away.  I  have  often,  when  beating  for  tigers,  seen  a  cunning 
old  stag  with  his  head  down  silently  creeping  away  through  the  jungle,  sometimes 
passing  almost  under  the  elephants.  When  on  foot,  I  have  known  a  herd  come 
quietly  past  within  two  or  three  yards  of  me  in  thick  cover,  and  even  at  that  short 
distance  have  had  difficulty  in  getting  a  shot.  It  might  be  supposed  that  such  a 
brightly-colored  animal  would  be  very  conspicuous  in  the  forest,  but  this  is  far  from 
being  the  case;  unless  it  moves,  few  beasts  are  more  diffiult  to  see;  the  color  of  the 
skin  harmonizes  with  the  dead  leaves  and  grass,  while  the  white  spots  are  indis- 
tinguishable from  the  little  flecks  of  light  caused  by  the  sunshine  passing  through 
the  leafy  branches.  Chital  generally  assemble  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  thirty,  among 
which  are  probably  two  or  three  stags,  but  occasionally  herds  of  hundreds  are  met 
with.  On  being  disturbed,  and  especially  on  detecting  the  presence  of  a  beast  of 
prey,  the  chital  utters  a  sort  of  shrill  bark,  and  many  a  time  has  this  cry  betrayed  a 
tiger  to  the  sportsmen.  The  stag's  cry  is  a  peculiar  moaning  sort  of  bellow,  and  is 
generally  to  be  heard  at  night.  Immense  numbers  of  spotted  deer  are  frequently 
met  with  when  beating  for  tigers,  and  many  are  shot  off  elephants  in  this  way.  In 
long  grass  it  is  of  course  only  possible  to  shoot  them  from  elephants,  but  however 
satisfactory  it  may  be  to  bowl  over  a  stag  in  full  career  by  a  clever  snap  shot  from 
the  howdah,  it  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  compare  with  the  pleasure  of  stalking  and 
shooting  the  same  animal  on  foot,  where  the  nature  of  the  country  renders  it  possi- 
ble." The  months  of  March,  April,  and  May  are  the  best  for  chital  shooting  on 
foot  in  the  valleys  and  low  hills  on  the  flanks  of  the  Himalayas.  Remains  of  deef 
apparently  nearly  allied  to  the  chital  are  found  in  the  Pliocene  formations  of  the 
south  of  France. 

THE  SAMBUR  GROUP  (Cervus  unicolor,  etc.) 

Nearly  allied  to  the  chital  is  a  group  of  deer  from  Southeastern  Asia,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  brow-tine  of  the  three-pronged  antlers  forming  an  acute  angle, 
instead  of  nearly  a  right  angle,  with  the  beam,  as  shown  in  the  figures  on  pp.  928  and 
941.  The  majority  of  this  group  are  peculiar  in  that  they  are  uniformly  colored  at 
all  ages,  although  in  two  forms  the  young  are  spotted,  while  in  one  case  this  type  of 
coloration  persists  in  the  adult. 

The  well-known  Indian  sambur  is  the  largest  member  of  this  group,  as  it  is  the 
largest  of  all  the  true  deer,  next  to  the  representatives  of  the  red-deer  group.  Ex- 
ternally the  sambur  is  characterized  by  its  coarse  wiry  hair,  which  on  the  neck  and 
throat  of  the  adult  male  is  elongated  to  form  an  erectile  mane.  The  ears  are  large 
and  broad,  and  the  tail  thick  and  of  moderate  length.  In  color  the  fur  is  a  nearly 
uniform  dark  brown  throughout,  tending,  however,  in  some  individuals  to  a  more  or 
less  well-marked  yellowish,  and  in  others  to  a  grayish  tinge.  The  chin,  under  parts, 
and  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs,  are  always  yellower,  and  may  be  yellowish  white. 
In  the  ordinary  form  the  young  are  likewise  uniformly  colored,  but  there  is  said  to 
be  a  variety  in  Cachar  of  which  the  fawns  are  spotted.  The  height  of  the  buck 
varies  from  four  to  five  feet,  and  possibly  rather  more  at  the  withers,  and  large  speci- 
mens have  been  killed  weighing  560  pounds  (40  stone)  and  700  pounds  (51  stone). 


944 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


The  antlers  are  generally  characterized  by  their  rough  external  surface,  and 
their  freedom  from  sports;  while  in  Indian  examples  the  two  tines  of  the  terminal  fork 
are  nearly  equal  in  length,  although  in  other  districts  there  is  great  variability  in  this 
respect.  In  India  fine  horns  attain  a  length  of  about  thirty-six  inches,  but  these 
dimensions  are  seldom  reached  in  the  countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
As  regards  shape  and  girth,  there  is  a  great  amount  of  variation  in  sambur  horns. 
In  a  fine  pair,  of  which  the  extreme  length  was  thirty-eight  and  one-half  inches,  the 


THE    SAMBUR. 
(One-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

span  was  thirty-seven  three-fourths  inches,  and  the  basal  girth  eight  and  seven, 
eighths  inches;  whereas  in  another  pair,  while  the  length  was  only  thirty-two  and 
one-half  inches,  the  span  was  thirty-eight  inches  and  the  girth  nine  inches.  The 
longest  recorded  pair  measured  forty-eight  inches  in  length,  but  their  girth  at 
the  middle  of  the  beam  was  only  six  inches,  against  eight  and  one-half  inches  in  a 
pair  measuring  thirty-eight  inches  in  length.  Perhaps,  however,  the  finest 
known  pair  is  one  in  which  the  length  is  forty-four  inches,  the  span  forty-five  and 


THE   SAM  BUR   GROUP  945 

r^' 

three-fourths  inches,  and  the  girth  just  above  the  brow-tine  seven  and  three-fourths 
inches.  There  is  likewise  an  equally-marked  difference  in  regard  to  the  degree  of 
development  of  the  ridges  and  furrows  on  the  antlers. 

The  sambur  occurs  typically  in  the  wooded  undulating  or  hilly  dis- 
tricts of  India  and  Ceylon;  but  Mr.  Blanford  concludes  that  the 
smaller  Malayan  and  Burmese  forms,  which  have  been  described  under  the  names 
of  C.  hippelaphns  and  C.  equinus,  are  not  specifically  separate,  although  the  front- 
tine  of  the  terminal  fork  of  the  antlers  is  much  shorter  than  the  back  one,  instead 
of  the  two  being  subequal.  The  range  of  the  sambur  accordingly  extends  from 
India  to  the  Malayan  islands,  and  thus  covers  nearly  the  entire  Oriental  region.  In 
the  Himalayas  it  may  range  to  elevations  of  nine  thousand  or  ten  thousand  feet, 
and  it  is  commonly  found  on  the  highest  mountains  of  Southern  India  and  Ceylon. 
It  is  but  seldom  seen  on  the  alluvial  plains  frequented  by  the  chital,  and  is  absent 
from  the  sandy  plains  of  Sind,  the  Punjab,  and  Rajputana. 

Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  the  sambur  ' '  is  the  woodland  deer  of 
Southeastern  Asia  generally,  and  is  more  widely  and  generally  dis- 
tributed than  any  other  species.  Although  it  does  not  shun  the  neighborhood  of 
man  to  the  same  degree  as  Bos  gaurus  does,  it  is  only  common  in  wild  tracts  of 
country.  It  comes  out  on  the  grass  slopes,  where  such  exist,  as  in  the  Nilgiris  and 
other  hill  ranges,  to  graze,  but  always  takes  refuge  in  the  woods.  It  is  but  rarely 
found  associating  in  any  numbers;  both  stags  and  hinds  are  often  found  singly,  but 
small  herds  from  four  or  five  to  a  dozen  in  number  are  commonly  met  with.  Its 
habits  are  nocturnal;  it  may  be  seen  feeding  in  the  morning  and  evening,  but  it 
grazes  chiefly  at  night,  and  at  that  time  often  visits  small  patches  of  cultivation  in 
the  half-cleared  tracts,  returning  for  the  day  to  wilder  parts,  and  often  ascending 
hills  to  make  a  lair  in  grass  among  trees,  where  "it  generally  selects  a  spot  well 
shaded  from  the  sun's  rays.  If  feeds  on  grass,  especially  the  green  grass  near  water, 
and  various  wild  fruits  of  which  it  is  very  fond,  but  it  also  browses  greatly  on 
shoots  and  leaves  of  trees.  It  drinks,  I  believe,  daily,  though  Mr.  Sterndale  doubts 
this;  it  certainly  travels  long  distances  to  its  drinking  places  at  times."  As  regards 
the  date  of  the  pairing  season  and  the  time  of  shedding  the  antlers,  there  appears  to 
be  even  a  still  greater  amount  of  variation  than  is  the  case  with  the  chital,  and  it  is 
stated  on  good  authority  that  stags  have  been  known  to  retain  their  antlers  for  two 
or  more  years.  It  appears,  however,  that  in  peninsular  India  the  pairing  season 
usually  takes  place  in  October  and  November,  although  in  the  Himalayas  it  occurs 
in  the  spring.  Similarly,  while  in  the  former  area  the  antlers  are  most  frequently 
shed  in  March,  in  the  latter,  the  shedding  time  is  deferred  for  a  month.  Usually 
there  is  but  one  fawn  at  a  birth. 

During  the  pairing  season  sambur  assemble  in  large  numbers,  and  at  that  time 
the  old  stags  utter  at  morning  and  evening,  and  sometimes  in  the  night,  loud  roar- 
ings, which  have  been  described  as  a  "  metallic-sounding  bellow." 

Sambur  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  require  a  well-placed  bullet  to  bring 

them  to  the  ground.     They  are  usually  either  stalked  or  driven  by  a  line  of  beaters; 

but  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  when  in  Ceylon,  was  in   the  habit  of  hunting  them  with 

hounds,  and  giving  the  coup  de  grdce  with  a  knife.     Describing  his  experience  in 

60 


946  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

that  country,  Sir  Samuel  writes  that  "  we  never  drove  the  jungles  with  beaters,  but 
simply  strolled  through  the  most  promising  country,  either  upon  ponies  or  on  foot, 
and  took  our  chances  of  any  game  that  we  might  meet.  I  rarely  met  sambur  in  the 
low  country,  and  when  living  on  the  mountains  at  Newera  Ellia,  six  thousand  two 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  shooting  was  out  of  the  question.  Although  the  inter- 
minable forests  of  that  elevated  district  abounded  with  these  animals,  I  have  never 
seen  one,  unless  discovered  by  the  hounds.  The  jungles  are  thick,  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  get  through  them  without  noise  and  considerable  exertion.  The  animals  of 
course  are  alarmed,  and  retreat  before  you  are  near  enough  to  hear  their  rush.  I 
have  often  taken  my  rifle  and  sallied  out  before  sunrise  upon  the  wild  patinas  (open 
ground),  where  nature  rested  in  profound  solitude,  but  I  have  never  seen  a  sambur 
in  the  open." 

The  hunting  was  conducted  with  a  mixed  pack  of  about  fourteen  couples  of 
hounds  of  various  breeds,  which  were  found  better  suited  to  this  kind  of  sport  than 
pure-bred  foxhounds,  and  the  pack  was  always  directed  to  the  neighborhood  of  a 
stream,  where  the  scent  would  be  freshest,  as  the  sambur  drinks  before  retiring  to 
the  densest  depths  of  the  jungle,  in  order  to  enjoy  its  day's  repose.  The  speed  of 
the  sambur  is,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  but  very  moderate,  and  on  the  rare  occa- 
sions when  these  deer  are  found  in  open  country,  any  good  horse  which  is  not  over- 
weighted by  its  rider,  ought  to  have  no  difficulty  in  running  them  down. 

In  the  islands  of  the  Malayan  region  there  occur  several  small  sambur- 
like  deer,  in  regard  to  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether 
they  indicate  races  of  the  ordinary  sambur  which  have  been  introduced  by  the  na- 
tives, and  have  gradually  dwindled  in  size,  or  whether  they  are  entitled  to  rank  as 
distinct  species.  Such  is  the  Timor  deer  (C.  timorensis),  a  small,  thick-set  animal, 
scarcely  half  the  size  of  the  smaller  race  of  the  true  sambur,  and  also  the  Moluccan 
deer  ( C.  moluccensis) ,  in  which  the  general  build  is  more  slight  and  graceful.  In 
the  Philippine  and  L,adrone  islands,  there  occurs  another  of  these  small  sambur-like 
deer  (C.  philippinus},  belonging  to  the  variety  in  which  the  anterior  tines  of  the 
antlers  are  shorter  than  the  posterior.  This  form  is  scarcely  larger  than  the  under- 
mentioned hog-deer,  but  its  build  is  more  slender,  and  the  color  a  uniform  dark 
brown,  save  for  a  pale  ring  round  each  eye,  and  the  white  on  the  under  parts  of  the 
tail  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  thighs. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  tp  the  specific  distinctness  of 
KuhFs  deer  (C.  kuhli),  from  the  Bawian  islands  between  Borneo  and  Java.  This 
deer,  while  resembling  most  of  the  forms  noticed  above,  in  that  its  fur  has  the  same 
uniform  coloration  throughout  life,  differs  in  having  a  skull  resembling  that  of  the 
hog-deer,  and  displaying  the  same  absence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  color  of 
the  fur  in  this  deer  is  pale  brown,  but  the  individual  hairs  are  ringed  with  alternate 
tints,  instead  of  having  the  uniform  hue  of  those  of  the  hog-deer. 

Very  different  from  all  the  other  members  of  this  group  is  Prince  Alfred's  deer 
( C.  alfredi) ,  from  the  Philippines,  which  resembles  the  chital  in  having  at  all  ages 
and  all  seasons  a  spotted  coat.  This  deer  stands  about  two  and  one-half  feet  at  the 
withers,  and  its  color  is  a  dark  chocolate  brown,  with  about  six  longitudinal  rows  of 
somewhat  indistinctly-marked  yellowish  spots.  The  antlers  are  comparatively  short, 


;     THE   SWAMP-DEER   GROUP  947 

r"' 

and  have  the  front  tine  of  the  terminal  fork  directed  inwardly,  while  the  outer  sur- 
faces of  the  ears  are  nearly  devoid  of  hairs. 

The  last  and  smallest  representative  of  this  group  is  the  hog-deer, 
or  para  (C.  porrinus),  of  India  and  Burma,  which  stands  only  some 
twenty-four  inches  in  height  at  the  withers.  In  build,  this  species  is  characterized  by 
the  relative  shortness  of  its  legs,  while  the  tail  is  rather  long,  and  there  is  no  mane 
on  the  neck  and  throat.  The  comparatively-short  antlers  are  mounted  on  very  long 
bony  pedicles,  and  after  giving  off  the  brow-tine  have  a  nearly  straight  beam  till  the 
small  terminal  fork,  the  front  branch  of  which  is  longer  than  the  hind  one.  There 
are  no  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw.  In  color,  the  fur  of  the  para  is  brownish,  with  a 
more  or  less  decided  yellowish  or  reddish  tinge;  each  hair  being  tipped  with  white, 
so  as  to  produce  a  speckly  appearance.  The  under  parts  are  paler,  and  the  under 
surface  of  the  tail  and  the  insides  of  the  ears  white.  The  fur  becomes  paler  in  sum- 
mer, and  is  then  generally  marked  with  light  brown  or  white  spots,  which  may  be 
limited  to  one  or  two  rows  on  either  side  of  a  dark  streak  down  the  back.  The 
young  have  the  whole  body  spotted,  till  they  attain  the  age  of  some  six  months. 
The  antlers  seldom  exceed  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  length. 

In  India  the  hog-deer  is  confined  to  the  great  Indo-Gangetic  plain,  where  it 
ranges  from  Assam  to  the  Punjab  and  Sind,  and  is  quite  unknown  in  the  peninsula, 
though  a  small  colony  has  been  introduced  into  Ceylon.  It  occurs  along  the  Terai 
at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  and  from  Assam  its  range  extends  into  Burma  and 
Tenasserim. 

The  para  swarms  on  many  of  the  low  alluvial  plains  of  India,  to  which  situa- 
tions it  is  mainly,  if  not  exclusively,  restricted.  Here  it  frequents  the  grass  jungles 
of  moderate  height,  avoiding  the  taller  ones  which  give  shelter  to  the  buffalo  and 
rhinoceros.  Sometimes,  however,  they  may  be  met  with  among  trees.  As  a  rule, 
hog-deer  are  solitary  creatures,  and  it  is  but  seldom  that  more  than  two  or  three  are 
found  together,  although  several  may  inhabit  one  patch  of  jungle.  The  pairing  season 
is  said  to  be  in  September  and  October,  and  the  antlers  are  generally  shed  in  April. 

The  hog-deer  is  an  ungainly  animal  when  moving,  and  General  Kinloch  states 
that  both  ' '  its  English  and  specific  names  have  been  derived  from  the  hog-like 
manner  in  which  it  rushes  through  the  long  grass  when  disturbed,  keeping  its  head 
low  down,  and  galloping  without  that  bounding  action  which  characterizes  most 
deer."  Hog-deer  are  generally  shot  from  elephants  and  afford  good  sport,  although 
they  are  difficult  to  hit,  since  as  a  rule  the  only  indication  of  their  presence  is  a  sud- 
den rush  in  the  long  grass,  in  the  direction  of  which  the  sportsman  must  fire. 
General  Kinloch  says,  that  "hog-deer  may  be  speared  on  favorable  ground,  and  give 
splendid  runs;  they  are  very  fast,  and  usually  give  a  much  longer  chase  than  a  boar. 
I  have  heard  of  instances  of  their  deliberately  charging  a  horse,  and  with  theit 
sharp  horns  they  can  inflict  a  very  severe  wound." 

THE  SWAMP-DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  duvauceli,  etc.) 

The  swamp  deer,  of  which  the  antlers  are  figured  in  the  cuts  on  pp.  928  and  941, 
differs  from  all  the  Indian  deer  hitherto  noticed,  in  that  the  antlers  carry  more  than 


948 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


Distribution 


three  tines.  This  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  swamp  deer  has  not  escaped  the 
notice  of  the  natives  of  India,  by  whom  it  is  designated  barasingha,  that  is,  "twelve 
tined."  This  deer  is  a  rather  large  species,  the  bucks  standing  from  three  feet 
eight  inches  to  three  feet  ten  inches  at  the  withers.  The  neck  is  maned,  the  tail  of 
moderate  length,  the  muzzle  long,  and  the  hair  rather  fine  and  woolly.  The 
antlers  are  smooth  and  somewhat  flattened,  and  give  off  the  brow-tine  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  the  beam;  after  which  the  beam  continues  without  branching  for  a  con- 
siderable distance,  finally  dividing  into  a  fork,  of  which  the  two  prongs  again 
branch.  Generally,  as  in  the  figure  on  p.  941,  the  inner  branch  of  the  main  fork 
has  two,  and  the  outer  three  tines,  but  the  number  of  points  is  often  much  greater, 
reaching  from  sixteen  to  twenty,  or  even  more.  In  its  winter  dress  the  color  of  the 
swamp  deer  is  yellowish  brown  above  and  paler  underneath,  but  in  summer  the 
upper  parts  are  reddish  brown,  generally  more  or  less  spotted  with  white,  while 
the  under  parts  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  are  pure  white.  The  young  are 
spotted. 

Average-sized  antlers  of  the  barasingha  measure  about  thirty  inches  along  the 

curve,  but  a  length  of  thirty-eight 
inches  has  been  recorded.  Large 
stags  have  weighed  from  460  to  570 
pounds  (32  stone  12  pounds  to  40 
stone  10  pounds). 

The  swamp  deer  is 
confined  to  India, 
where  it  has  a  local  distribution; 
being  found  along  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas,  from  Assam  to  some 
distance  west  of  the  Jumna,  and  in 
some  districts  in  the  Indo-Gangetic 
plains,  such  as  the  Bengal  sandar- 
bans  and  Rohri  in  Sind.  It  is  also 
common  in  certain  portions  of 
Central  India,  especially  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Narbada,  where  its  habitat 
is  limited  to  the  area  clothed  with 
forests  of  the  sal  tree. 

The    swamp    deer, 
although      sometimes 
found  in  open  forest,  generally  keeps 
in  the  outskirts  of  the  woods,  and 
frequents  flat  or  undulating  grass 
lands,  more  or  less  interspersed  with 
In  winter  it  is  gregarious,  herds  of  from  thirty  to  fifty  head  being  frequently 
t  with,  while  in  some  districts  herds  of  several  hundreds  have  been  observed 
ring  September  and  October.     In  Assam  the  bucks  are  met  with  singly   with  the 
itlers  for  the  most  part  still  in  the  velvet,  so  that  the  shedding  time  is  probably 


Habits 


HEAD  OF  SCHOMBURGK'S  DEER. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1877.) 


DAVID'S    DEER 


949 


as  a  rule,  not  later  than  February.  The  swamp  deer  is  mainly  a  grazer,  and  it  is 
said  to  be  much  less  nocturnal  in  its  habits  than  the  sambur,  being  not  unfre- 
quently  seen  grazing  in  the  forenoon,  and  again  early  in  the  afternoon. 

Schomburgk's  deer  (C.  schomburgki],  of  Siam,  is  an  allied  species, 
Deer  °^  wn^c^  ^e  an tiers,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  948,  are  dis- 

tinguished by  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  beam  below  the  bifurcation, 
and  the  great  length  of  the  brow-tine.  Each  antler  usually  carries  five  points;  and 
specimens  vary  in  length  from  twenty-seven  to  thirty  inches  in  good  examples. 

An  altogether  unique  form  of  antler  is  that  of  Eld's  deer 
(C.  eldi),  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  928.  Here  the  brow- 
tine  curves  down  over  the  forehead,  so  as  to  form  an  almost  continuous  sweep 
with  the  beam;  the  latter  being  curved  at  first  backward  and  outward,  and 
then  slightly  forward,  after  which  it  divides  into  a  short  fork,  of  which  the  two 
prongs  may  split  up  into  as  many  as  eight  or  ten  points.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
brow-tine  often  carries  a  number  of  short  points,  and  there  is  very  generally  a 
distinct  snag  at  the  point  where  that  tine  joins  the  beam.  In  some  cases  the  upper 
part  of  the  beam  is  much  flattened.  In  height  this  species  stands  nearly  the  same 
as  the  swamp  deer.  In  winter  the  color  of  the  fur  of  the  bucks  is  dark  brown, 
tending  to  black,  but  in  summer  it  is  fawn  colored,  nearly  like  that  of  the  does  at 
all  seasons;  the  under  parts  being  pale  brown  in  winter  and  white  in  summer.  The 
fawns  lose  their  spots  at  an  early  age.  In  the  winter  the  hair  is  coarse  and  very 
shaggy.  Average-sized  antlers  measure  about  forty  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  brow- 
tine  along  the  curve  to  the  extremity;  but  one  specimen  of  fifty-four  and  another  of 
fifty-nine  inches  have  been  recorded. 

Eld's  deer  frequent  low,  swampy  grounds  in  Maniptir,  Burma,  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula, Cambodia,  and  the  island  of  Hainan.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  they  are 
"  usually  seen  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  fifty  or  more;  but  occasionally  much  larger 
numbers  are  found  associating.  They  may  enter  the  fringe  of  the  forest  in  places 
for  shade,  during  the  day,  but  they  generally  keep  in  the  open  plain.  In  some 
places  in  the  Irawadi  delta,  and  in  Martaban,  they  are  found  in  plains,  where, 
during  the  dry  season,  no  fresh  water  is  procurable.  They  are  frequently  seen  in 
swamps,  and  feed  on  wild  rice  and  other  plants  growing  in  such  places."  The 
period  of  shedding  the  antlers  varies  from  June  in  Manipur  to  September  in  Lower 
Burma.  The  hinds  utter  a  short  barking  grunt,  while  the  call  of  the  stags  is  a 
more  prolonged  sound  of  the  same  nature. 

DAVID'S  DEER  (Cervus  davidianus) 

Manchuria,  or  some  neighboring  region  in  Northern  China,  is  the  habitat  of  a 
remarkable  deer  differing  from  all  other  Old- World  types  in  the  absence  of  a  brow- 
tine  to  the  antlers.  Instead  of  the  brow-tine,  each  antler  has  a  single  very  long  and 
nearly  straight  tine  given  off  just  above  the  beam,  and  directed  backward;  above 
which  the  beam  ascends  for  a  considerable  distance,  and  then  forks.  The  normal 
number  of  points  on  each  antler  is  accordingly  three,  but  this  may  be  increased  by  a 
splitting  of  each  tine  of  the  fork.  It  appears  that  the  long  back-tine  represents  the 


95o  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

hinder  branch  of  the  antler  of  the  swamp  deer,  and  the  terminal  fork  the  front 
branch  of  the  latter.  David's  deer  is  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  swamp  deer,  and 
is  clothed  with  long  and  rather  shaggy  hair,  while  the  tail  is  of  unusual  length,  and 
also  thickly  haired.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  fawns  are  uniformly  colored,  but 
this  requires  confirmation. 

These  deer  are  kept  in  the  imperial  hunting  park  at  Peking,  and  specimens  have 
been  exhibited  alive  in  England,  but  we  have  no  information  as  to  their  habits  in  the 
wild  state.  The  largest  antlers  on  record  have  a  length  of  thirty-two  and  three- 
fourths  inches. 

THE   FALLOW-DEER  GROUP  (Cervus  dama,  etc.) 

The  fallow  deer  is  a  representative  of  a  distinct  group  of  the  genus  Cervus, 
characterized  by  the  antlers  being  rounded  at  the  base,  but  widening  in  the  upper 
part  into  a  flattened  palmate  expansion.  In  front  there  is  a  large  brow  antler,  form- 
ing rather  more  than  a  right  angle  with  the  beam,  above  which  there  is  a  trez-tine  given 
off  at  some  distance  below  the  commencement  of  the  palmation ;  while  the  hinder  edge 
of  the  latter  carries  three  or  four  small  sharp  snags,  of  which  the  lowest  is  longer  and 
placed  considerably  below  the  others,  so  that  it  may  rank  as  a  distinct  back-tine. 

In  height  the  fallow  deer  usually  stands  nearly  three  feet  at  the  withers,  and 
has  a  small  head,  large  ears,  and  a  relatively-long  tail.  The  general  color  of  the  fur 
is  some  shade  of  fawn  or  yellowish  brown,  darker  on  the  head  and  neck,  and  marked 
on  the  body  with  a  number  of  large  white  spots.  The  under  parts,  inner  sides  of 
the  limbs,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  tail  are  white,  and  there  is  a  dark  line  run- 
ning down  the  back  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  There  is  how- 
ever, a  dark  brown  variety  in  which  the  spots  are  scarcely  distinguishable,  or 
wanting,  and  specimens  may  be  seen  exhibiting  every  gradation  in  color  from  pure 
white  to  nearly  black.  The  hair  is  comparatively  short  and  fine,  and  there  is  no 
mane  on  the  neck  and  throat.  The  upper  jaw  has  no  tusks.  Good  antlers  vary  in 
length  from  nineteen  to  twenty-seven  inches,  twenty -eight  and  one- fourth  being  the 
maximum  length  on  record. 

Distribution  The  ^a^ow  deer  is  a  native  of  Northern  Africa  and  the  countries  bor- 
dering the  Mediterranean,  and  in  a  wild  state  is  still  abundant  in  Sar- 
dinia, Spain,  and  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  From  these  countries 
it  has  been  introduced  into  Central  Europe,  where  it  flourishes  well,  although  need- 
ing some  protection  during  the  winter  in  the  more  northerly  regions.  At  what  period 
this  introduction  took  place  is,  however,  quite  uncertain,  although  in  Britain  it  was 
evidently  many  centuries  ago.  From  the  occurrence  of  antlers  of  the  general  type 
of  those  of  the  fallow  deer  in  some  of  the  superficial  deposits,  it  has  been  supposed 
that  this  species  was  really  an  indigenous  British  animal.  These  fossil  antlers  belong, 
however,  to  an  extinct  although  nearly-allied  species,  known  as  C.  browni,  and  there  is 
no  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  fossil  remains  of  the  true  fallow  deer  in  this  country. 

Bell  observes  that  "  fallow  deer  are  gregarious  to  a  great  extent,  associating  in 
large  herds,  the  bucks  apart  from  the  does,  except  in  the  pairing  season  and  early 
winter,  when  the  sexes  consort  in  company.  Most  persons  must  be  familiar  with 


cr 

LJ 
UJ 
Q 


a 


THE  FALLOW-DEER   GROUP >  951 

their  boldness  and  the  confident  manner  in  which  they  will  approach  mankind, 
where  they  are  well  accustomed  to  his  presence.  .  .  .  Like  the  other  species, 
the  fallow  deer  feeds  on  herbage.  It  has  been  noted  that  it  is  especially  fond  of  horse- 
chestnuts,  which  the  bucks  knock  down  from  the  branches  with  their  antlers,  and 
this  tree  is  consequently  frequently  planted  in  deer  parks.  The  pairing  season  begins 
in  September,  and  the  doe  goes  eight  months  with  young. "  As  a  general  rule  but 
a  single  fawn  is  produced  at  a  birth,  although  there  may  occasionally  be  two.  The 
alleged  instances  of  triplets  appear  to  be  incorrect.  The  young  male  exhibits  the 
first  signs  of  his  antlers  in  his  second  year,  when  they  make  their  appearance  as 
simple  snags,  the  animal  being  then  called  a  pricket.  In  the  fifth  year  the  antlers 
attain  their  full  development,  al thought  some  additional  small  points  may  be  added 
in  the  following  season. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  dark  variety  of  the  fallow  deer  was  introduced  from 
Norway  by  James  the  First,  on  account  of  its  hardy  constitution.  This,  however, 
has  been  proved  to  be  incorrect  by  Mr.  Harting,  who  has  shown  that  this  breed  ex- 
isted in  Windsor  Park  as  far  back  as  the  year  1465.  The  fallow  deer  of  Windsor 
Park  include  both  the  spotted  and  the  brown  breeds,  but  in  Epping  forest  only  the 
latter  occur. 

Writing  of  the  fallow  deer  of  Epping,  Mr.  Harting  states  that  they  "have  held 
their  own,  in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  until  the  present  time,  and  have  strangly  pre- 
served their  ancient  characteristic  in  regard  to  size  and  color.  Locally  they  are  referred 
to  as  'the  old  forest  breed,'  and  are  comparatively  small  in  size,  of  a  uniformly  dark 
brown  color,  and  with  very  attenuated  antlers  —  peculiarities  which  have  no  doubt 
been  brought  about  by  continued  isolation,  without  the  admixture  of  any  fresh 
stock  for  many  generations.  It  is  remarkable  that  no  individuals  of  the  true  fallow 
color  (i.  e.,  yellow  dun)  or  spotted  with  white  are  ever  seen  in  this  forest.  This  in 
some  measure  proves  the  antiquity  of  the  stock,  which  would  otherwise  show  in 
their  progeny  a  reversion  to  one  or  other  of  these  varieties,  which  elsewhere  are  so 
common.  The  keepers  assert  that  not  only  are  there  no  spotted  or  fallow  varieties 
here,  but  that  they  have  never  observed  any  spotted  fawns,  the  latter  being  dark 
like  their  parents.  If  this  observation  be  correct,  it  is  very  remarkable,  for  it  is 
generally  supposed  that  the  fawns  of  all  fallow  deer  are  spotted  at  birth,  and  that 
except  in  the  permanently  spotted  variety,  the  spots  disappear  with  age.  The  at- 
tenuation of  the  antlers  is  also  very  noticeable,  the  palmation  being  reduced  from  a 
hand's  breadth  to  about  the  width  of  two  fingers.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  from 
long  isolation  and  continued  breeding  in  and  in,  the  herd  has  considerably  degener- 
ated. ...  At  present  [1884]  the  number  of  fallow  deer  in  Epping  forest  is 
estimated  to  be  about  eighty  or  one  hundred  head.  They  do  net  associate  in  one 
herd,  but  roam  about  in  small  parties,  keeping  to  the  thickest  underwood  and  most 
unfrequented  parts  of  the  forest."  The  venison  of  the  fallow  deer  is  generally  con- 
sidered superior  to  that  of  the  red  deer. 

_,      .      _  The  Persian  fallow  deer  (C.  mesopotamicus},  from  the  mountains  of 

Persian  Fallow 

Deer  Luristan,  in  Mesopotamian   Persia,  differs  from  the  ordinary  kind  in 

that  the  trez-tine  of  the  antlers  is  placed  nearer  to  the  small  brow-tine, 
and  that  the  main  palmation  of  the  beam  takes  place  below  instead  of  above  the 


952 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


middle  of  the  length.     The  two  species  are,  however,  very  closely  allied,  and  will 
freely  breed  together.     The  Persian  species  appears  to  be  always  spotted. 

In  this  place  may  be  noticed  two  extinct  deer  from  the  superficial 
deposits  of  Europe,  which  appear  to  be  nearly  related  to  the  fallow 
deer,  although  of  course  it  is  impossible  to  tell  now  whether  they  had 
spotted  or  uniformly-colored  coats.  The  first  and  largest  of  these  is  the  gigantic 
Irish  deer  (C.  giganteus},  often,  but  incorrectly,  spoken  of  as  the  Irish  elk,  in  which 
the  widely-palmated  antlers  were  larger  and  more  massive  than  in  any  other  species. 
In  this  magnificent  deer  the  antlers  have  a  short  and  nearly  cylindrical  basal  portion 
of  the  beam,  given  off  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  skull.  Above  the 
burr  there  is  a  descending  brow-tine  (#)  which  is  flattened  and  generally  forked. 
As  soon  as  the  beam  expands  it  gives  off  from  the  front  edge  a  trez-tine  (c~),  and 
nearly  opposite  to  it,  on  the  hinder  edge,  a  back-tine  (^),  corresponding  to 
the  one  similarly  situated  in  the  fallow  deer.  Above  these  tines  the  antlers  expand 


ANTHERS  OF    THE    IRISH    DEER. 

(From  Nehring.) 

to  their  fullest  width,  and  generally  terminate  in  five  or  six  snags,  of  which  the  top- 
most have  a  nearly  upright  direction.  In  unusually  fine  examples  the  antlers  of  the 
Irish  deer  may  have  a  span  of  over  eleven  feet  from  tip  to  tip,  and  the  height  of  the 
animal  may  be  fully  six  feet  at  the  shoulder. 

Although  the  Irish  deer  takes  its  name  from  the  common  occurrence  of  its  re- 
mains in  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  that  country,  but  is 
found  in  the  caverns  and  superficial  deposits  of  England  and  parts  of  Scotland,  as 
well  as  on  the  Continent,  where  its  range  extends  from  Italy  in  the  south  to  Russia 
in  the  north.  That  the  Irish  deer  lived  within  the  human  period  is  proved  by  the 
occurrence  of  its  remains  in  association  with  some  stone  implements.  It  has,  indeed, 
been  considered  that  the  word  Schelk,  which  occurs  in  the  Nibelungenlied  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  refers  to  the  Irish  deer,  but  Professor  Nehring  is  of  opinion  that 
it  more  probably  means  either  an  elk  or  a  wild  stallion. 

The  Irish  deer  differs  considerably  from  the  fallow  deer  in  the  form  and  direc- 
tion of  its  antlers,  but  a  connecting  link  between  them  is  found  in  Ruff's  deer 


THE   MUNTJACS 


953 


(•C  ruffi),  from  the  superficial  deposits  of  Germany,  which  was  of  somewhat  infe- 
rior dimensions  to  the  former.  In  Ruff's  deer  the  antlers  are  directed  upward  and 
outward  nearly  after  the  fashion  obtaining  in  the  fallow  deer,  while  the  plane  of  the 
palmated  portion  is  placed  in  the  same  longitudinal  direction  as  in  the  latter.  More- 
over, the  terminal  snags  are  shorter  and  inclined  more  inwardly  than  in  the  Irish 
deer,  but  the  flattened  and  expanded  form  of  the  brow-tine  indicates  a  closer  connec- 
tion with  the  latter. 

THE  MUNTJACS 
Genus    Cervulus 

The  small  Asiatic  deer,  commonly  known  as  muntjacs,  differ  so  decidedly  from 
all  those  hitherto  noticed  that  they  are  referred  to  as  a  distinct  genus.   They  are  dis- 


THE    INDIAN    MUNTJAC. 

tinguished  from  all  the  members  of  the  genus  Cervus  by  their  short,  simple,  two- 
tined  antlers  being  mounted  on  pedicles  of  the  skull,  which  are  as  long  or  longer 
than  the  antlers  themselves,  and  diverge  from  the  middle  line  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  forehead,  where  they  commence  as  rib-like  bars.  From  this  feature  these  ani- 
mals are  often  spoken  of  as  rib-faced  deer.  The  brow-tine  of  the  antlers  is  short  and 
directed  upward,  while  the  tip  of  the  undivided  beam  is  more  or  less  inclined  inward. 
The  skull  has  a  very  large  depression  for  the  reception  of  the  gland  below  the  eye, 


954  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

and  the  bucks  are  furnished  with  long  projecting  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  lat- 
eral toes  are  peculiar  in  that  they  consist  of  only  the  hoofs,  without  any  trace  of  the 
bones  of  the  digits  themselves. 

The  muntjacs  are  confined  to  India,  Burma,  and  the  Malayan  region,  and  evi- 
dently indicate  a  very  ancient  and  generalized  type  of  the  Deer  family.  They  appear 
to  be  represented  in  the  Pliocene  formations  of  Europe,  and  are  probably  nearly  re- 
lated to  a  still  earlier  group  of  extinct  European  deer,  known  as  Pal&omeryx,  in 
which  the  antlers  were  either  totally  wanting,  or  of  very  small  dimensions. 

The  best-known  representative  of  the  group  is  the  common  Indian 
Indian  muntjac,  also  known  as  the  barking  deer,  and  in  Hindustan  as  the  ka- 

kar  (Cervulus  muntjac}.  This  animal  stands  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
two  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  has  fur  of  a  deep  chestnut  color,  becoming 
darker  on  the  back,  and  paler  and  less  brilliant  below;  the  chin  and  upper  part  of  the 
throat,  as  well  as  the  hinder  portion  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  and  the  inner 
sides  of  the  thighs  and  lower  surface  of  the  tail,  being  white.  The  face  and  limbs 
are  brown,  and  there  is  a  black  line  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  pedicles  of  the  ant- 
lers, extending  some  distance  down  the  ribs  on  the  face.  The  antlers  are  generally 
only  some  three  or  four  inches  in  length,  on  pedicles  of  some  four  or  five  inches,  but 
sometimes  reach  the  length  of  five,  and,  it  is  said,  even  eleven  inches. 

The  kakar  is  essentially  a  forest-dwelling  deer,  and  appears  to  be  re- 
stricted to  hilly  regions.     Its  range  includes  suitable  districts  through- 
out India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma,  whence  it  extends  through  the  Malay  Peninsula  to 
the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  and  Hainan. 

These  deer  are  solitary  creatures,  usually  found  singly  or  in  pairs; 
the  name  of  barking  deer  being  derived  from  their  peculiar  cry.  On 
this  point  General  Kinloch  observes  that  many  visitors  to  the  various  hill  stations 
of  the  Himalayas,  who  may  never  have  seen  a  kakar,  must  probably  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  its  voice,  which  is  wonderfully  powerful  for  such  a  small  animal.  It 
is  rather  difficult  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  it  by  words,  but  it  may  perhaps  be  best 
described  as  a  hoarse  resonant  bark.  The  cry  may  frequently  be  heard  in  the 
mornings  and  evenings,  and  it  is  also  often  uttered  when  the  deer  is  alarmed,  when 
it  hears  any  loud  or  unusual  sound,  or  suspects  the  existence  of  any  danger. 
Occasionally  a  kakar  will  continue  to  bark,  at  short  intervals,  for  an  hour  at 
a  time,  and  advantage  may  be  taken  of  his  betraying  his  whereabouts  to  stalk 
him. 

Kakar  are  adepts  at  making  their  way  at  speed  through  the  most  dense  jungle, 
and  run  with  their  head  low  and  their  hind-quarters  elevated.  When  running,  a 
peculiar  rattling  sound  is  produced  by  these  animals,  which  is  thought  to  originate 
in  the  mouth,  although  in  •  what  manner  is  still .  unknown.  The  bucks,  when  at- 
tacked by  dogs,  appear  to  use  their  tusks,  which  curve  outward  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
as  their  chief  weapons  of  defense,  and  are  able  with  them  to  inflict  gashes  of  con- 
siderable depth.  Although  young  kakar  are  apparently  to  be  met  with  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  the  chief  pairing  time  in  Northern  India  is  during  the  months  of 
January  and  February;  the  fawns,  which  may  be  one  or  two  in  number,  being  born 
in  the  following  June  or  July.  The  bucks  shed  their  antlers  in  May,  and  their 


THE  MUNTJACS 


955 


renewal  is  completed  by  August.     The  venison  of  the  kakar  is  considered  superior 
to  that  of  most  of  the  Indian  deer. 

In  regard  to  the  sport  afforded  by  these  deer,  General  Kinloch 
writes:  "I  have  stalked  and  shot  kakar  at  various  times,  and  have 
also  had  them  driven  out  of  cover;  many  may  be  found  in  this  manner,  but,  unless 
one  knows  their  usual  runs,  it  is  difficult  to  know  where  to  post  oneself.  L,ike 
many  other  animals,  the  kakar  ob- 
jects to  being  driven,  and  will 
break  back  through  the  beaters  in 
order  to  make  his  point.  As  they 
probably  only  give  a  chance  of  a 
snap  shot  at  short  range,  it  is  easier 
to  kill  them  with  a  charge  of  shot 
than  with  a  rifle  bullet. ' ' 

There   are    four 
Other  Species     ,,  .        r 

other  species  of  munt- 

jac,  in  addition  to  the  common 
Indian  form.  Of  these,  Fea's 
muntjac  (  C.  fees') ,  froniTenasserim, 
is  rather  smaller  and  darker  than 
the  Indian  species,  with  a  short 
tuft  of  hair  between  the  antlers, 
and  a  much  shorter  tail;  the  latter 
appendage  being  altogether  white, 
save  for  a  narrow  streak  of  black 
down  the  middle  of  its  upper  surface. 

The  other  three  species  are  Chinese.  In  Eastern  Tibet  and  the  neighborhood 
of  Hang-Chow  there  occurs  Sclater's  muntjac  (C.  lacrymans),  characterized  by  the 
bright  yellowish -colored  hair  of  the  head  and  neck,  while  that  clothing  the  body 
and  limbs  is  of  a  much  more  sombre  hue.  '  The  smallest  member  of  the  group  is 
Reeves' s  muntjac  (C.  reevesi),  from  Southern  China  and  Formosa,  in  which  the  color 
of  the  whole  fur  is  brighter  than  in  any  other  species,  while  the  pedicles  of  the  ant- 
lers diverge  less  from  one  another,  and  the  hollow  in  the  skull  for  the  gland  below 
the  eye  is  of  unusually  large  size. 

Finally,  the  hairy-fronted  muntjac  (C.  crinifrons) ,  which  is  perhaps  the  hand- 
somest of  all  and  comes  from  the  neighborhood  of  Ningpo,  is  distinguished  at  a 
glance  by  the  long  tuft  of  hair  on  the  forehead  and  top  of  the  head,  in  which  the 
minute  antlers  are  almost  entirely  hidden.  This  species  stands  about  twenty-four 
inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  the  general  color  of  its  fur  is  brown.  The 
upper  part  of  the  head  is,  however,  of  a  bright  chestnut,  which,  with  the  white  of 
the  under  parts  and  lower  surface  of  the  tail,  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
somber  coloration  of  the  body. 


HEAD   OF   HAIRY-FRONTED  MUNTJAC. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1885.) 


956  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

THE  TUFTED  DEER 
Genus  Elaphodus 

Nearly  related  to  the  muntjacs  are  two  small  deer  from  Chinese  territory,  of 
which  the  one  known  as  Michie's  deer  (Elaphodus  michianus]  inhabits  Eastern 
China,  while  the  other,  which  may  be  called  the  Tibetan  tufted  deer  (E.  cephalo- 
phus},  is  from  Moupin,  in  Eastern  Tibet.  In  the  males  of  these  deer,  as  represented 
in  the  accompanying  illustration,  the  antlers  are  extremely  minute  and  unbranched, 
while  their  supports  take  the  form  of  long  pedicles,  which,  instead  of  diverging  as 
in  the  muntjacs,  are  convergent.  Then,  again,  the  rib-like  ridges  occurring  on  the 
face  of  the  muntjacs  are  absent,  as  are  likewise  some  small  glands  found  on  the  fore- 


MICHIE'S   DEER. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.,  Zool.  Soc.,  1876.) 

head  of  the  latter.  Like  the  muntjacs,  the  bucks  of  these  two  deer  are  furnished 
with  long  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  although  their  extremities  are  not  turned  outward. 
In  both  species  the  hair  is  so  coarse  as  to  have  been  compared  to  small  quills;  and 
on  the  forehead  the  hair  is  lengthened  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  horseshoe-like  crest 
on  the  tuft. 

In  Michie's  deer  the  general  color  of  the  fur  is  grayish  black,  each  individual 
hair  being  white  for  a  considerable  distance  above  its  base,  and  the  face  and  neck 
uniformly  dark  gray,  while  the  crest  on  the  forehead  and  portions  of  the  ears  are 
dark  brown.  In  the  Tibetan  tufted  deer  the  fur  on  the  head,  neck,  and  fore- 
quarters  is  dark  brown,  each  hair  being  brown  above  and  whitish  beneath,  while  a 
pure  white  ring  divides  the  two  colors;  consequently  there  is  a  speckled  appearance 


THE   REINDEER 


957 


in  the  fur  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  animal.  In  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  the 
white  rings  on  the  hairs  are  absent,  and  the  color  of  the  fur  is  consequently  uni- 
form dark  brown,  becoming  of  a  still  deeper  shade  on  the  feet  and  the  crest  on  the 
forehead.  The  ears  have  a  transverse  black  bar,  with  white  tips  and  edges;  the 
under  parts  of  the  body  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  being  likewise  white. 

Michie's  deer  are  abundant  in  the  reeds  bordering  the  rivers  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Ningpo  and  other  parts  of  Eastern  China. 


THE  REINDEER 
Genus  Ran%ifer 

The  reindeer  (Rangifer  tarandus)  differs  from  all  other  members  of  the  deer  tribe 
in  that  the  antlers  are  not  borne  only  by  the  male,  although  those  of  the  female  are 
of  smaller  dimensions,  and  together  with  all  the  deer  remaining  for  notice,  it  differs 
from  those  already  described  in  the  structure  of  the  fore-foot.  In  these,  which,  with 
the  single  exception  of  the  wapiti,  are  Old- World  types,  the  lateral  metacarpal  bones 
of  the  fore-foot,  which  originally  supported  the  lateral  toes,  are  represented  only  by 
two  small  splints  lying  on  either  side  of  the  upper  end  of  the  canon  bone,  as  shown 
in  the  foot  of  the  sheep  on  p.  802.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  reindeer  and  the 
under-mentioned  genera,  these  same  lateral  metacarpal  bones  are  represented  only 
by  their  lower  extremities,  and  thus  still  support  the  toe  bones  of  the  lateral  hoofs, 
as  shown  in  the  figure  on  this  page.  This  difference  may  not,  perhaps  appear 
to  be  of  much  significance,  but  as  there  are  other  indications  of  affinity  between  the 
members  of  the  two  groups  into  which  the  Deer  family  is  thereby 
divided,  it  is  probably  of  considerable  importance  in  classification. 
The  majority  of  the  deer  belonging  to  the  present  group  are 
either  common  to  the  present  regions  of  both  Hemispheres,  or 
are  restricted  to  the  New  World,  the  roe  and  the  Chinese  water 
deer  being  the  only  exclusively  Old- World  forms. 

Reverting  to  the  consideration  of  the  reindeer,  we  have  first 
to  observe  that  in  addition  to  the  presence  of  antlers  in  both 
sexes,  the  genus  is  distinguished  from  all  other  deer  by  the 
form  and  position  of  these  appendages.  Thus,  instead  of  being 
placed  low  down  on  the  forehead,  the  antlers  take  their 
origin  on  the  upper  part  of  the  skull,  immediately  over  the 
occipital  ridge,  and  are  accordingly  far  behind  the  eyes;  while 
as  regards  form  they  are  distinguished  by  the  great  development 
of  the  brow-tines  in  the  males,  which  are  more  or  less  laterally 
compressed,  branched,  and  palmated,  and  descend  to  a  greater 

• 

or  less  degree  over  the  face,  so  that  their  lower  edge  sometimes      LEFT  FORE.FOOT 
almost  touches  the  nose.     Then,  again,  there  is  such  an  amount      OF  THE    ROE- 

KT'CK 

of  individual  variation   that  scarcely  any   two   reindeer  can   be       (From  Dawkins 

found  in  which  the  antlers  are  precisely  similar,  while  frequently 

the  two  antlers  of  the  same  individual  are  widely  different  from  one  another. 


958  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  antlers  are  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  skull,  and  above 
the  brow-tine,  which  is  also  branched  and  often  palmated,  after  giving  off  the 
bez-tine,  the  narrow  beam  is  continued  backward  for  some  distance,  till  it  bends 
forward  at  an  angle,  usually  giving  off  a  small  back-tine  at  the  bend.  The  beam  is 
then  continued  upward  and  forward  till  it  becomes  palmated  near  the  extremity, 
with  a  variable  number  of  points  on  its  hinder  border.  In  the  reindeer  of  the  New 
World  the  antlers  exhibit  the  greatest  complexity  of  structure,  the  brow-tine  of  one 
side  becoming  enormously  developed  and  greatly  palmated,  while  on  the  other  it  is 
aborted. 

In  build  the  reindeer  is  a  somewhat  heavy  animal,  with  short  and  rather  stout 
limbs,  terminating  in  large  hoofs.  The  main  pair  of  hoofs,  as  shown  in  our  figure, 

are  rounded,  broad  and  short,  with  the  intervening  cleft 
very  deep  and  wide,  while  the  lateral  hoofs  are  unusually 
large  and  flattened  from  front  to  back.  In  traversing 
snow  fields  the  two  main  hoofs  spread  out  sideways,  while 
the  lateral  pair  come  in  contact  with  the  snow,  by  which 
means  a  large  extent  of  surface  is  afforded  to  support  the 
weight.  The  muzzle  of  the  reindeer  differs  from  that  of 
all  the  deer  heretofore  mentioned  in  being  clothed  with 
soft  hair  of  moderate  length.  The  neck  has  no  distinct 
mane,  but  the  throat  is  fringed  with  long  and  rather  stiff 
hair.  The  ears  are  smaller  than  in  any  other  deer,  and 
thickly  covered  on  both  sides  with  hair.  The  hair 
clothing  the  body  is  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  one- 
half  in  length,  and  is  somewhat  crimped  or  waved,  while 
UNDER  SURFACE  OF  FOOT  beneath  this  i&  a  coat  of  woolly  under-fur.  The  general 

Or*     1\  i',  I  IS  I.)rV.K.K  . 

color  of  the  reindeer  is  brownish  gray,  with  the  face,  neck 

and  throat  whitish,  and  the  nose,  ears  and  limbs  brown.  There  are,  however,  great 
individual  variations  as  regards  color,  some  specimens  being  nearly  or  quite  white 
throughout.  In  general  the  tail  is  white,  with  a  tinge  of  brown  at  the  root  and  on 
the  upper  surface,  and  there  is  a  distinct  white  ring  round  each  fetlock.  The  hoofs 
are  black,  and  the  antlers  yellowish,  wearing  white  in  places.  Reindeer  fawns  are 
uniformly  colored  like  the  adult. 

The  various  races  of  reindeer  differ  considerably  from  one  another  in  respect  of 
height,  but  the  bucks  of  the  larger  American  variety  stand  about  four  and  one-half 
feet  at  the  withers,  and  usually  weigh  some  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  although 
unusually  fine  specimens  may  reach  nearly  four  hundred  pounds.  In  regard  to  the 
length  of  the  antlers,  it  appears  that  fine  examples  vary  from  forty-eight  to  just 
over  fifty-seven  inches,  although  one  pair  is  known  in  which  the  length  reaches  to 
upward  of  sixty  inches.  There  is  great  variation  in  regard  to  the  span  of  antlers, 
and  the  number  of  points  they  carry,  while  it  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  that  the 
longest  specimens  have  by  no  means  the  greatest  girth. 

Distrib  f  Reindeer  inhabit  the   northern  regions  of    both  the  Eastern  and 

Western  Hemispheres,    and  English  zoologists  are  pretty  generally 

agreed  that  there  is  but  a  single  species.  In  America,  however,  where  they  are  known 


THE    REINDEER 


959 


by  the  French-Canadian  name  caribou  (a  corruption  of  carreboeuf,  literally  "square- 
ox"),  it  is  considered  that  there  are  either  one  or  two  species  distinct  from  the  Old- 
World  form.  Thus,  whereas  Mr.  Caton  regards  the  smaller  North- American  form, 
known  as  the  barren-ground  caribou,  as  a  distinct  species,  while  he  identifies  the 
larger  southern  kind,  termed  the  woodland  caribou,  with  R.  tarandus,  other  writers, 
like  Dr.  Hart  Merriam,  consider  that  both  the  American  forms  are  entitled  to  rank 


REINDEER. 
(One-fifteenth   natural   size.) 

as  distinct  species.     We  shall,  however,  follow  the  view  that  all  kinds  of  reindeer 
are  merely  local  varieties  or  races  of  a  single  widely  spread  species. 

In  the  Old  World,  reindeer  are  found  nearly  as  far  north  as  the  extreme  limits 
of  land,  while  they  extend  from  Scandinavia  in  the  west  to  Eastern  Siberia.  In  the 
Ural  region  their  southern  limit  reaches  in  the  Kirghiz  steppes  to  about  the  fifty- 
second  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  they  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  the  wild  state, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Orenburg.  In  European  Russia  they  are  found  in  the  for- 
ests of  the  Government  of  Kazan  as  far  south  as  latitude  54° ,  and  it  is  stated 


.960  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

that  in  this  district  they  attain  very  large  dimensions,  while  the  females  are  without 
antlers.  In  Scandinavia  wild  reindeer  are,  however,  now  becoming  rare.  Domesti- 
cated reindeer  are  kept  in  Siberia,  Lapland,  and  part  of  Norway,  as  well  as  in  the 
northern  districts  of  the  Government  of  Perm,  but  appear  to  be  unknown  in  the  Oren- 
burg region.  They  were  introduced  into  Iceland  in  1870,  where  they  flourish  well, 
and  in  1892  sixteen  head  were  landed  in  Alaska.  The  Scandinavian  domesticated 
breed,  which  is  chiefly  used  by  the  Laps  for  purposes  of  draught,  is  considerably 
smaller  than  the  wild  race,  but  in  Siberia  there  is  a  tamed  breed  of  larger  size, 
mainly  used  for  riding.  The  importance  of  the  reindeer  to  the  Laplander  has  been 
so  often  written  of  that  we  may  be  excused  for  making  any  further  mention  of  it. 

In  regard  to  the  northern  extension  of  the  Old- World  reindeer,  Baron  Nor- 
denskjold  observes  that  although  it  has  not  been  found  in  Franz- Josef  Land,  it 
occurs  at  Cape  Chelyuskin,  as  well  as  in  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitzbergen,  and  in  the 
still  more  northerly  Phipps  and  Parry  islands,  which  lie  between  the  eightieth  and 
eighty-first  parallels  of  north  latitude.  In  some  of  these  desolate  regions  reindeer 
are  still  very  numerous,  even  where,  as  in  Spitzbergen,  they  are  incessantly  hunted. 
Regarding  their  abundance  in  the  islands  last  named,  Baron  Nordenskjold  says  that 
it  has  been  suggested  that  they  emigrate  from  Nova  Zembla;  but  he  considers  it 
more  probable  that  if  such  an  emigration  does  take  place,  it  must  be  from  some 
unknown  Arctic  land  to  the  north-northeast. 

The  same  writer  observes  that  "the  life  of  the  wild  reindeer  is  best  known  in 
Spitzbergen.  During  the  summer  it  betakes  itself  to  the  grassy  plains  in  the  ice-free 
valleys  of  the  island;  in  late  autumn  it  withdraws  —  according  to  the  walrus  hunter's 
statements  —  to  the  seacoast,  in  order  to  eat  the  seaweed  that  is  thrown  up  on  the 
beach.  In  winter  it  goes  back  to  the  lichen-clad  mountain  heights  in  the  interior  of 
the  country,  where  it  appears  to  thrive  exceedingly  well,  though  the  cold  during 
winter  must  be  excessively  severe,  for  when  the  reindeer  in  spring  return  to  the 
coast  they  are  still  very  fat,  but  some  weeks  afterward,  when  the  snow  has  frozen 
on  the  surface,  and  a  crust  of  ice  makes  it  difficult  for  them  to  get  at  the  mountain 
sides,  they  become  so  poor  as  to  be  scarcely  eatable.  In  summer,  however,  they 
speedily  eat  themselves  back  into  condition,  and  in  autumn  they  are  so  fat  that  they 
would  certainly  take  prizes  at  an  exhibition  of  fat  cattle." 

Further  observations  on  the  mode  of  life  of  the  reindeer  will  be  deferred  till  we 
come  to  the  American  varieties,  but  it  is  important  that  the  periodical  migrations  of 
these  animals  which  take  place  in  Siberia  should  be  noticed  here.  Admiral  von 
Wrangel,  when  in  Eastern  Siberia,  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  such  migrations 
on  more  than  one  occasion;  and  he  relates  that  the  moving  masses  might  be  reck- 
oned to  include  thousands  of  individuals,  split  up  into  herds  of  two  or  three  hun- 
dred head.  On  one  of  these  occasions  the  Admiral  states  that  "two  large  migrating 
bodies  of  reindeer  passed  at  no  great  distance.  They  were  descending  the  hills  from 
the  northwest,  and  crossing  the  plain  on  their  way  to  the  forests,  where  they  spend 
the  winter.  Both  bodies  of  deer  extended  further  than  the  eye  could  reach,  and 
formed  a  compact  mass  narrowing  to  the  front.  They  moved  slowly  and  majestically 
along,  their  broad  antlers  resembling  a  moving  wood  of  leafless  trees.  Each  body 
was  led  by  a  deer  of  unusual  size,  which  my  guides  assured  me  was  always  a  female." 


THE    REINDEER  961 

These  southerly  winter  migrations  of  the  reindeer  are  of^considerable  impor- 
tance in  regard  to  the  former  occurrence  of  this  animal  in  Southern  Europe;  for 
since  its  remains  are  not  unfrequently  found  in  association  with  those  of  the  hippo- 
potamus, we  can  scarcely  assume  that  in  such  localities  at  any  rate  the  climate  coulci 
have  been  otherwise  than  comparatively  mild.  Accordingly,  the  most  probable  hy- 
pothesis seems  to  be  that  in  the  Pleistocene  period  the  reindeer,  driven  by  the  intense 
cold  of  the  more  northern  portions  of  its  habitat,  must  have  traveled  so  far  south 
during  the  winter  till  it  reached  regions  where  the  rivers  were  suitable  for  the  habi- 
tation of  the  hippopotamus. 

At  the  present  day  reindeer  are  unknown  in  the  Old  World  to  the  south  of  a 
parallel  running  a  little  below  the  southern  shore  of  the  Baltic;  it  appears,  however, 
that  in  the  time  of  Caesar  they  were  met  with  in  the  Black  Forest  of  Northern  Ger- 
many, although  whether  as  permanent  residents  or  as  winter  immigrants,  cannot,  of 
course,  be  now  ascertained.  In  the  British  Isles,  remains  of  reindeer  are  commonly 
met  with  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  it  was  long  considered  that  in 
Caithness  this  deer  survived  till  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  although  the  latest 
researches  tend  to  discountenance  this  idea.  Reindeer  remains  are  also  found  over  the 
Continent,  occurring  as  far  south  as  the  valleys  of  the  Dordogne  and  Garonne  in  France. 
Turning  now  to  the  American  reindeer,  which,  as  aforesaid,  are 
characterized  by  the  great  development  and  palmation  of  one  brow- 
tine  of  the  antlers,  and  the  abortion  of  the  other,  we  find  there  are  two  well-marked 
varieties.  The  first  and  smaller  of  these  is  the  barren-ground  caribou,  the  R.grcen- 
landicus  of  those  who  regard  it  as  a  distinct  species.  This  reindeer  is  found  only  in 
the  barren  Arctic  districts  lying  to  the  northward  of  the  forest  region  of  North 
America.  It  is  abundant  in  the  desolate  regions  to  the  northward  of  Fort  Churchill, 
whence  it  extends  to  the  confines  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  This  form,  although  much 
inferior  in  point  of  size  to  the  woodland  caribou,  has  larger  antlers;  and  it  is  mainly 
on  the  latter  ground  that  American  zoologists  urge  its  right  to  be  reckoned  as  a 
distinct  species.  Although  confined  in  summer  to  the  so-called  ' '  barren  grounds, 
this  variety  of  the  reindeer  makes  extensive  southerly  migrations  in  autumn,  in  or- 
der to  spend  the  winter  in  the  forest  regions  tenanted  by  the  woodland  caribou.  It 
appears,  however,  that  even  when  inhabiting  the  same  districts,  the  two  races  invari- 
ably remain  completely  apart  from  one  another,  and  show  no  tendency  to  intermingle. 
The  larger  woodland  caribou,  of  which  the  dimensions  have  already 
been  mentioned>  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  forest  districts  lying  to  the 
south  of  the  barren  northern  lands.  Mr.  Lett  states  that  "  it  inhabits 
Labrador  and  Northern  Canada,  and  thence  may  be  found  south  to  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Newfoundland,  the  northern  part  of  the  State  of  Maine  and 
Lower  Canada  on  both  sides  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  thence  westerly  in  the  country 
north  of  Quebec  to  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior.  It  never  migrates  toward  the 
north  in  summer,  as  is  the  habit  of  the  barren-ground  caribou,  but  makes  its  migra- 
tion in  a  southerly  direction."  This  difference  in  the  direction  of  the  migration  of 
the  two  varieties  is  certainly  very  remarkable;  and  when  taken  in  conjunction  with 
the  difference  in  the  size  of  their  antlers,  and  their  refusal  to  mingle  together,  indi- 
cates their  marked  distinctness  from  one  another. 
61 


962  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Mr.  Caton  says,  "  that  the  woodland  caribou  feeds  on  leaves,  grasses, 
and  aquatic  plants,  but  its  great  source  is  lichens.  It  frequents  marshy 
and  swampy  grounds  more  than  any  other  of  the  Deer  family,  for  which  it  is  admir- 
ably adapted,  and  where  it  is  well  protected  from  pursuit.  In  the  winter  it  resorts 
to  the  dense  forests  on  higher  ground."  I^ike  the  European  variety,  the  American 
reindeer  is  an  animal  of  great  endurance  and  speed,  and  can  trot  faster  than  most 
horses.  In  disposition,  the  caribou  is  shy  and  wary,  and  to  ensure  a  successful  stalk 
requires  all  the  powers  of  the  sportsman.  To  hunt  these  animals  in  deep  snow  on 
foot,  or  on  the  open  ground  with  dogs,  is  said  to  be  mere  waste  of  time,  as  in  the 
one  case  the  animal,  by  the  aid  of  its  broad  hoofs,  makes  its  way  over  the  snow  with- 
out any  difficulty,  while  in  the  other  it  easily  distances  and  tires  out  its  pursuers. 

Woodland  caribou  migrate  in  herds  of  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred,  or 
even  as  many  as  five  hundred  head.  During  these  periodical  migrations,  Mr.  L,ett 
says  that  "  they  are  easily  killed  in  vast  numbers  by  taking  advantage  of  the  wind, 
and  shooting  them  as  they  pass  along.  They  are  also  frequently  surprised  crossing 
rivers  or  lakes  that  intersect  their  lines  of  march,  when  they  become  an  easy  prey  to 
hunters  in  canoes.  In  winter  they  are  often  seen  upon  the  ice  on  inland  lakes.  On 
such  occasions  they  can  be  easily  shot,  provided  they  neither  see  nor  smell  the 
hunter.  The  instant,  however,  they  catch  the  scent  of  their  hidden  foe,  they  vanish 
like  a  streak  of  light.  I  have  heard  it  said  by  those  who  have  seen  them  scudding 
over  the  ice,  like  shadows,  that  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time  they  appeared 
to  the  naked  eye  not  larger  than  rabbits."  Indeed,  so  swift  are  they  on  the  ice,  that 
when  caribou  once  set  foot  on  it,  the  hunter  who  knows  his  business  immediately 
gives  up  the  pursuit  as  hopeless.  Solitary  caribou  are  more  wary,  and  consequently 
more  difficult  to  stalk,  than  those  in  a  herd. 

The  time  when  caribou  are  most  easily  killed  is  during  the  months  of  March 
and  April,  the  snow  having  then  a  thin  cake  of  ice  on  the  surface,  through  which  the 
animals  are  constantly  breaking,  and  are  thus  run  down  without  much  difficulty  by 
hunters  on  snowshoes. 

There  appears  to  be  a  lack  of  information  as  to  the  breeding  habits  both  of  the 
caribou  and  of  the  wild  reindeer  of  the  Old  World.  The  pairing  season  of  the 
barren-ground  caribou  is,  however,  said  to  be  in  the  winter;  while  that  of  the  wood- 
land variety  is  in  September.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  antlers  of  the  bucks  are 
shed  in  December,  while  those  of  the  does  do  not  fall  until  spring.  The  fawns  are 
produced  in  May,  and  are  either  one  or  two  in  number. 

Owing  to  incessant  pursuit,  in  season  and  out  of  season,  the  numbers  of  the 
caribou  have  been  greatly  reduced  in  many  districts;  but,  in  Newfoundland,  these 
animals  are  now  protected  by  special  laws. 


THE   ELK  OR   MOOSE 
Genus   Alces 

The  largest  living  representative  of  the  Deer  family  is  the  somewhat  ungainly- 
looking  animal  known  in  Europe  as  the  elk,  and  in  North  America  as  the  moose 


THE  ELK  OR  MOOSE 


963 


(Alces  machlis).  This  fine  animal  differs  from  all  other  deer  in  the  form  and 
setting-on  of  the  antlers  of  the  male;  and  it  is  not  improable  that  these  appendages 
have  really  no  connection  with  those  of  the  true  deer,  but  were  independently  acquired. 

In  build  the  elk  is  characterized  by  the  length  of  its  limbs,  its  short  neck,  very 
long  and  flapping  ears,  and  the  great  length  and  narrowness  of  the  head,  wrhich 
terminates  in  a  broad  overhanging  muzzle,  completely  covered  with  short  fine  hair, 
save  for  a  small  triangular  spot  just  below  the  nostrils.  The  extremity  of  the  muz- 
zle is  flexible,  and  the  eyes  are  small  and  sunken.  The  antlers,  instead  of  emerging 
from  the  forehead  at  an  acute  angle  with  its  middle  line  and  inclining  forward,  as  is 
the  case  with  all  living  representatives  of  the  genus  Cervus,  project  on  either  side  at 
right  angles  to  the  middle  line  of  the  forehead,  and  in  the  same  plane  as  its  surface. 
Their  basal  portion  consists  of  a  short,  cylindrical  beam,  without  any  tine,  and  be- 
yond this  beam  they  expand  into  an  enormous  basin-like  palmation.  In  young 
animals,  and  more  especially  in  the  Swedish  elk,  the  antlers  have  their  palmated 
portion  divided  into  a  smaller  anterior  and  a  larger  posterior  moiety;  but  in  the 
adult  of  the  American  form  these  two  coalesce  into  a  single  palmation,  elongated 
from  back  to  front,  and  containing  a  number  of  short  and  irregular  snags 
on  its  outer  edge.  The  antlers  of  fine  specimens  may  weigh  as  much  as  sixty 
pounds;  and  in  a  head  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Otho  Shaw  the  antlers  have  a  span 
of  sixty-five  inches,  a  length  along  the  palmation  of  forty-one  inches,  and  a  width 
across  the  same  of  twenty-four  inches,  but  a  span  of  sixty- 
six  inches  is  on  record.  The  antlers  do  not  attain  their 
full  dimensions  till  the  animal  has  attained  its  ninth  year. 

The  skull  of  the  elk  differs  from  that  of  other  deer  in 
the  extreme  shortness  of  the  nasal  bones,  and  the  conse- 
quently very  large  size  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose:  The 
upper  molar  teeth  have  very  low  and  broad  crowns.  The 
tail  is  so  short  that  it  is  scarcely  more  than  a  rudiment. 

The  elk  carries  its  short  neck  nearly  horizontally,  and 
therefore  somewhat  lower  than  the  elevated  withers;  and  it 
is  this  feature  which  so  largely  contributes  to  the  ungainly 
and  ugly  appearance  of  the  animal.  The  feet  have  long 
and  sharply-pointed  hoofs,  very  different  in  appearance  from 
those  of  the  reindeer;  and  the  lateral  hoofs  are  relatively 
large  and  loosely  attached.  In  the  male  the  hair  is  long, 
coarse,  and  somewhat  brittle,  and  is  elongated  into  a 
slight  mane  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  and  throat;  while  in 
color  it  varies  from  very  dark  brown  to  yellowish  gray. 
The  female  is  lighter  colored  than  the  male  during  the 
winter  season.  In  both  sexes  the  hair  is  softer  and  finer 

in  the  summer  than  in  the  winter;  and  during  the  latter  season  an  abundant  supply 
of  woolly  under-fur  is  developed.  Young  animals  have  also  brighter-colored  and 
sleeker  coats  than  aged  individuals;  and  in  the  latter  the  fading  of  the  winter 
coat  with  the  advance  of  spring  is  much  more  noticeable  than  in  the  former. 
The  fawns  are  uniformly  colored  like  the  adults. 


UNDER   SURFACE    OF   FOOT 
OF    ELK. 


964 

The  height  of  the  elk  has  been  much  exaggerated,  some  writers 
Dimensions  asserting  that  the  male  may  stand  as  much  as  eight  feet  at  the  withers. 
Mr.  Caton  observes,  however,  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  may  attain  a  height  of 
six  feet,  or  occasionally  rather  more,  and  we  may  probably  put  the  extreme  limits 
as  not  exceeding  six  and  one-half  feet.  The  weight  of  an  average  adult  male  elk 
is  given  by  the  writer  last  cited  as  seven  hundred  pounds,  but  large  specimens  will 
reach  nine  hundred  or  one  thousand,  and  it  is  said,  even  as  much  as  twelve  hundred 

pounds. 

Adult  male  elk,  and  occasionally  the  females,  have  a  curious  pendulous  ap- 
pendage on  the  throat  formed  by  a  dilatation  of  the  skin,  and  covered  with  long  and 
coarse  blackish  hairs.  This  appendage  may  vary  in  length  from  four  to  ten 
inches,  and  is  known  to  the  American  hunters  as  the  bell;  its  use  is  unknown. 

The  elk  has  a  distribution  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  rein- 
Distnbution  ^^  although  it  does  not  extend  so  far  north,  and  is,  indeed,  limited 
by  the  northern  extension  of  trees,  being  essentially  a  forest  animal.  In  Europe, 
although  now  greatly  diminished  in  numbers,  it  is  found  locally  in  Scandinavia, 
Eastern  Prussia,  Lithuania,  and  parts  of  Russia,  such  as  the  neighborhood  of  Oren- 
burg, the  government  forest  near  Moscow,  and  the  districts  bordering  the  river 
Samaria  in  Astrakhan.  Thence  it  extends  eastward  into  the  subarctic  portions  of 
Siberia  although  its  extreme  limits  in  this  direction  are  not  fully  ascertained.  A 
few  years  ago  an  elk  was  shot  in  Galicia,  which  had  probably  wandered  from  more 
northern  latitudes.  In  the  time  of  Pallas,  elk  were  also  found  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Caucasus;  while  Csesar  mentions  them  as  inhabiting  the  Black  Forest. 
During  the  prehistoric  period,  their  distribution  was  still  more  extensive  in  Europe, 
and  their  remains  have  been  found  in  many  parts  of  England,  the  most  southern 
point  being  Walthamstow  in  Essex.  In  the  still  earlier  deposits  of  the  Norfolk 
forest  bed,  the  species  was  preceded  by  the  broad-fronted  elk  (A.  latifrons). 

In  North  America  the  range  of  the  elk  appears  to  have  extended  originally  from 
about  the  forty-third  to  the  seventieth  parallel  of  latitude,  its  northern  limit  being 
marked  by  the  southern  border  of  the  so-called  barren  grounds.  Mr.  Caton  says 
that  elk  have  been  seen  as  far  south  as  the  Ohio,  and  as  far  north  as  the  Macken- 
zie river.  Writing  in  the  year  1865,  Mr.  J.  G.  L,ockhart  states  that  elk  were 
then  common  over  the  whole  of  British  America  as  far  north  as  the  barren  grounds, 
although  absent  from  particular  localities.  Thus  they  were  especially  abundant 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  continued  so  to  Behring  Strait, 
but  were  unknown  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  in  the  neighborhood  of  York  Fac- 
tory. Although  specially  protected  in  Ontario,  the  elk  is,  however,  now  rapidly 
disappearing  from  the  forests  of  North  America,  and  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
when  we  learn  that  some  years  ago  several  hundreds  of  these  animals  were  shot  on 
one  occasion  in  New  Brunswick  merely  for  the  sake  of  their  hides,  their  carcasses 
being  left  to  rot  on  the  ground.  Elk  are  still  comparatively  common  in  Alaska,  but 
have  more  or  less  completely  disappeared  from  certain  districts  where  they  were 
formerly  abundant.  As  far  back  as  1881,  Mr.  Caton  wrote,  that  "  they  have  prob- 
ably entirely  ceased  their  visits  to  Newfoundland,  but  in  Labrador  many  still  re- 
main, Chough  gradually  retreating  thence  toward  the  more  secluded  and  inaccessible 


THE  ELK  OR  MOOSE  965 

r'"' 
portions  of  the  country.     From  Upper  Canada  all  are  gone,  and  but  few  remain  in 

Lower  Canada,  where,  fifty  years  since,  they  were  abundant.     What  are  left  have 
retreated  to  the  great  dense  forests  of  the  north." 

.  Elk  feed  more  upon  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  trees  than  upon  grass, 

and  their  length  of  limb  enables  them  to  pluck  such  nutriment  with 

facility,  while  the  shortness  of  their  necks  renders  them  unfitted  for  grazing,  unless 


A    FAMILY    OF    KI.K. 

(One-twenty-fourth  natural  size.) 


in  places  where  the  grass  is  unusually  tall,  when  they  merely  pluck  the  tops.  In 
Northern  Europe  and  Asia,  birch,  willows,  aspens,  and  poplars  afford  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  leafy  food  of  the  elk,  but  in  North  America  both  evergreen  and  decidu- 
ous trees  contribute  their  quota.  Various  lichens  and  mosses  are,  however,  also 
eaten,  but  in  winter,  when  the  whole  country  is  deeply  buried  in  snow,  the  elk  have 
to  depend  solely  on  twigs  and  buds  of  trees.  In  order  to  obtain  the  foliage  of  saplings 


966  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

which  are  above  their  reach,  elk  in  America,  at  least,  have  a  curious  habit  of  strad- 
dling on  either  side  of  the  stem  with  their  fore-legs,  and  then  gradually  pressing  down 
the  tree  with  the  weight  of  their  body. 

In  America,  elk  commence  feeding  with  the  first  signs  of  dawn,  and  continue  till 
sunrise,  after  which  they  repose  or  ruminate  till  ten  or  eleven  o'clock.  From  that 
time  they  again  feed  till  about  two,  when  they  take  another  period  of  repose  till  four 
or  five,  and  then  feed  till  dusk,  when  they  lie  down  for  the  night.  Mr.  L,ockhart 
says  that  "elk  generally  lie  down  with  their  tails  to  windward,  trusting  to  their 
senses  of  hearing  and  smelling,  which  are  remarkably  acute,  to  warn  them  of  approach- 
ing danger  from  that  quarter.  They  can  use  their  eyes  to  warn  them  from  danger  to 
leeward,  where  hearing,  and  especially  smelling  would  be  of  little  use.  While  sleep- 
ing or  chewing  the  cud,  their  ears  are  in  perpetual  motion,  one  backward,  the  other 
forward,  alternately.  They  also  have  the  remarkable  instinct  to  make  a  short  turn 
and  sleep  below  the  wind  of  their  fresh  track,  so  that  any  one  falling  thereon  and  fol- 
lowing it  up  is  sure  to  be  heard  or  smelled  before  he  can  get  within  shooting  distance. ' ' 

In  summer  the  favorite  resorts  of  the  American  elk  are  in  the  neighborhood  of 
swamps,  rivers,  or  lakes,  where  long  grasses  which  can  be  easily  reached  grow  in 
rank  abundance.  In  winter,  however,  they  generally  betake  themselves  to  higher 
grounds,  although  always  those  clothed  with  dense  and  almost  impenetrable  forest. 
When  disturbed,  the  elk,  in  spite  of  his  great  bulk,  makes  off  with  extreme  rapidity 
and  almost  perfect  silence,  even  in  the  thickest  cover,  always  when  possible  select- 
ing moss-clad  and  yielding  ground  over  which  to  make  its  wray. 

In  winter,  elk  in  America  are  in  the  habit  of  consorting  in  small  parties,  often 
comprising  a  male,  female,  and  the  young  of  two  seasons,  and  taking  up  their  quar- 
ters in  what  is  termed  a  moose  yard.  ' '  The  yard, ' '  writes  Mr.  C.  C.  Ward,  ' '  is 
situated  in  some  part  of  the  country  where  there  is  an  abundant  growth  of  young 
deciduous  trees,  such  as  the  white  birch,  poplars,  maple  and  mountain  ash;  these, 
together  with  a  few  of  the  coniferous  trees,  the  balsam  fir  and  juniper,  form  the 
staple  diet  of  the  moose.  Some  writers  maintain  that  the  bull  moose  never  yards 
with  the  female  and  young,  but  this  is  disproved  by  my  own  experience  as  a  moose 
hunter.  ...  I  have  on  many  occasions  found  and  killed  males  occupying  the 
same  yard  with  the  old  and  young  females."  It  appears,  however,  that  very  old 
males  generally  make  a  yard  for  themselves,  and  remain  alone  throughout  the  winter. 

The  antlers  of  the  adult  elk  are  shed  in  America  during  January,  and  the  new 
pair  attain  their  full  development  in  August.  During  the  time  that  the  antlers 
have  been  in  the  velvet,  the  male  elk  has  spent  most  of  his  time  in  the  marshes 
and  swamps,  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  the  yellow  water  lily,  and  frequently  protect- 
ing himself  from  the  attacks  of  mosquitoes  and  other  insect  torments  by  standing 
neck-deep  in  the  water.  With  the  complete  development  of  his  antlers,  he  sallies 
forth  from  these  retreats  to  commence  calling,  and  to  enter  upon  a  series  of  combats 
with  his  rivals  for  the  possession  of  the  females.  These  contests  appear  to  be  fully 
as  fierce  and  determined  as  those  of  the  red  deer;  and  Mr.  Ward  records  finding  in 
a  lake  the  skulls  of  two  elk,  with  their  antlers  inextricably  interlocked,  which  had 
evidently  perished  after  one  of  these  encounters.  The  fawns  are  born  in  the  follow- 
ing May,  and  are  either  one  or  two,  or,  very  exceptionally,  three  in  number.  They 


THE  ELK  OR  MOOSE 


967 


are  of  a  dark  fawn-color,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Ward,  with  a  slight  dappling. 
The  females,  before  the  birth  of  the  fawns,  seek  out  the  most  sequestered  spots, 
such  as  islands  in  lakes  and  rivers,  and  swamps  and  prairies,  which  are  liable  to  be 
overflowed  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  where  they  will  most  likely  be  free  from 
the  attacks  of  wolves  and  bears.  Some  writers  aver  that  at  such  seasons  they  like- 
wise endeavor  to  avoid  the  males,  but  this  is  denied  by  Mr.  Ward,  who  believes  that 
the  male  is  never  very  far  away  from  his  consort.  Mr.  I/>ckhart  says  that  ' '  when 
the  fawns  are  very  young  and  helpless,  the  mother  in  their  defense  will  even 
attack  man.  At  such  times  her  appearance  reminds  one  forcibly  of  a  vicious  horse. 


A   MOOSE  YARD. 

She  raises  her  head,  throws  back  her  ears  upon  her  neck,  and  sniffs  or  blows  like  a 
horse;  then  she  bounds  toward  her  enemy,  striking  the  ground  with  her  fore- feet, 
and  her  eyes  glittering  with  rage." 

The  favorite  pace  of  the  elk  when  in  rapid  motion  is  a  long-swinging  trot;  and 
it  is  said  that  so  long  as  the  animal  keeps  to  this  pace  it  cannot  be  overtaken  by  any 
ordinary  horse.  If,  however,  it  can  he  forced  into  a  gallop,  the  elk  soon  becomes 
blown,  and  can  then  be  readily  ridden  down. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  ungainly  appearance  of  the  elk;  and  this  un- 
gainliness  is  certainly  most  strongly  marked  in  specimens  exhibited  alive  in  men- 
ageries or  mounted  in  museums.  Mr.  Ward  states,  however,  that  when  seen  among 


968  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

his  native  forests  no  one  can  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  majesty  and  grandeur  of 
the  male  elk  in  all  the  glory  of  his  spreading  antlers. 

In  Sweden  and  Norway  elk  are  either  hunted  by  being  driven  or 
Hunting  stalked.     In  the  autumn  of  1885  the  elk  in  the  forest  of  Huneberg, 

which  had  been  preserved  for  thirty-five  years,  were  hunted  by  a  royal  party,  when 
fifty-one  head  were  shot;  and  in  1888  upward  of  sixty-six  were  killed  in  the  same 
forest.  In  America  there  are  now  three  legitimate  methods  of  elk  hunting,  namely, 
stalking  or  still -hunting,  fire-hunting,  and  calling;  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  the 
animals  when  imprisoned  in  their  yards  by  the  snows  of  winter  having  fortunately 
been  prohibited  by  the  legislature.  In  the  "  Far  West,"  the  best  season  for  elk 
hunting  is  during  the  months  of  October  and  November;  the  first  snowfalls  occur- 
ring in  the  mountains  during  the  latter  month,  and  the  males  being  then  incessantly 
calling  or  fighting  with  their  fellows.  To  be  successful  in  elk  stalking  requires  the 
aid  of  an  experienced  Indian  guide,  as  very  few  men  of  European  descent  can  attain 
that  marvelous  skill  in  tracking  which  appears  to  come  naturally  to  the  Indian. 

It  appears  to  be  only  in  the  northeastern  districts  that  the  practice  of  calling 
with  a  birch-bark  pipe  is  followed,  as  the  custom  is  said  to  be  quite  unknown  in  the 
Rocky  mountains.  In  regard  to  the  mode  of  procedure,  Mr.  Ward  says  that  "the 
Indian,  having  selected  a  favorable  position  for  his  purpose,  generally  on  the  margin 
of  a  lake,  heath,  or  bog,  where  he  can  readily  conceal  himself,  puts  his  birchen 
trumpet  to  his  mouth,  and  gives  the  call  of  the  cow  moose  in  a  manner  so  startling 
and  truthful  that  only  the  educated  ear  of  an  Indian  could  detect  the  counterfeit. 
If  the  call  is  successful,  presently  the  responsive  bull  moose  is  heard  crashing 
through  the  forest,  uttering  his  blood-curdling  bellow  or  roar,  and  rattling  his 
antlers  against  the  trees  in  challenge  to  all  rivals. ' '  In  other  districts  the  call  of  the 
male  is  imitated  by  drawing  the  shoulder  bone  of  a  moose  against  the  dry  bark  of  a 
young  tree,  and  any  male  that  may  be  in  the  neighborhood  advances  to  answer  the 
challenge  of  the  supposed  rival.  In  the  Rocky  mountains  the  male  moose  instead 
of  uttering  the  bellowing  call  mentioned  above,  only  gives  vent  to  a  loud  and  pro- 
longed kind  of  whistle,  while  the  female  is  completely  silent. 

Fire-hunting,  or  hunting  by  torchlight,  is  practiced,  says  Mr.  Ward,  by  exhib- 
iting a  bright  light,  formed  by  burning  bunches  of  birch  bark  in  places  known  to  be 
frequented  by  moose.  The  brilliant  light  seems  to  fascinate  the  animal,  and  he  will 
readily  approach  within  range  of  the  rifle.  The  torch  placed  in  the  bow  of  a  canoe 
is  also  used  as  a  lure  on  a  lake  or  a  river,  but  is  attended  with  considerable  danger, 
as  a  wounded  or  enraged  moose  will  not  unfrequently  upset  the  canoe. 

A  favorite  mode  of  moose  hunting,  when  the  snow  lay  very  deep  on  the  ground, 
was  by  running  them  down  in  snowshoes.  Accidents  were,  however,  frequent  in 
this  kind  of  hunting,  more  especially  during  the  spring,  when  the  snow  is  covered 
with  a  thin  crust.  At  such  times,  if  the  hunter  happened  incautiously  to  run  too 
near  the  moose,  the  animal  would  turn  suddenly,  and  leaping  upon  his  pursuer 
trample  him  under  foot.  Mr.  Lockhart  also  says  that  in  British  America,  the  In- 
dians during  the  winter  were  accustomed  in  deep  snow  to  make  a  kind  of  fence  of 
three  poles,  tied  equidistant  from  each  other,  a  little  taller  than  a  man,  stretching 
perhaps  for  two  days'  march  between  lakes,  or  a  lake  and  a  river,  or  between  two 


THE  ROEDEER  969 

r^ 
mountains,  or  in  any  particular  place  where  the  moose  were  accustomed  to  pass. 

Spaces  were  left  vacant  here  and  there  in  this  fence,  and  in  these  snares  were  set,  in 
which  the  unfortunate  animals  became  entangled. 

The  flesh  of  the  elk,  in  spite  of  some  coarseness  of  grain,  is  generally  regarded 
as  forming  excellent  venison,  although  it  is  said  to  have  a  slightly  musky  taste. 
The  large  and  fleshy  nose  is,  however,  esteemed  the  greatest  delicacy,  and  is  reported 
by  those  who  have  had  the  opportunity  of  tasting  it  to  be  absolutely  unrivaled.  Elk 
manage  to  maintain  themselves  in  fair  condition  throughout  the  winter,  so  that  their 
flesh  is  eatable  when  that  of  the  ordinary  American  deer  is  so  poor  and  dry  as  to  be 
unpalatable. 

THE  ROEDEER 


The  roedeer  {Capreolus  caprea},  while  agreeing  with  the  reindeer  and  the  elk 
in  the  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  part  of  the  fore-legs,  differs  entirely 
from  both  in  the  form  of  its  antlers,  as  well  as  by  its  greatly  inferior  dimensions,  be- 
ing, in  fact,  one  of  the  smallest  representatives  of  the  family.  Moreover,  whereas, 
the  two  genera  just  mentioned  have  a  circumpolar  distribution,  the  roe  is  strictly 
confined  to  the  Old  World. 

The  roebuck  when  fully  adult  stands  about  twenty-six  inches  in  height,  and  has 
antlers  somewhat  less  than  twice  the  length  of  the  head.  These  antlers  are  rough,  and 
have  a  straight  and  nearly  cylindrical  beam,  rising  for  some  distance  nearly  verti- 
cally from  the  skull,  and  then  giving  off  one  forwardly-directed  tine  from  its  front 
edge,  after  which  the  beam  curves  backward  and  terminates  in  a  simple  fork.  The 
roe's  antler  is  therefore  three  tined  like  that  of  the-  Indian  spotted  deer,  but  differs 
in  that  instead  of  having  a  true  brow-tine,  the  first  tine  is  not  given  off  till  about 
the  middle  of  the  entire  length.  The  average  length  of  the  antlers  is  from  eight  to 
nine  inches,  but  it  is  said  that  a  pair  from  Austria  have  been  recorded  in  which  the 
length  was  fifteen  inches.  The  antlers  of  the  roe  are  more  subject  to  malformations 
than  those  of  any  other  species,  and  they  sometimes  show  a  mass  of  ill -formed  tines. 

The  roe  has  a  relatively-short  head,  with  moderate  ears,  a  very  small  gland  be- 
low the  eye,  and  the  naked  portion  of  the  sharp  muzzle  small  and  not  extending  be- 
yond the  nostrils.  Normally  there  are  no  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  tail  is 
short  and  rudimentary.  The  neck  is  rather  long  and  slender,  and  carried  high  above 
the  level  of  the  back,  and  the  limbs  are  likewise  slight  and  delicately  formed.  In 
summer  the  color  of  the  fur  is  reddish  brown,  but  in  winter,  when  it  becomes  thicker 
and  finer,  the  tint  changes  to  yellowish  gray.  There  are  some  black  and  white 
markings  on  the  lips,  and  there  is  a  large  patch  of  white  on  the  buttocks  inclosing 
the  tail,  while  the  under  parts  and  the  insides  of  the  limbs  are  pale  yellowish  fawn. 
The  fur  of  the  fawns  is  spotted  with  white.  The  weight  of  a  full-grown  buck  may 
reach  sixty  pounds. 

The  common  roe  is  an  indigenous  inhabitant  of  the  British  Isles  and 
Distribution  ^  greater  part  of  Europe,  extending  northward  to  the  south  of 
Sweden,  and  southward  to  Italy  and  Spain.  In  Russia  it  is  confined  to  the  regions 


970 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


of  the  Caucasus  and  the  Ukraine,  and  it  extends  into  Western  Asia  in  Persia.  Its 
fossil  remains  occur  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  England  and  the  Continent;  but  at 
the  present  day  roedeer  are  found  wild  within  the  limits  of  the  British  Isles  only  in 
Scotland,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Blackmoor  Vale,  in  Dorsetshire,  where 
they  were  reintroduced  in  the  early  part  of  the  century.  In  the  year  1884  a  few 


MALE    AND    FEMALE    ROEDEER. 
(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

head  were,  however,  turned  out  in  Epping  forest;  and  some  are  kept  in  certain  Eng- 
lish parks. 

Tartarian  Roe  In  Turkestan  and  the  mountains  separating  Russia  from  China,  the 
place  of  the  ordinary  roe  is  taken  by  the  nearly-allied  Tartarian  roe  (C. 
pygargus},  distinguished  by  its  superior  size,  the  more  hairy  ears,  and  the  larger 
white  patch  on  the  rump.  In  Manchuria  there  is  a  third  form,  of  small  size,  and 
differing  somewhat  in  coloration  from  both  the  others. 


THE   CHINESE    WATER  DEER  971 

r^ 

In  Scotland  roedeer  are  found  chiefly  in  the  woods,  or  on  the  im- 
mediately adjacent  moors,  but  never  wander  far  out  on  the  open  hills, 
although  they  will  venture  ©n  to  the  cultivated  lands  in  search  of  food.  They  feed 
in  the  early  morning  and  toward  evening,  and  generally  associate  in  small  family 
parties,  while  they  make  regular  tracks  through  the  woods  to  their  feeding  grounds. 
Their  usual  food  is  grass  and  other  herbage,  as  well  as  the  young  shoots  of  such 
trees  and  bushes  as  they  are  able  to  reach.  The  speed  of  the  roe  is  not  great;  but 
the  animal  is  a  great  leaper,  and,  when  running,  its  usual  pace  is  a  bounding  gallop. 

The  antlers  of  the  adult  bucks  are  shed  about  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  new 
ones  are  generally  fully  developed  by  the  latter  part  of  February.  The  pairing  sea- 
son takes  place  during  July  and  August,  at  which  time  the  bucks  are  exceedingly 
pugnacious.  Scrope  relates  that  in  the  summer  of  1820  two  were  found  dead  in  a 
hollow  after  one  of  these  contests,  lying  one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  with  the  antlers 
of  the  one  firmly  driven  into  the  shoulder  of  the  other,  and  vice  versd.  The  fawns  are 
born  in  the  spring,  usually  early  in  May;  and  in  Scotland  about  one  doe  out  of  five 
or  six  will  produce  two  fawns  at  a  birth  in  favorable  seasons.  No  account  of  the 
roe  would  be  complete  without  some  reference  to  the  extraordinary  fact  that 
although  the  pairing  season  takes  place  in  July  or  August,  and  the  young  are  not 
produced  till  the  following  May,  yet  the  period  of  gestation  is  only  five  months. 
The  explanation  of  this  appears  to  be  that  the  ovum  lies  dormant  for  some  four  and 
a  half  months,  that  is  until  December,  after  which  it  develops  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner. 

Certain  extinct  deer  found  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  Continent  have  been 
considered  to  belong  to  the  same  genus  as  the  roe. 

THE  CHINESE  WATER  DEER 
Genus  Hydropotes 

Among  the  tall  reeds  fringing  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang,  there  occur 
numbers  of  a  small  deer 
differing  from  any  of  the 
species  hitherto  noticed  in 
that  while  both  sexes  are 
totally  devoid  of  antlers,  the 
males  are  provided  with 
long  scimiter-like  tusks  in 
the  upper  jaw,  as  shown  in 
the  figure  on  this  page. 
This  deer  is  the  Chinese 
water  deer  (Hydropotes  iner- 

.   .    ,      .        ,      ^      ..  SKULL  OF  THE  CHINESE  WATER  DEER  WITH  PART  OF  THE  UPPER 

mzs),  which  in  both  these          JAW  CUT  AWAY  TQ  SHQW  THE  BASE  op  THE  TUSK 
features  resembles  the  musk  (From  sir  v.  Brooke,  PTOC.  zooi.  soc.,  1872.) 

deer,  although  in  other  re- 
spects it  is  allied  to  the  more  typical  representatives  of  the  present  section  of  the  family. 


972  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  Chinese  water  deer  is  of  the  approximate  dimensions  of  the  Indian  mtmtjac 
(P-  953);  and  is  a  long-bodied  and  short-limbed  creature,  with  light  reddish-brown 
fur.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  peculiarities  about  this  small  deer  is  that  the  does 
produce  from  three  to  six  fawns  at  a  birth.  The  pelage  of  the  young  is  faintly 
marked  with  white  spots,  arranged  in  ill-defined  rows.  The  number  of  young  pro- 
duced, coupled  with  the  absence  of  antlers  in  the  bucks,  indicates  that  the  Chinese 
water  deer  is  in  all  probability  a  survivor  from  a  very  ancient  type  of  the  Deer 
family.  These  deer  are  commonly  found  on  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  in  parties  of  two 
or  three.  When  disturbed,  they  arch  their  backs  and  scud  away  at  a  great  pace  in 
a  series  of  quick  leaps.  They  are  usually  killed  with  buckshot. 

The  resemblance  of  the  skull  of  the  male  water  deer  to  that  of  the  musk  deer, 
is  merely  due  to  both  forms  being  apparently  direct  descendants  of  the  common 
ancestral  type,  from  which  the  more  specialized  members  of  the  family  have  been 
evolved,  it  being  well  ascertained  that  in  most  or  all  of  the  early  Tertiary  deer  the 
males  were  devoid  of  antlers  and  furnished  with  long  upper  tusks.  When  antlers 
were  developed  to  their  full  extent,  so  as  to  become  efficient  weapons  of  defense,  the 
need  for  tusks  disappeared,  and  the  tusks  consequently  dwindled  or  were  lost. 
The  muntjacs,  in  which  the  antlers  are  short,  present  a  kind  of  middle  stage  of 
evolution,  the  tusks  having  become  much  smaller  than  in  the  Chinese  water  deer, 
though  larger  than  in  many  species  of  superior  size. 


THE  AMERICAN  DEER 
Genus   Cariacus 

With  the  exception  of  the  wapita,  the  reindeer,  and  the  elk,  which  are  either 
closely  allied  to,  or  identical  with,  Old- World  types,  the  whole  of  the  deer  of 
America  differ  essentially  from  those  of  Asia  and  Europe,  and  are  referred  (with  the 
exception  of  one  small  species  which  forms  a  genus  by  itself)  to  a  totally  distinct 
genus,  Cariacus. 

These  deer  resemble  the  reindeer  in  the  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  fore-limb,  and  also  in  that  in  the  dry  skull  the  aperture  of  the  nasal  passage  is 
completely  divided  by  a  longitudinal  vertical  partition -of  bone.  The  latter  feature 
is,  indeed,  peculiar  to  the  reindeer  and  the  American  deer,  and  serves  at  once  to  dis- 
tinguish their  skulls  from  those  of  any  species  of  the  genus  Cervus. 

The  American  deer  are,  however,  still  better  distinguished  from  their  Old- 
World  cousins,  by  the  characteristics  of  their  antlers,  which  are  either  in  the  form  of 
simple  spikes,  or  are  divided  in  a  fork-like  manner,  with  the  anterior  prong  directed 
forward,  and  no  brow-tine.  These  characteristic  features  are  well  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figures,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  while  in  one  case  the  two 
prongs  of  the  antler  may  be  nearly  equally  developed  (A],  in  another  the  anterior 
prong  (a)  may  be  greatly  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  posterior  (£),  as  in  the 
middle  figure.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  there  may  be  either  a  large  or  small 
subbasal  tine  (c)  rising  from  the  inner  side  of  the  front  of  the  antler,  some 


THE  AMERICAN  DEER 


973 


distance  above  the  burr,  and  directed  upwardly.  It  was  long  considered  that  this 
subbasal  tine  represented  the  brow-tine  of  the  antlers  of  the  Old- World  deer,  and 
attempts  were  made  to  correlate  the  other  tines  of  the  American  deer  with  those  of 
the  genus  Cervus.  Mr.  Allan  Gordon  Cameron  has,  however,  pointed  out  that  this 


PROFILE  VIEWS  OP  THE  ANTLERS  OF 
THE  MARSH  DEER  (A),  THE  VIRGIN- 
IAN DEER  (B),  AND  THE  MULE- 
DEER  (C). 

is  a  totally  erroneous  notion;  the 
truth  being,  that  while  the  mem- 
bers of  the  genus  Cervus  have 
originated  in  Europe  from  an 
early  antlerless  deer-like  creature 
(Palceomeryx} ,  the  representatives 
of  Cariacus  have  been  indepen- 
dently derived  in  North  America 
from  a  totally  distinct  ancestral 
deer  (Blastomeryx)  .which  was  like- 
wise unprovided  with  antlers.  And 
it  will  accordingly  be  self-apparent  that  the  antlers  of  the  Old  and  New- World  deer 
are  not  mutually  comparable.  Starting  from  the  simple  spike-like  antlers  of  the 
brockets  of  South  America,  we  shall  find  that  there  is  a  transition  through  a 
simply-forked  antler  to  the  complex  type  exhibited  by  the  mule-deer;  and  it  will 


974 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


accordingly  be  most  convenient  to  commence  our  notice  of  these  deer  with  those  in 
which  the  antlers  are  simple,  and  finish  with  those  in  which  they  are  most  complex. 
Before  proceeding  to  the  various  species,  it  may,  however,  be  added  that  all  the 
American  deer  are  uniformly  colored  above  in  the  adult  condition,  and  that  they  all 
have  narrow  and  naked  muzzles.  The  length  of  the  tail  is  subject  to  a  great  amount 
of  specific  variation.  In  addition  to  the  peculiar  feature  already  noticed  as  distin- 
guishing the  hinder  aperture  of  the  nasal  passage,  the  skulls  of  the  American  deer 
are  characterized  by  the  large  dimensions  of  the  unossified  space  in  front  of  the  eye, 
and  the  small  size  of  the  pit  for  the  reception  of  the  gland. 

The  first  group  of  the  American  deer  is  represented  by  several  small 
species  known  as  brockets,  which  are  confined  to  the  southern  half  of 
the  continent,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  unbranched  spike-like  antlers,  and  by 


Brockets 


THE   RED   BROCKET. 

(One-tenth  natural  size.) 

the  hair  on  the  middle  line  of  the  face  radiating  in  all  directions  from  two  points, 
one  of  which  is  situated  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  the  other  just  below  the  eyes. 
They  are  further  characterized  by  the  large  extent  of  the  naked  portion  of  the  muz- 
zle, which  completely  surrounds  the  nostrils,  and  likewise  by  the  spotted  coat  of  the 
fawns.  The  tail  is  of  medium  length,  and  the  upper  jaw  may  or  may  not  carry 
tusks.  The  best-known  species  is  the  common  brocket  (C.  rufus)  —  the  one  repre- 
sented in  our  illustration  —  of  Northeastern  Brazil  and  Guiana,  where  it  ranges 
from  Surinam  to  Pernambuco.  It  is  a  rather  clumsily-built  animal,  standing 
twenty-seven  inches  in  height  at  the  withers,  and  of  a  uniform  reddish-brown  color. 
The  nearly  allied  Brazilian  brocket  (C.  simplidcornis}  is  a  rather  smaller  species, 
standing  only  twenty-one  inches  in  height,  and  distinguished  by  its  lighter  and  more 


THE  AMERICAN  DEER  975 

elegant  shape,  as  well  as  by  the  more  decided  brown  color  of  ^he  fur,  especially  in 
the  young.  This  species  ranges  over  the  greater  part  of  Brazil,  and  extends  west- 
ward into  Colombia.  The  other  two  species  are  the  Ecuador  brocket  (C.  rufinus), 
found  in  Ecuador,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Guatemala;  and  the  wood-brocket  (C. 
nemorivagus] ,  from  Surinam  and  Trinidad,  both  of  which  are  only  nineteen  inches 
in  height.  The  former  has  fur  of  a  full  glossy  red  color,  with  the  face  and  legs 
shaded  bluish  brown,  while  the  latter  differs  from  all  the  rest  by  the  pepper-and-salt 
color  of  its  hair.  Fossil  remains  of  brockets  occur  in  the  caverns  of  L,agoa  Santa,  in 
Brazil,  which  probably  belong  to  species  still  inhabiting  the  same  districts. 

Brockets  are  found  either  alone  or  in  pairs,  and  never  collect  in 
herds,  a  male  and  female  apparently  associating  for  life.  The  does 
produce  usually  but  a  single  fawn  at  a  birth,  in  December  or  January,  and  the 
young  are  able  to  follow  their  mother  in  from  three  to  five  days.  The  speed  of  the 
brockets  is  considerable,  but  not  enduring,  and  they  can  be  easily  ridden  down  by  a 
good  horse,  while,  when  the  cover  is  not  too  thick,  hounds  will  generally  capture 
them  within  half  an  hour. 

The  Costa  Rica  deer  (C.   davatui),  of  Central  America,  is  another 
Deer  small  species  with  spike-like  antlers,  which  appears  to  form  a  group 

by  itself,  connecting  the  brockets  with  the  succeeding  groups.  This 
deer  is  of  a  uniform  reddish-yellow  color,  like  the  Virginian  deer,  and  differs  from 
the  brockets,  and  agrees  with  the  following  groups  in  that  the  hair  of  the  face  is  di- 
rected uniformly  backward,  while  it  likewise  resembles  those  that  follow  in  the 
smaller  size  of  the  naked  portion  of  the  muzzle,  and  in  the  less  arched  profile  of  the 
face. 

The  third  group  of  the  genus  is  represented  by  two  South- 
American  species  of  medium  size,  which  are  confined  to  the  Andes, 
where  they  are  known  as  guemals.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  antlers  forming 
a  single  fork,  of  which  the  front  prong  is  the  longer,  and  is  projected  forward  in  the 
manner  characteristic  of  the  genus;  by  the  presence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaws 
of  both  sexes,  and  also  by  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  fawns.  Of  the  two  species, 
the  Chilian  guemal  (C.  chilensis}  ranges  from  Santiago  to  Magellan,  but  is  far  more 
scarce  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  portion  of  this  tract;  while  the  Peruvian 
guemal  ( C.  antisiensis]  is  a  northern  form  from  the  highlands  of  Peru. 

The  pampas,  or  Guazuti  deer  (C.  campestris),  represented  in  the  il- 
lustration on  the  next  page,  brings  us  to  a  fourth  group  of  the  genus, 
confined  to  South  America,  and  characterized  by  the  antlers  being  regularly  forked, 
with  the  hinder  prong  —  and  sometimes  also  the  front  one  —  again  forking;  while 
there  is  no  subbasal  snag  above  the  burr.  The  two  species  of  this  group  are 
further  characterized  by  the  absence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  shortness  of  the 
tail,  and  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  fawns.  They  are  confined  to  the  eastern  and 
southern  portions  of  South  America,  and  do  not  attain  such  large  dimensions  as  the 
members  of  the  next  group. 

The  pampas  deer  is  the  smaller  of  the  two  species,  standing  about  two  and  one- 
half  feet  at  the  shoulder,  and  its  range  extends  from  Paraguay  and  Uruguay  through 
Argentina  into  Northern  Patagonia.  The  antlers  (as  shown  in  the  profile  view  in  our 


THE    UNGULATES.    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

illustration)  are  characterized  by  the  great  development  of  the  forked  posterior  tine, 
at  the  expense  of  the  unbranched  front-tine;  the  number  of  points  thus  being  three. 
The  hair  is  thick,  coarse,  and  glossy;  its  color  on  the  upper  parts  being  light 
reddish  brown.  The  lower  parts  of  the  flanks,  as  well  as  the  chin,  throat,  chest, 
and  a  stripe  on  the  limbs,  are  dusky;  while  the  under  parts,  inner  sides  of  the  limbs, 
under  side  and  tip  of  the  tail,  and  insides  of  the  ears  are  white. 

The  pampas  deer  is  the  largest  and  most  common  Ruminant  in  the 
Habits  districts  from  which  it  takes  its  name.      It  frequents  dry  and  open 

parts  of  the  country,  and  is  generally  found  in  pairs  or  small  parties,  the  old  bucks 


THE  PAMPAS  DEER. 
(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

being,  however,  solitary.  Mr.  Darwin  says  that  "  if  a  person  crawling  close  along 
the  ground,  slowly  advances  toward  a  herd,  the  deer  frequently,  out  of  curiosity, 
approach  to  reconnoitre  him.  I  have  by  this  means  killed,  from  one  spot,  three  out 
of  the  same  herd.  Although  so  tame  and  inquisitive,  yet  when  approached  on  horse- 
back they  are  exceedingly  wary.  In  this  country  nobody  goes  on  foot,  and  the  deer 
knows  man  as  its  enemy  only  when  he  is  mounted  and  armed  with  the  bolas. ' ' 

The  male  of  the  pampas  deer  possesses  an  unpleasant  and  penetrating  effluvium, 
which,  as  we  can  personally  attest,  can  be  detected  at  a  distance  of  several  miles. 


THE  AMERICAN  DEER  977 

During  the  day  these  deer  generally  lie  concealed  among  the^tall  pampas  grass, 
coming  out  to  feed  at  sunset,  and  continuing  throughout  the  night.  Their  speed  is 
very  great,  and  it  is  only  by  the  very  best  horses  they  can  be  ridden  down,  while  even 
then,  if  the}'  have  any  considerable  start,  they  are  pretty  sure  to  escape.  The 
fawns  are  born  in  the  winter  and  spring,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  there  is  ever 
more  than  one  at  a  birth.  Both  parents  aid  in  protecting  their  young,  and  the  doe 
is  especially  clever  in  aiding  the  escape  of  her  fawn,  as  the  following  narrative  by 
Mr.  Hudson  shows.  "When  the  doe  with  fawn  is  approached  by  a  horseman," 
writes  this  observer,  "  even  when  accompanied  by  dogs,  she  stands  perfectly  motion- 
less, gazing  fixedly  at  the  enemy,  the  fawn  motionless  at  her  side;  and  suddenly,  as 
if  at  a  preconcerted  signal,  the  fawn  rushes  directly  away  from  her  at  its  utmost 
speed,  and  going  to  a  distance  of  six  hundred  to  a  thousand  yards  conceals  itself  in 
a  hollow  in  the  ground,  or  among  the  long  grass,  lying  down  very  close  with  neck 
stretched  out  horizontally,  and  will  thus  remain  until  sought  by  the  dam.  When 
very  young,  if  found  in  its  hiding  place,  it  will  allow  itself  to  be  taken,  making  no 
further  effort  to  escape.  After  the  fawn  has  run  away,  the  doe  still  maintains  her 
statuesque  attitude,  as  if  resolved  to  await  the  onset,  and  only  when  the  dogs  are 
close  to  her  side  she  also  rushes  away,  but  invariably  in  a  direction  as  nearly  oppo- 
site to  that  taken  by  the  fawn  as  possible.  At  first  she  runs  slowly,  with  a  limping 
gait,  and  frequently  pausing,  as  if  to  entice  her  enemies  on;  but  as  they  begin  to 
press  her  more  closely,  her  speed  increases,  becoming  greater  the  further  she  suc- 
ceeds in  leading  them  from  the  starting  point. ' '  The  alarm  cry  of  the  pampas  deer 
is  a  low,  whistling  bark,  but  this  is  never  uttered  when  the  doe  has  a  fawn  by  her  side. 
M  ,  _  The  marsh,  or  guazu  deer  (C.  palustris)  is  a  somewhat  larger  spe- 

cies, found  in  South  Brazil,  Paraguay,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  Uru- 
guay; its  westerly  range  being  limited  by  the  Parana,  river.  The  antlers  of  this  deer 
of  which  an  example  is  represented  in  the  figure  on  p.  973,  are  larger  and  more 
complex  than  those  of  the  pampas  deer,  both  prongs  of  the  main  fork  being  strongly 
developed,  and  each  again  subdividing;  the  hinder  prong  being  also  generally  rather 
the  heavier  of  the  two.  In  contrast  to  the  pampas  deer,  the  marsh  deer  seeks  out 
swamps  and  lakes,  where  it  delights  to  enter  the  water  or  wallow  in  the  mud. 
Vir  inian  Deer  ^^e  ^ast  ma^n  grouP  °f  tne  American  deer  is  typically  represented 
by  the  well-known  Virginian  deer  (C.  virginianus),  with  its  numerous 
varieties,  and  includes  the  largest  representatives  of  the  genus,  as  well  as  the  whole 
or  those  found  in  the  northern  half  of  the  continent.  The  group  is  distinguished 
by  the  large  size  and  complexity  of  the  antlers,  which  differ  from  those  of  the  other 
groups  by  the  presence  of  a  larger  or  smaller  subbasal  snag  (c  of  the  figure  on  p.  973), 
and  likewise  by  the  absence  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  spotted  coat  of  the  fawns. 
The  Virginian  deer  occurs  typically  in  Eastern  North  America,  but  the  so-called 
white-tailed  deer  ( C.  leucurus}  of  the  western  side  of  the  continent  can  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  anything  more  than  a  variety,  while  it  is  doubtful  if  the  more  southern 
form  known  as  the  Mexican  deer  (C.  mexicanus)  is  really  entitled  to  specific 
distinction.  Considering  all  these  forms  as  referable  to  a  single  species,  the 
Virginian  deer  will  have  a  range  extending  right  across  the  American  continent 
from  east  to  west,  and  from  south  to  north  from  Canada  to  Mexico.  The  main  dis- 
62 


978 


tinctive  characteristic  of  this  species  is  to  be  found  in  the  antlers  (shown  in  profile 
in  the  figure  on  p.  973,  and  from  the  front  in  the  figure  of  the  entire  animal),  in 
which  the  anterior  prong  of  the  main  fork  shows  a  great  development  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  hinder  one.  This  abortion  of  the  hinder  prong  is,  however,  compen- 
sated by  a  corresponding  growth  of  the  subbasal  snag.  These  snags,  like  the  main 
prongs  of  the  antler,  are  subject  to  extraordinary  abnormal  developments,  so  that 
the  variations  which  occur  in  the  antlers  of  the  Virginian  deer  are  only  paralleled  by 


%v.<  -„•;..; 

<*>&mfr 


fc 


(One-fifteenth  natural  size.) 

those  found  in  the  reindeer.  The  tail  is  long.  The  summer  pelage  of  the  Virginian 
deer  is  a  bright  bay,  from  which  it  derives  its  common  local  title  of  red  deer,  but  in 
winter  the  coat  becomes  of  a  grayer  tinge.  At  all  seasons  of  the  year  the  throat, 
a  ring  above  the  muzzle,  a  spot  above  and  below  the  eye,  portions  of  the  inside  of 
the  ear,  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs  and  the  under  parts  are,  however,  white. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  tail  is  dark  brown,  and  even  in  winter  there  is  a  more  or 
less  reddish  tinge  throughout  the  pelage.  In  build  this  deer  is  the  most  elegant  and 


THE  AMERICAN  DEER  979 

<-""' 

graceful  of  all  its  compatriots.  Its  variation  in  size  is  so  great  that  it  would  be  use- 
less to  give  any  measurements,  although  it  may  be  mentioned  that  usually  fine 
bucks  are  said  to  weigh  as  much  as  two  hundred  pounds,  and  occasionally  more. 

With  regard  to  the  variation  in  size  and  color  in  this,  the  commonest  North- 
American  species,  Mr.  Caton  writes  that  although  in  a  given  neighborhood  there 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  size  of  individuals,  in  widely  different  localities,  there  is 
a  permanent  and  constant  difference  of  size.  Thus,  whereas  in  the  north  all  the 
deer  are  large,  as  we  proceed  south  there  is  a  progressive  diminution,  till  in  North- 
ern Mexico  and  the  neighborhood  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  deer  have  so  dimin- 
ished that  it  is  at  first  difficult  to  believe  that  they  are  specifically  indentical  with 
their  northern  representatives.  Similarly  we  find  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
west  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  white  on  the  tail  and  body,  which  has  given  rise 
to  the  notion  that  the  so-called  white-tailed  deer  is  a  distinct  species;  but  Mr.  Caton 
states  that  this  difference  is  not  constant  even  among  the  deer  of  the  west,  where 
many  specimens  cannot  be  distinguished  from  those  found  in  Illinois  or  Wisconsin. 
The  more  northerly  race  appears,  however,  to  be  characterized  by  the  absence  of  the 
black  markings  on  the  face  and  tail,  which  so  frequently  occur  in  the  southern  and 
eastern  portion  of  the  animal's  range. 

In  the  Adirondack  region  of  New  York,  Dr.  Hart  Merriam  says  that 
' '  the  Virginian  deer  is  found  high  upon  the  mountain  sides,  as  well  as 
in  the  lowest  valleys  and  river  bottoms.  It  frequents  alike  the  densest  and  most 
impenetrable  thickets  and  the  open  beaver  meadows  and  frontier  clearings.  From 
the  first  of  May  to  the  first  of  November  its  food  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  herbs, 
grasses,  marsh  and  aquatic  plants,  the  leaves  of  many  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs, 
blueberries,  blackberries,  other  fruits  that  grow  within  its  reach,  and  the  nutritious 
beechnut.  While  snow  covers  the  ground — which  it  commonly  does  about  half 
the  year  —  the  fare  is  necessarily  restricted,  and  it  is  forced  to  subsist  chiefly  upon 
the  twigs  and  buds  of  low  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs,  the  twigs  and  foliage  of  the 
arbor  vitse,  hemlock  and  balsam,  and  a  few  mosses  and  lichens.  In  winters  succeed- 
ing a  good  yield  of  nuts,  the  mast  constitutes  its  staple  article  of  diet,  and  is  obtained 
by  following  the  beech  ridges  and  pawing  up  the  snow  beneath  the  trees. ' ' 

Although  shy  and  timid  in  the  extreme,  and  at  first  retreating  rapidly  before 
the  advance  of  civilization,  these  deer  soon  regain  confidence,  and  come  back  to  their 
ancient  haunts.  Their  speed  is  great,  and  they  are  excellent  and  rapid  swimmers, 
even  young  fawns  while  still  in  the  spotted  coat  taking  readily  to  the  water.  Dur- 
ing long-continued  deep  snow  these  deer  frequently  collect  together  in  parties, 
sometimes  of  considerable  size,  and  form  "  yards,"  like  the  elk. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  time  of  changing  the  gray  dress  of  winter 
for  the  red  coat  of  summer,  as  there  is  in  the  date  when  the  antlers  of  the  bucks  are 
shed,  these  differences  being  apparently  mainly  due  to  the  severity  or  mildness  of  the 
winters.  The  pairing  season,  during  which  the  bucks,  like  those  of  other  deer,  are 
exceedingly  pugnacious,  lasts  from  the  latter  part  of  October  till  the  beginning  of 
December.  The  fawns,  which  are  nearly  always  two  in  number,  are  mostly  born 
in  May.  They  retain  their  white  spots  till  September,  when  both  young  and  old 
assume  their  winter  dress.  The  fawns  are  easily  tamed,  if  captured  sufficiently 


98o  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

young.  In  bucks  of  the  first  year  the  antlers  form  unbranched  spikes,  while  in  the 
second  year  they  are  simply  forked,  without  any  branching  of  the  two  prongs, 
although  the  subbasal  snag  makes  its  appearance  at  the  same  time. 

The  most  legitimate  mode  of  hunting  the  Virginian  deer  is  by  stalk- 
Hunting  ing)  but  in  the  south  they  are  frequently  pursued  by  hounds,  followed 
by  mounted  hunters  armed  with  rifles.  In  other  cases  hounds  are  employed  to  drive 
the  deer  to  water  or  down  the  paths  in  the  woods,  where  the  sportsmen  lie  in  wait. 
In  summer,  when  deer  are  abundant,  many  are  killed  by  what  is  termed  "jacking"; 


VIRGINIAN    DEER    SWIMMING. 

that  is  to  say,  a  lantern  or  some  other  light  is  carried,  upon  seeing  which  the  deer 
becomes  dazzled,  and,  while  standing  to  gaze,  offers  a  ready  shot.  Finally, 
"breasting"  is  employed,  according  to  Mr.  G.  B.  Grinnell,  "where  the  deer  make 
their  home  among  very  high  grass,  such  as  is  to  be  found  on  some  of  the  prairies  of 
the  southwest  or  in  the  great  beds  of  the  dry  lakes  of  Northern  and  Western 
Nebraska.  Here  the  thick  cane  grass  stands  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  and  the  head 
of  a  mounted  man  is  only  just  visible  above  the  tops.  Several  huntsmen  armed 
with  shotguns  form  a  line  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  space  to  be  hunted  over,  and 


98 1 


Mule-Deer 


ride  through  it,  a  little  more  than  a  gunshot  apart.  The  deer  that  lie  in  their  course 
are  started  from  the  grass,  and  bound,  off  ahead  of  the  hunters,  every  now  and  then 
showing  their  backs  above  the  tops  of  the  grass.  The  horsemen  have  to  shoot  from 
the  saddle,  and  very  quickly,  to  secure  their  game."  Sometimes  these  deer  are  shot 
from  canoes  as  they  swim  from  island  to  island. 

The  naked-eared  deer  ( C.  gymnotis'}  from  Colombia  and  Ecuador  ap- 
Naked-Eared  ....  '._.         .  ,     ,   .  „.      .    . 

Deer  pears  to  be  a  distinct  species,  distinguished  from  the  Virginian  deer  by 

the  large  flapping  ears,  of  which  the  outer  surface  is  naked,  by  the 
extreme  narrowness  of  the  head,  and  the  more  slender  form. 

The  most  specialized  of  all  the  American  deer  as  regards  size  and 

complexity  of  antlers  is  the  mule-deer  (C.  macrotis},  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  the  enormous  size  of  its  ears.  In  this  deer  the  antlers  (as  shown  in  a  front 
view  in  the  acccompanying  figure, 
and  in  profile  in  the  figure  on  p. 
973),  when  compared  with  those 
of  the  Virginian  deer,  have  recov- 
ered the  relative  importance  of 
the  posterior  prong,  concomitantly 
with  a  proportionate  reduction  of 
the  subbasal  snag,  and .  are  there- 
fore much  more  regularly  forked. 
"At  the  same  time,"  writes  Mr. 
A.  G.  Cameron,  "the  main 
strength  of  the  beam  is  drawn 
into  the  anterior  prong,  and  inter- 
mediate forms  occur  both  in  this 
and  the  last-named  species,  which 
bridge  the  gap  between  the  ex- 
tremes on  either  side,  and  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  their  intimate  relation- 
ship. ' '  In  general  the  front  prong 
is  simply  forked,  while  the  second 
divides  into  three  or  more  snags 
in  adult  bucks;  but  instances  oc- 
cur where  the  hinder  prong  is 
unbranched,  while  in  some  indi- 
viduals of  the  Virginian  deer  the  same  prong  is  divided.  The  antlers  of  the  second 
year  are  simply  forked,  in  the  third  year  the  hinder  prong  is  also  forked;  but  the 
forking  of  the  front  prong  and  the  development  of  the  subbasal  snag  does  not  take 
place  till  the  assumption  of  the  fourth  set  of  antlers.  In  the  left  antler  represented 
in  the  figure  on  p.  973,  which  is  from  a  head  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  A.  G.  Cam- 
eron, the  length  of  the  upper  prong  is  twenty-eight,  and  that  of  the  lower  prong 
twenty-nine  inches  along  the  curve,  the  basal  girth  being  five  and  three-fourths 
inches;  but  in  the  opposite  one  the  upper  prong  measures  twenty-nine  and  the  lower 
twenty-seven  inches.  The  extreme  span  of  these  antlers  is  thirty-two  inches.  In 


HEAD   OF    MULE-DEER. 


982  THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 

another  head  in  the  same  collection  the  total  length  of  the  antlers  is  thirty-two 
inches,  with  an  extreme  span  of  thirty-seven  inches.  The  right  antler  of  this  head 
has  an  additional  tine  depending  from  just  below  the  main  fork  —  an  aberration  not 
unfrequently  found  in  the  Virginian  deer,  where  it  may  occur  on  both  sides. 

In  height  the  mule-deer  is  fully  equal  to  the  Virginian  deer,  but  it  is  a  more 
stoutly  built  and  much  less  graceful  animal,  with  proportionately-shorter  limbs, 
while  the  ears  are  nearly  double  the  dimension  of  those  of  the  latter.  The  tail  is 
short,  and  quite  unlike  that  of  any  other  deer,  being  cylindrical,  naked  below,  and 
covered  above  with  short  white  hairs,  terminating  in  a  long  brush  of  black  ones.  In 
summer  the  coat  of  the  mule-deer  is  very  thin  and  sparse,  and  generally  of  a  reddish 
color,  with  a  large  white  patch  on  the  buttocks;  but  in  winter  the  general  color  is 
steel  gray,  the  individual  hairs  being  tipped  with  black.  There  is  much  more  white 
on  the  face  than  in  the  Virginian  deer.  In  a  variety  from  California  the  color  of 
the  pelage  is  more  decidedly  red,  and  there  is  a  black  line  running  along  the  middle 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail. 

Mr.  Grinnell  states  that  "the  mule-deer  is  found  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  Missouri-river  district,  and  thence  westward  on  the 
plains,  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
rough,  broken  country,  and  on  the  plains  is  usually  only  to  be  found  about  high 
buttes,  in  the  bad  lands,  or  where  the  country  is  diversified  with  rocky  ridges,  dotted 
here  and  there  with  scattered  pines  or  junipers.  Its  favorite  resorts  are  the  coulees, 
gulches,  and  canons  which  so  often  break  up  the  high  table-lands  of  the  central  pla- 
teau of  the  continent;  but  it  is  as  often  to  be  found  among  the  green  valleys  high  up 
on  the  mountain  sides,  or,  in  summer,  among  the  low  trees  that  grow  just  below  the 
snow  line.  It  is  to  such  localities  as  the  last  named  that  the  bucks  resort  during  the 
summer  when  they  are  growing  their  antlers,  and  when  their  thin  coat  of  hair  af- 
fords them  little  or  no  protection  against  the  flies. ' ' 

It  appears  that  the  habitat  of  this  deer  has  not  been  very  much  restricted  by 
advancing  civilization,  as  it  is  much  less  alarmed  by  the  invasion  of  its  haunts  than 
is  the  wapiti.  Instead  of  running  in  the  even  manner  of  the  Virginian  deer,  mule- 
deer  progress  by  a  series  of  bounds,  all  their  feet  leaving  the  ground  simultaneously. 
For  a  short  distance  their  pace  is  rapid,  but  it  soon  slackens.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
Virginian  deer,  the  number  of  fawns  produced  at  a  birth  is  nearly  always  two. 
These  are  born  at  the  end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June,  and  retain  their  spots  till 
September.  The  pairing  season  is  in  September  and  October. 

By  the  hunters  in  Colorado  this  deer  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  black-tail, 
although  that  name  properly  belongs  to  C.  columbianus. 

The  Columbian  black-tailed  deer  (C.  columbianus}  is  a  species  with  a 
Black-Tailed 

Deer  very  restricted  distribution,  being  apparently  confined  to  the  mountain 

ranges  bordering  the  Pacific  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Columbia 
river,  and  unknown  to  the  eastward  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  This  deer  is  rather 
smaller  than  the  mule-deer,  with  relatively-smaller  ears,  but  nearly  similar  antlers. 
The  comparatively-short  cylindrical  tail  is  black  throughout,  except  for  a  short  strip 
of  about  one-fourth  the  circumference  running  along  the  under  surface.  The  gen- 
eral color  of  the  pelage  in  winter  is  tawny  gray,  with  white  on  the  under  parts  and 


THE  PUDU  DEER—  THE  MUSK  DEER  983 

r'"' 
throat,  and  the  face  is  gray,  with  a  darker  forehead,  the  legs  being  dark  cinnamon 

color.     In  summer  the  color  changes  to  bay. 

In  habits  and  gait  this  deer  closely  resembles  the  mule-deer,  but  it  is 
said  to  occasionally  produce  as  many  as  three  fawns  at  a  birth.  Mr. 
Grinnell  states  that  the  black-tail  is  chiefly  found  in  the  deepest  recesses  of  the 
coniferous  forests  of  the  Pacific  ranges,  and  seldom  wanders  far  away  from  the  pro- 
tection of  the  woods.  Where  they  have  been  but  little  molested,  these  deer  fre- 
quently come  down  to  the  shore  to  feed  upon  a  particular  kind  of  seaweed,  and 
during  such  visits  many  are  killed  by  the  Indians,  who  paddle  stealthily  along  the 
shore  in  their  canoes. 

THE   PUDU    DEER 


The  tiny  little  deer  from  the  Chilian  Andes,  known  as  the  pudu  (Pudua  humi- 
lis],  although  allied  to  the  brockets,  is  so  distinct  from  all  others  as  to  necessitate  its 
reference  to  a  separate  genus.  This  deer,  which 
is  scarcely  larger  than  a  hare,  has  a  rounded 
head,  with  rather  large  ears,  between  which 
in  the  males  are  a  pair  of  minute  spike- 
like  antlers,  placed  comparatively  near  to- 
gether. The  fur  is  of  a  reddish-brown  color, 
becoming  paler  on  the  under  parts.  There  are 
no  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  skull  differs 
from  those  of  all  the  other  American  deer 
except  the  guemals  in  that  the  premaxillary 
bones,  which  form  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle, 
extend  upward  to  join  the  nasal  bones  covering 
the  cavity  of  the  nose.  The  ankle  joint  ex- 
hibits certain  peculiarities  of  structure  unknown  HEAD  OF  THE  PUDU  DEER. 
in  any  other  species.  <From  Sclater-  ^  ZooL  Soc-<  I866') 

THE   MUSK  DEER 
Genus  Moschus 

The  musk  deer  (Moschus  moschiferus}  of  the  Himalayas  differs  so  remarkably 
in  several  important  points  from  all  other  deer  that  it  must  certainly  be  regarded  as 
forming  a  subfamily  by  itself,  while  some  authorities  consider  it  entitled  to  rank  as 
the  representative  of  a  distinct  family.  These  peculiarities  are  chiefly  internal. 
Among  the  most  important  is  the  presence  of  a  gall  bladder  to  the  liver,  as  in  the 
Ox  family,  while  the  brain  is  much  less  convoluted  than  in  other  deer.  The 
absence  of  antlers  in  both  sexes  cannot,  however,  be  taken  as  a  characteristic  of 
more  than  generic  importance,  since  the  same  feature  occurs  in  the  Chinese  water  deer. 

The  musk  deer  is  a  somewhat  clumsily-built  animal,  standing  about  twenty 
inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  clothed  with  peculiarly  coarse,  brittle,  and 
rather  long  hair,  somewhat  resembling  pith  in  structure.  In  addition  to  the 


984 

absence  of  antlers,  the  skull  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  tusks,  which  in  the 
males  may  be  as  much  as  three  inches  in  length,  and  project  considerably  below  the 
mouth.  All  the  limbs  are  of  considerable  length,  and  the  hinder  pair  are  longer 
than  the  front  ones;  the  hoofs  are  narrow  and  pointed,  and  the  lateral  pair  un- 
usually large.  The  ears  are  very  large  and  the  tail  is  short,  terminating  in  the 
male  in  a  tuft,  but  hairy  throughout  in  the  female.  The  male  has  a  peculiar  sac- 
like  gland  in  the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  which  yields  the  musk  of  commerce.  The 
general  color  of  the  fur  is  a  rich  dark  brown,  more  or  less  speckled  and  mottled 
with  gray  and  tawny;  the  individual  hairs  having  black  tips,  beneath  which  is  a 


MAI,E   AND   FEMAI.E    MUSK    DEER. 
(One-twelfth   natural   size.) 

ring  of  white,  while  for  three-quarters  of  their  length  they  are  white  at  the  base. 
The  chin,  the  inner  borders  of  the  ears  and  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  and  not  un- 
frequently  a  spot  on  each  side  of  the  throat,  are  whitish,  while  the  under  parts  and 
the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs  are  paler  than  the  body.  Some  individuals  are, 
however,  considerably  paler  than  ordinary,  while  in  others  there  is  a  more  or 
less  marked  yellowish  tint;  and  others,  again,  are  blacker.  The  young  are  spotted. 

Distribution       A.The  mUsk  deer  is  found  throughout  the  Himalayas  as  far  west  as 

Gilgit,  and  thence  extends  through  Central  Asia  into  Siberia.      In 

Kansu,  on  the  northwest  of  China,  it  is  replaced  by  a  nearly  allied  species  (M.  sif- 


THE   MUSK  DEER  985 

r"' 
anicus}.     In  the  Himalayas  it  is  seldom  found  below  elevations  of  eight  thousand 

feet  in  summer,  and  in  Sikkim  it  occurs  above  twelve  thousand  feet. 

Musk  deer  are  found  either  in  pairs  or  alone,  and  in  the  Kashmir 

Himalayas  are  generally  met  with  in  the  birch  forests  above  the  zone 
of  pines.  Sometimes,  however,  they  may  be  seen  at  lower  levels  among  thick 
cover.  In  habits  they  have  been  compared  by  General  Kinloch  to  hares,  and,  like 
these  animals,  they  make  a  "form,"  in  which  they  lie  concealed  during  the  day, 
their  feeding  time  being  in  the  morning  and  evening.  Musk  deer  seem  capable  of 
enduring  almost  any  degree  of  cold,  against  which  the  peculiar  nature  of  their  thick 
fur  is  doubtless  a  sufficient  protection.  In  early  spring  they  may  be  seen  among 
the  steep  birch  forests  around  Kashmir,  when  the  ground  is  deeply  buried  in  snow, 
making  their  way  from  tree  to  tree  in  search  of  the  young  twigs  and  buds  upon 
which  they  then  chiefly  subsist.  On  such  ground  they  are  very  active  and  sure 
footed,  their  large  lateral  hoofs  being  apparently  adapted  to  aid  them  in  obtaining 
a  foothold  on  hard  snow  slopes  and  smooth  slippery  rocks. 

General  Kinloch  states  that  musk  deer  utter  a  kind  of  hiss  when  alarmed,  and 
it  is  ascertained  that  when  captured  they  give  vent  to  a  series  of  screams;  with 
these  exceptions  they  appear  to  be  silent,  even  in  the  pairing  season.  From  obser- 
vations on  some  musk  deer  kept  in  captivity  in  Nipal,  it  appears  that  the  sexes 
come  together  in  January,  and  that  the  fawns  are  born  in  June.  Usually  there  is 
but  a  single  young  one  at  birth,  but  occasionally  two  are  produced. 

The  musk,  which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  found  in  the  male  alone, 

when  fresh  is  soft  and  moist,  of  a  brownish  color,  and  with  a  rather 
unpleasant  smell.  It  soon,  however,  hardens  and  dries,  and  at  the  same  time  ac- 
quires the  all-powerful  scent  of  musk.  When  removed  from  the  dead  animal,  the 
secretion  is  tied  up  in  a  portion  of  the  hairy  skin"  covering  the  gland,  and  is  then 
known  as  a  "musk-pod."  Each  pod  will  contain  on  an  average  about  an  ounce  of 
musk,  and  in  India  will  fetch  some  sixteen  rupees  in  the  market. 

English  sportsmen  hunt  musk  deer  either  by  walking  through  the 

forests  they  frequent,  and  carefully  examining  every  ravine  and  hol- 
low, or  by  having  the  jungles  driven  by  natives.  On  the  other  hand,  the  natives  them- 
selves capture  these  little  deer  in  a  wholesale  manner,  which  is  described  as  follows 
by  General  Macintyre.  '  'A  low  fence  is  made  of  boughs,  etc. ,  along  the  ridge  of  a 
hill,  sometimes  a  mile  or  more  in  length.  At  intervals  of  one  hundred  or  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  yards  are  gaps.  The  musk  deer,  crossing  the  ridge  from  one  valley 
to  another,  come  across  this  fence,  and,  to  save  themselves  the  trouble  of  jumping 
over  it,  walk  alongside  until,  seeing  a  little  gap,  they  try  to  go  through  it.  But  in 
each  gap  a  noose  of  strong  string  is  placed  on  the  ground  and  tied  to  a  stout  sapling 
bent  downward.  The  noose  is  so  arranged  that,  when  the  deer  tread  inside  it, 
the  sapling  is  loosed  and  flies  back,  leaving  the  noose  tied  tightly  round  the  animal's 
leg.  The  people  visit  these  fences  every  two  or  three  days,  and  secure  the  deer  thus 
caught,  and  repair  the  fences  and  nooses,  which  are  often  carried  away  or  destroyed 
by  larger  game."  In  spite  of  the  constant  persecution  to  which  they  are  subject, 
musk  deer  are  still  fairly  common  in  many  parts  of  the  Himalayas,  where  they  are 
known  by  the  name  of  kastura. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
THE  UNGULATES — continued 


CHEVROTAINS  AND  CAMELS 
Families   TRAGULIDsE  and 

WITH  the  Deer  family  we  took  leave  of  the  last  of  the  two  Ruminants — the  Pecora 
of  the  scientific  zoologist  —  and  we  now  come  to  two  smaller  groups  of  Ungulates, 
which,  although  Ruminants  in  the  general  sense  of  that  term,  yet  differ  so  widely 
from  the  Pecora,  and  also  from  one  another,  that  they  are  each  regarded  as  consti- 
tuting sections  of  equal  value  with  the  latter.  These  two  groups  are,  firstly,  the 
small  deer-like  animals  commonly  known  as  chevrotains,  and  secondly,  the  camels; 
the  latter  term  including  not  only  the  true  camels  of  the  Old  World,  but  likewise 
the  South- American  llamas. 

Both  these  groups  agree  with  the  true  Ruminants  in  having  crescent-like  (selen- 
odont)  molar  teeth;  but  whereas  the  chevrotains  are  probably  descended  from  the 
same  ancestral  stock  as  that  which  gave  rise  to  the  deer,  it  appears  that  the  camels 
have  originated  from  a  totally  different  stock,  and  have  thus  acquired  their  crescent- 
like  teeth  quite  independently  of  the  true  Ruminants.  In  addition  to  forming  two 
distinct  families,  these  two  groups  have  also  received  names  of  a  superior  grade, 
thus  bringing  them  on  to  a  platform  equivalent  to  that  occupied  by  the  Pecora. 
For  the  chevrotains  the  term  Tragulina  is  adopted,  while  that  of  Tylopoda  is  taken 
for  the  camels. 

THE  CHEVROTAINS 
Family   Tragulida 

The  elegant  little  creatures  known  as  chevrotains,  or  mouse-deer,  are  so  like 
small  antlerless  deer  in  general  outward  appearance,  that  they  are  commonly  re- 
garded as  nearly  allied  to  the  musk  deer,  near  which  they  were  indeed  long  placed 
by  zoologists.  In  zoology,  as  in  many  other  things,  outward  appearance  is,  how- 
ever, very  often  deceptive;  and  when  the  chevrotains  are  examined  anatomically 
they  are  found  to  depart  very  widely  from  the  Deer  family. 

Chevrotains  agree  with  the  true  Ruminants  in  the  absence  of  any, incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw;  and  they  resemble  the  musk  deer  in  the  presence  of  upper  tusks, 
or  canine  teeth,  which  in  the  males  attain  a  considerable  length,  and  project  below 
the  mouth.  They  likewise  agree  with  the  true  Ruminants  in  that  the  canine  teeth 

of  the  lower  jaw  resemble  the  incisors  to  the  outermost  pair  of  which  they  are  ap- 
(986) 


THE    TRUE   CHEVROTAINS 


987 


proximated  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  series.  When  we  have  added  that  the  three 
molar  teeth  and  the  last  premolar  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw,  together  with  the  lower 
molars,  are  of  a  cresent-like  type,  the  resemblances  to  the  true  Ruminants  cease. 
In  the  first  place,  the  three  premolar  teeth,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  in  the 
upper  jaw,  instead  of  being  cresent  like*  have  their  crowns  elongated  and  narrow, 
with  sharp,  cutting  edges.  Then  the  second,  or  axis,  vertebra  of  the  neck  has  a 
simple,  conical  peg  (odontoid  process)  projecting  in 
front,  by  which  it  articulates  with  the  first,  or  atlas, 
vertebra;  whereas  in  all  the  true  Ruminants  the  same 
process  is  spout  like.  On  examining  the  limbs  in  the 
skeleton  of  a  chevrotain,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
fibula,  or  smaller  bone  of  the  lower  leg,  is  complete, 
instead  of  being  represented  only  by  its  lower  end. 
Moreover,  each  foot  has  four  complete  digits,  that  is 
to  say,  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones,  respect- 
ively supporting  the  toes  of  the  fore  and  hind-feet, 
are  complete,  and  extend  alongside  of  the  canon  bone 
from  the  basal  joints  of  the  toes  to  the  wrist  and 
ankle  joints;  whereas,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  true 
Ruminants  these  bones  are  represented  either  by  their 
upper  or  lower  extremities  alone,  or  are  wanting. 
Then,  again,  in  one  of  the  chevrotains  the  canon 
bone  of  the  fore-limb  is  divided  into  its  two  compo- 
nent metacarpal  elements;  while  in  the  other  it  is 
wider  and  less  completely  soldered  than  in  the  true 
Ruminants.  These  differences  will  be  apparent  by 

comparing  the  figures  herewith  given,  with  the  one  on  p.  802.  Finally,  instead  of 
the  four  distinct  compartments  characteristic  of  the  true  Ruminants,  the  stomach  of 
the  chevrotains  has  but  three  such  chambers. 


A  B 

FORE-FOOT  OF  THE  WATER 
CHEVROTAIN  (^4)  AND  INDIAN 
CHEVROTAIN  (B). 


2  and  5  indicate  the  lateral  digits 

and  3   and  4  the    middle   pair.    (From 


THE  TRUE  CHEVROTAINS 
Genus    Tragulus 

The  chevrotains  are  divided  into  two  genera,  the  first  of  which  is  Asiatic  and 
the  second  African.  The  true  or  Asiatic  chevrotains  are  represented  by  five  species, 
of  which  the  range  extends  from  India  and  Ceylon  through  the  Malayan  Archi- 
pelago to  the  Philippines.  They  are  characterized  by  the  two  median  metacarpal 
bones  of  the  fore-limb  being  fused  into  a  canon  bone  (B  of  the  figure),  and  also 
the  small  size  of  the  lateral  toes.  With  one  exception,  they  are  the  smallest  of  liv- 
ing Ungulates,  and  much  resemble  the  American  Rodents  known  as  agutis  in  general 
appearance  and  habits. 

Of  the  five  living  species  of  the  genus,  one  is  confined  to  India  and  Ceylon, 
while  the  others  are  found  in  the  regions  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 


The  Indian  chevrotain  (Tragulus  meminna)  differs  from  all  the  others  in  having  the 
body  spotted  with  white,  and  the  whole  of  the  chin  and  throat  uniformly  covered 
with  hair.  It  is  of  medium  height,  standing  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  at  the 
withers,  and  weighing  from  five  to  six  pounds.  In  color,  the  upper  parts  are  brown 
of  variable  shade,  minutely  speckled  with  yellow;  while  the  flanks  are  spotted  with 
white  or  buff  on  a  brown  ground;  the  spots  being  more  or  less  elongated,  and  often 
passing  into  short  longitudinal  stripes.  This  chevrotain  is  found  in  Southern  India 
and  Ceylon  at  elevations  below  two  thousand  feet,  extending  northward  as  far  as 
Orissa  on  the  east  coast,  and  to  the  Western  Ghats  near  Bombay  on  the  west.  The 
other  four  species  have  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  uniformly  colored,  and  the  skin 
between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  completely  naked  and  glandular.  Of 


r  f 


THE  SMALLER  MALAYAN  CHEVROTAIN. 

(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

these  the  largest  species  is  the  larger  Malayan  chevrotain  (T.  napu],  standing 
thirteen  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  characterized  by  its  dark  smoky -gray 
color,  with  the  under  parts  grayish  white  without  any  rufous  or  fulvous  edging. 
This  species  occurs  in  South  Tenasserim,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  islands  of 
Sumatra  and  Borneo. 

The  two  other  Malayan  species  are  rufous  either  over  the  whole  of  the  upper 
parts  or  on  the  flanks  and  the  edges  of  the  white  area  of  the  under  parts.  Stanley's 
chevrotain  ( T.  stanleyanus} ,  from  some  of  the  Malayan  islands,  is  intermediate  in 
size  between  the  preceding  and  following  species,  and  has  all  the  upper  parts  bright 
rufous.  On  the  other  hand,  the  smaller  Malayan  chevrotain  (T.  javanicus} ,  which 
is  the  one  represented  in  our  illustration,  is  the  most  diminutive  member  of  the 
group,  and  is  grayish  above,  with  the  sides  brightening  to  rufous,  and  a  dark  line, 


THE    WATER   CHEVROTAIN  989 

which  may  be  nearly  black,  running  along  the  nape  of  the  neck.  The  under  parts 
are  whitish,  more  or  less  mixed  with  rufous,  but  there  is  generally  (as  in  our  illus- 
tration )  a  broad  reddish  or  brown  stripe  running  up  the  front  of  the  chest.  With 
the  exception  of  the  royal  antelope  (p.  896),  this  chevrotain  is  the  smallest  of  all 
living  Ungulates;  it  has  a  very  wide  geographical  distribution,  being  found  in  Cam- 
bodia, Cochin-China,  South  Tenasserim,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  Java,  and 
Borneo.  The  last  species  is  the  Philippine  chevrotain  ( T.  nigrieans) ,  confined  to 
the  islands  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  Remains  of  a  fossil  chevrotain  have  been 
discovered  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas. 

All  the  chevrotains  appear  to  be  very  similar  in  their  habits.  They 
have  a  peculiar  way  of  walking  in  a  mincing  manner  on  the  extreme 
tips  of  their  hoofs,  which  communicates  a  stiff  and  rigid  appearance  to  the  legs,  and 
has  thus  given  rise  to  the  popular  notion  that  these  animals  have  no  joints.  Chev- 
rotains lie  concealed  in  grass  or  jungle,  and  only  venture  out  to  feed  in  the  evening 
and  morning.  They  are  timid  and  shy,  but  in  confinement  soon  become  tame  and 
gentle,  and  have  been  known  to  breed.  Writing  of  the  Indian  species,  Colonel 
Tickell  observes  that  "  it  is  found  throughout  the  jungly  districts  of  Central  India 
(z.  e.,  Chutia  Nagpur),  but  from  its  retired  habits  is  not  often  seen.  It  never  ven- 
tures into  open  country,  but  keeps  among  rocks,  in  the  crevices  of  which  it  passes 
the  heat  of  the  day,  and  into  which  it  retires  on  the  approach  of  an  enemy.  In  these 
the  female  brings  forth  her  young  (two  in  number),  generally  at  the  close  of  the 
rains  or  the  commencement  of  the  cold  season.  The  male  keeps  with  the  female 
during  the  rutting  season  (about  June  or  July),  but  at  other  times  they  live 
solitary."  The  smaller  Malayan  chevrotain,  which  is  very  common  in  the  Penin- 
sula, inhabits  dense  thickets,  and  produces  either  one  or  two  fawns  at  a  birth. 

THE  WATER  CHEVROTAIN 
Genus  Dorcathertum 

The  water  chevrotain  (Dorcatherium  aquaticum),  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  is 
the  only  surviving  representative  of  a  genus  which  appears  to  have  been  widely 
spread  in  the  Old  World  during  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  epochs  of  the  Tertiary 
period.  Indeed,  the  genus  was  originally  founded  upon  the  evidence  of  one  of  these 
extinct  species,  the  living  form  having  been  subsequently  described  under  the  name 
of  Hyomoschus,  and  it  is  only  recently  that  zoologists  have  generally  recognized  the 
generic  identity  of  the  recent  and  fossil  species. 

The  water  chevrotain  is  mainly  distinguished  from  the  true  chevrotains  of  Asia 
by  the  feet  being  shorter  and  stouter,  with  relatively-larger  lateral  toes,  and,  above 
all,  by  the  circumstance  that  the  two  middle  metacarpal  bones  remain  completely 
separate,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  987.  The  living  species  is  slightly  superior 
in  size  to  the  largest  of  the  Asiatic  chevrotains,  and  resembles  the  Indian  repre- 
sentative of  the  latter  in  having  the  body  spotted  and  striped  with  white.  The 
general  color  of  the  fur  is  a  rich  brown,  with  a  large  amount  of  white  on  the  throat 
and  chest,  as  well  as  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail;  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is 


990 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


spotted,  while  the  flanks  are  marked  with  longitudinal  white  stripes,  which  are 
larger  and  more  continuous  than  those  of  the  Indian  chevrotain. 

As  is  the  case  with  so  many  West- African  animals,  we  have  but  scanty  infor- 
mation as  to  the  habits  of  the  water  chevrotain  in  its  native  state.  It  is,  however, 
generally  found  near  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  its  mode  of  life  is  said  to  be 
much  like  that  of  pigs. 

The  water  chevrotain  has  but  three  premolar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  but  in  the 
somewhat  larger  species  found  in  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  strata  of  Europe  there  were 
four  of  these  teeth.  The  species  occurring  in  the  Pliocene  of  the  Punjab  was  of  still 
larger  dimensions;  and  affords  one  more  instance  of  the  intimate  connection  existing 
between  the  Tertiary  Mammalian  fauna  of  India  and  that  of  Africa  at  the  present  day. 


SKELETON  OF  THE  ARABIAN  CAMEL. 

_    .  In  its  separate  metacarpal  bones,  the  water  chevrotain  makes  a  de- 

Extmct  Forms    .,    ,  .. 

cided   approach    towards   the  pigs;  and   in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of 

Europe  and  North  America  there  occur  numerous  small  Ungulates,  which  appear  to 
have  connected  the  chevrotains  with  the  deer.  Such  is  Gelocus,  from  the  lower 
Miocene  of  France,  in  which  the  middle  metacarpal  bones  were  separate,  while  the 
metatarsals  were  fused  into  a  canon  bone,  which  has  been  regarded  as  the  common 
ancestor  of  the  two  families.  Prodremotherium  of  the  upper  Eocene  of  France,  has 
canon  bones  in  both  limbs;  while  in  the  American  Hypertragulus  both  the  meta- 
carpals  and  metatarsals  were  separate. 

THE  CAMELS  AND  LLAMAS 

Family  Camelidcz 

The  camels  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  llamas  of  the  New,  form,   as  already 
stated,  a  group  of  ruminating  Ungulates  distinguished  widely  both  from  the  true 


THE    CAMELS  AND  LLAMAS 


991 


Ruminants  and  the  chevrotains,  and  which  probably  have  had  a  totally  distinct 
origin  from  more  primitive  even-toed  Ungulates. 

An  important  point  of  distinction  is  that  the  front  of  the  upper  jaw  is  furnished 
with  incisor  teeth;  it  is  true,  indeed,  that  in  the  adult  state  there  is  only  a  single 
pair  of  these  teeth  remaining,  but  in  young  animals  there  are,  as  in  pigs,  three  pairs. 
Then,  again,  both  jaws  are  furnished  with  tusks  or  canine  teeth;  those  of  the  lower 
jaw  being  sharply  pointed,  and  separated  by  an  interval  from  the 
incisors,  instead  of  resembling  the  latter  and  forming  with  them 
a  continuous  series,  as  we  have  seen  to  be  the  case  in  the  chev- 
rotians  and  the  true  Ruminants.  The  molar  teeth  have  tall  and 
crescent-shaped  crowns,  which,  however,  are  not  precisely  similar 
to  those  of  the  group  last  named;  and  one,  or  sometimes  more,  of 
the  premolar  teeth  generally  has  a  simple  pointed  crown,  like  that 
of  a  canine,  and  is  not  in  contact  with  the  other  teeth  of  the  cheek 
series.  These  isolated  premolar  teeth  are  seen  in  the  figure  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  camel,  in  the  gap  between  the  tusks  and  the  other 
cheek-teeth. 

The  limbs  are  long,  and  the  thigh  is  placed  nearly  vertically, 
so  that  the  true  knee  is  more  detached  from  the  small  hind- 
quarters of  the  body  than  is  usually  the  case  in  Ungulate  Mam- 
mals. The  lower  portion  of  the  legs  is  composed  of  a  canon  bone 
supporting  two  toes,  without  any  trace  of  the  lateral  toes  or  their 
metacarpal  bones.  The  canon  bone  differs,  however,  from  that 
of  the  true  Ruminants,  in  that  the  two  pulley-like  surfaces  at  the 
lower  end,  instead  of  being  placed  side  by  side  and  furnished  with 
a  distinct  ridge  in  the  middle  of  each,  are  divergent,  and  perfectly 
smooth.  The  bones  of  the  first  joint  of  the  toes  are  also  longer  and  more  expanded 
at  their  lower  ends  than  in  the  true  Ruminants;  the  second  pair  being  broad  and  flat- 
tened, while  the  third  form  mere  nodules,  quite  unlike  the  symmetrical  ones  of  the  lat- 
ter group.  The  feet  form  broad  expanded  cushion-like  pads 
(from  which  the  group  derives  its  title  of  Tylopoda),  of 
which  the  under  surface  is  undivided,  while  the  front  shows 
a  division  into  two  toes,  each  of  which  bears  a  broad  nail 
on  the  upper  surface.  The  ankle  joint  differs  from  that  of 
the  true  Ruminants  in  that  the  two  bones  lying  immediately 
below  the  astragalus,  remain  distinct,  whereas  in  the  former 
they  unite  into  a  compound  bone,  termed  the  naviculo- 
cuboid.  A  further  distinction  is  to  be  found  in  the  divided 
upper  lip,  like  that  of  a  hare;  while  the  elongated  neck  is 
characterized  by  the  great  length  of  its  component  vertebrae. 
These  vertebra  exhibit  certain  peculiarities  of  structure  into 
the  consideration  of  which  we  need  not  enter  here;  but  it 
must  be  observed  that  they  resemble  those  of  the  true  Rumi- 
nants in  that  the  process  in  front  of  the  second  vertebra, 
by  which  it  articulates  with  the  first,  is  spout  shaped.  Here,  then,  we  have 


BONES    OF     THE 
LEFT    FORE-  FOOT 
OF    THE    CAMEL. 
(From  Dawkins.) 


WATER   CELLS  IN  STOMACH 
OF    CAMEL. 


992  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

another  instance  of  a  similar  structure  being  independently  acquired  in  two  distinct 
groups.  The  head  is  carried  high  in  the  air,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  nearly 
vertical,  and  is  unprovided  with  either  horns  or  antlers.  The  stomach  has  but 
three  compartments;  the  first  two  of  these  being  provided  with  a  number  of  cells  or 
pouches  which  can  be  closed  by  the  action  of  muscles,  and  these  contain  only  fluid. 
The  bones  of  all  the  members  of  the  family  are  remarkable  for  their  extremely 
solid  and  ivory-like  structure. 

The  Camel  family,  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  is  more  valuable  to  mankind  than 
any  other  group  of  even-toed  Ungulates,  only  one  species  being  unknown  in  the 
domesticated  condition,  while  two  are  now  found  exclusively  in  that  state.  The 
Old  and  New-World  representatives  constitute  two  distinct  genera,  the  former  of 
which  we  take  first. 

THE  CAMELS 
Genus    Camelus 

The  camels  of  the  Old  World,  of  which  there  are  two  distinct  species,  are  char- 
acterized by  their  great  bodily  size  and  bulk,  and  the  presence  of  one  or  two  large  fatty 
humps  on  the  back,  as  well  as  by  having  six  upper  and  five  lower  cheek-teeth  on 
each  side  of  the  jaws,  the  total  number  of  teeth  being  thirty-four.  Their  ears  are 
comparatively  short  and  rounded;  and  the  hair  is  very  irregularly  disposed,  being  in 
some  places  very  long  and  shaggy,  and  in  others  short  and  close,  although  never 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  true  wool.  The  feet  are  broad,  with  the  toes  very 
imperfectly  separated;  and  the  tail  is  comparatively  long,  reaching  nearly  to  the 
hocks,  and  furnished  near  the  end  with  long  hair  forming  a  terminal  tuft.  Callous 
pads,  on  which  the  animal  rests  when  lying  down,  and  which  are  present  at  birth, 
are  found  on  the  chest,  the  elbows,  the  wrists  (commonly  called  the  knees),  and  the 
knees.  Needless  to  say,  the  whole  form  of  these  animals  is  far  from  beautiful,  while 
the  head  is  ugly  in  the  extreme;  and  this  want  of  bodily  beauty  is  accompanied  by 
a  viciousness  of  temper  and  general  stupidity  of  disposition  which  can  scarcely  be 
paralleled  elsewhere  among  domesticated  animals. 

The  two  species  of  camels  are  both  now  unknown  in  the  wild  condition,  although 
in  some  localities  there  are  half-wild  herds  of  which  the  parents  have  escaped  from 
captivity.  There  is  also  a  half-breed  between  the  two  species,  which  is  said  by  the 
tribes  among  which  it  is  bred  to  display  better  qualities  than  either  of  the  parent 
stocks. 

Arabian  Camel  ^e  ^rst  °^  t^iese  two  species  is  the  true  or  Arabian  camel  (  Camelus 
dromedarius) ,  which  is  found  both  in  Africa  and  Asia,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  its  single  hump.  It  is  a  long-limbed  animal,  with  a  comparatively- 
short  coat  of  hair,  and  soft  feet,  adapted  for  walking  on  yielding,  sandy  soil,  and 
standing  from  about  six  feet  eight  inches  to  seven  feet  in  height.  The  head  is  com- 
paratively short,  with  a  long,  sloping  muzzle,  and  convex  forehead;  the  eyes  are  large 
with  a  soft  expression ;  and  the  small  rounded  ears  are  placed  far  back  on  the  sides 
of  the  head.  The  upper  lip  overhangs  the  lower;  and  the  large  slit-like  nostrils  can 
be  closed  at  will.  The  long  neck  is  laterally  compressed,  and  thickest  in  the  middle; 


ARABIAN    CAMEL. 


(993) 


994  THE    UNGULATES.    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

and  the  body  is  massive  and  rounded.  The  contour  of  the  back  rises  from  the 
setting  on  of  the  neck  to  the  loins,  and  then  falls  rapidly  away  to  the  tail.  The  hump, 
when  the  animal  is  in  good  condition,  stands  upright,  but  it  altars  considerably  in  shape 
according  to  age.  The  richer  the  food  of  the  camel,  the  larger  is  its  hump;  while, 
when  the  food  is  poor  and  dry,  the  hump  decreases  in  size;  and,  accordingly,  in  the 
rainy  season  this  appendage  attains  maximum  development,  while  in  the  dry  months 
it  proportionately  shrinks.  In  high-conditioned  animals,  the  hump  should  form  a 
regular  pyramid,  and  occupy  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  whole  length,  but  when  the 
animals  are  half  starved  it  almost  disappears.  The  hair  is  soft,  and  on  the  back 
part  of  the  head,  the  neck  and  throat,  the  shoulders,  the  hump,  and  the  upper  part 
of  the  fore-legs,  is  longer  than  elsewhere.  The  color  of  the  hair  is  very  variable, 
although  a  light  sandy  is  the  most  common  hue;  there  are,  however,  white,  gray, 
brown,  and  even  totally  black  camels;  but  those  of  the  last-named  color  are  held  by 
the  Arabs  to  be  worthless. 

There  are  numerous  breeds  of  camels  differing  more  or  less  from  one 
an°us  another,  and  the  Arabs  recognize  no  less  than  twenty  distinct  strains. 

Roughly  speaking,  they  may,  however,  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
namely,  baggage  camels  and  riding  camels,  or  dromedaries;  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
observes  that  "  there  is  the  same  difference  between  a  good  hygin,  or  dromedary,  and 
a  baggage  camel,  as  between  the  thoroughbred  and  the  cart  horse;  and  it  appears 
absurb  in  the  eyes  of  the  Arabs  that  a  man  of  any  position  should  ride  a  baggage 
camel.  Apart  from  all  ideas  of  etiquette,  the  motion  of  the  latter  animal  is  quite 
sufficient  warning.  Of  all  species  of  fatigue,  the  back-breaking  monotonous  swing 
of  a  heavy  camel  is  the  worst."  The  peculiarly  unpleasant  motion  of  even  the  best 
camels  is  due  to  the  circumstance  that  the  two  legs  of  one  side  are  moved  simultane- 
ously. The  ordinary  pace  of  a  baggage  camel  is  from  two  and  one-half  to  three 
miles  an  hour  when  fully  loaded,  but  a  good  dromedary  will  keep  up  a  pace  of  from 
eight  to  ten  miles  an  hour  for  a  long  period. 

Arabian  camels  are  now  found  in  the  domesticated  condition  in  all 

parts  of  Africa,  lying  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  twelfth  par- 
allel of  north  latitude,  while  in  Somaliland  they  extend  as  far  south  as  the  fifth 
parallel.  They  are  also  widely  distributed  in  southeastern  Asia,  ranging  from  the 
lowlands  of  Afghanistan  and  Bokhara,  where  they  impinge  on  the  habitat  of  the 
two-humped  Bactrian  camel,  through  Northwestern  India,  Persia,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Arabia.  In  Asia  Minor  and  Khorassan,  there  is  a  race  of  half-breeds  be- 
tween the  Arabian  and  the  Bactrian  camel,  this  breed  being  known  in  the  last-named 
country  as  the  Boghdi  camel.  According  to  Elphinstone,  it  has  the  two  humps  of 
the  Bactrian  species,  but  the  long  limbs  of  the  Arabian;  and  it  appears  to  be  gener- 
ally a  product  of  crossing  a  male  of  the  former  with  a  female  of  the  latter.  Arabian 
camels  have  also  been  introduced  into  the  Canaries,  Australia,  North  America, 
Italy,  the  south  of  Spain,  and  Zanzibar. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  what  country  was  the  original  home  of 
the  Arabian  camel;  but  it  has  been  considered  that  Arabia  has  the  best  title  to  this 
honor.  This  conclusion  appears  to  rest  partly  on  the  statements  of  Diodorus  Sicu- 
lus  and  Strabo  that  wild  camels  existed  in  Arabia  at  the  commencement  of  the 


THE   CAMELS  995 

("•*" 

Christian  era,  and  partly  on  the  circumstance  that  no  representations  of  camels  oc- 
cur in  the  ancient  Egyptian  frescoes.  Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  the  statements 
referred  to,  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  absence  of  pictures  of  these  ani- 
mals from  the  frescoes  of  Egypt  does  not  support  the  conclusion  that  they  were  in- 
troduced at  a  comparatively-late  date  into  that  country.  For  there  is  evidence 
furnished  by  a  papyrus  of  the  fourteenth  century,  B.  C.,  that  camels  were  at  that 
early  period  well  known  in  Egypt.  Possibly  there  were  some  superstitious  or  other 
reasons  which  led  to  the  exclusion  of  their  portraits  from  the  frescoes. 

A  certain  amount  of  light  is  thrown  on  the  question  by  the  occurrence  of  fos- 
silized remains  of  extinct  camels  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Himalayas,  and  also  in  beds  belonging  to  the  succeeding  Pleistocene 
period  in  Algeria.  And  knowing,  as  we  do,  that  so  many  of  the  African  genera  of 
Mammals  have  taken  origin  in  India,  from  whence  they  have  migrated  to  their  pres- 
ent home,  it  would  seem  highly  likely  that  the  same  may  have  been  the  case  with 
the  camels.  The  Arabian  camel,  or  its  immediate  parent,  may,  therefore,  have 
sprung  from  an  Indian  ancestor,  and  thence  made  its  way  through  Arabia  and  Syria 
into  Northern  Africa. 

The  Arabian  camel  is  essentially  an  animal  fitted  to  exist  only  in  dry  or  desert 
districts,  and  consequently  all  attempts  to  introduce  it  into  the  moist  and  wooded 
regions  of  Southern  India  and  Equatorial  Africa  have  signally  failed.  Where,  how- 
ever, the  climate  is  at  all  favorable,  its  introduction  into  new  regions  has  generally 
been  attended  with  success.  Camels  are  reported  to  have  been  introduced  into  Italy 
in  the  year  1622,  and  again  in  1738.  On  a  flat  plain  near  Pisa,  the  number  in  1810  was 
forty,  and  in  1840  forty-one,  while  later  it  had  increased  to  upward  of  two  hundred. 
Their  attempted  introduction  into  Sicily,  as  beasts  of  burden  in  the  sulphur  mines, 
was,  on  account  of  the  climate,  a  failure;  but  in  Spain  they  appear  to  have  thriven. 

In  the  year  1856  a  drove  of  seventy-five  camels  was  procured  from  Smyrna  by 
the  United  States  Government,  and  distributed  over  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New  Mex- 
ico. During  the  war  of  secession,  the  whole  of  these  animals  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Confederates,  and  were  used  for  carrying  the  mails,  some  of  them  making  jour- 
neys of  upward  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  a  day.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  the  remnant  of  these  once  more  came  under  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  others  were  purchased  in  1866.  These  were  distributed  through  Ari- 
zona and  Texas  for  breeding  purposes;  but  many  died,  and  the  experiment  proved 
unsatisfactory.  Consequently,  those  that  survived  were  turned  adrift  to  shift  for 
themselves;  and  it  appears  that  some  still  remain  in  the  wilder  districts  of  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona,  and  wander  over  a  considerable  area  in  the  course  of  the  year. 
In  Australia,  the  introduction  of  camels  has  been  a  greater  success,  and  they  have 
proved  invaluable  in  the  expeditions  which  have  been  undertaken  to  explore  the  des- 
erts of  the  interior. 

The  food  of  the  camel  in  its  natural  state  probably  consisted  entirely 

of  branches  and  leaves  of  trees,  and  although  grain  is  now  largely 

given,  a  certain  amount  of  green  food  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  animal's  health. 

No  matter  how  thorny  the  boughs  may  be,  they  are  quite  acceptable  to  the  camel; 

and  it  is  perfectly  marvelous  how  the  animals  manage  to  eat  such  food  without 


996  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

injury  to  their  mouths.  On  such  a  diet,  or  even  on  dates,  camels  will  do  well;  but 
when  compelled  to  work  for  days  with  little  or  no  food,  they  soon  break  down,  as 
was  disastrously  shown  in  the  expedition  to  Khartum.  For  a  few  days,  owing  to  the 
peculiar  conformation  of  their  stomachs,  camels  can  exist  comfortably  without  water, 
but  their  endurance  in  this  respect  is  often  taxed  sadly  beyond  its  natural  capability. 

Although  the  camel  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  and  useful  of  all  animals 
in  dry  and  desert  countries,  its  disposition  and  temper  are  decidedly  of  the  very 
worst  description.  In  addition  to  its  ordinary  surliness  and  want  of  attachment  to 
its  master,  the  male  camel  during  the  pairing  season  is  subject  to  almost  uncon- 
trollable outbreaks  of  rage;  and,  at  the  same  time  owing  to  a  swelling  of  the 
uvula,  makes  a  loud  bubbling  noise  which  is  most  unpleasant  to  the  human  occu- 
pants of  the  camp.  An  instance  of  the  savage  disposition  of  camels  is  afforded  by 
the  habit  they  have,  when  passing  a  mounted  man  on  a  narrow  path,  of  turning 
their  heads  suddenly  round  and  endeavoring  to  inflict  a  bite  on  the  rider's  arm  or 
shoulder;  a  camel's  bite  being,  by  the  way,  exceptionally  severe.  Writing  of  the 
character  of  the  camel,  Dr.  Robinson  observes  that  "these  animals  are  commonly 
represented  as  patient,  but  if  so,  it  is  the  patience  of  stupidity.  They  are  rather 
exceedingly  impatient,  and  utter  loud  cries  of  indignation  when  receiving  their 
loads,  and  not  seldom  on  being  made  to  kneel  down.  They  are  also  obstinate,  and 
frequently  vicious,  and  the  attempt  to  urge  them  forward  is  often  very  like  trying 
to  drive  sheep  the  way  they  do  not  wish  to  go." 

So  again,  Palgrave  writes  that  "  the  camel  takes  no  heed  of  his  rider,  pays  no 
attention  whether  he  be  on  his  back  or  not,  walks  straight  on  when  once  set 
agoing,  merely  because  he  is  too  stupid  to  turn  aside,  and  then  should  some  tempt- 
ing thorn  or  green  branch  allure  him  out  of  the  path,  continues  to  walk  on  in  the 
new  direction  simply  because  he  is  too  dull  to  turn  back  into  the  right  road.  In  a 
word,  he  is  from  first  to  last  an  undomesticated  and  savage  animal,  rendered  serv- 
iceable by  stupidity  alone,  without  much  skill  on  his  master's  part,  or  any  co- 
operation of  his  own  save  that  of  an  extreme  passiveness. ' ' 

In  addition  to  its  value  as  a  beast  of  burden,  the  camel  is  also 
esteemed  by  the  natives  of  many  countries  on  account  of  its  milk  and 
flesh,  while  its  hair  is  woven  into  ropes  and  cloth,  and  in  some  parts  of  India  its 
bones  are  used  in  lieu  of  ivory  for  inlaying  and  turning.  The  milk  is  extremely 
thick  and  rich,  but  is  unsuitable  for  use  with  tea  or  coffee,  as  it  then  immediately 
curdles.  From  remote  antiquity  camels  have  been  kept  in  enormous  herds  by 
Eastern  nations.  In  modern  times  the  Arabs  of  the  Sudan  possess  immense  herds, 
which  in  the  rainy  season  are  driven  northward  in  thousands;  and  in  some  parts  of 
Northwestern  India  the  number  of  camels  kept  by  the  natives  must  be  very 
large.  When  the  young  camels  are  too  feeble  to.  undergo  the  fatigues  of  a  day's 
march,  they  are  slung  in  nets  on  the  backs  or  by  the  sides  of  some  adult  members 
of  the  drove.  But  a  single  calf  is  produced  at  a  birth,  after  a  gestation  of  rather  more 
than  eleven  months;  and  the  calf  is  suckled  by  the  dam  for  at  least  a  twelve-month. 

In  the  Sudan  the  price  of  a  riding  camel  varies  from  about  fifty  to  sixy-five 
dollars,  while  a  good  baggage  camel  can  be  purchased  for  about,  twenty  dollars. 
Young  or  weak  camels  may  be  bought  for  as  little  as  seven  dollars. 


THE   CAMELS 


997 


Aversion  to 
Water 


Camels  have  a  great  aversion  to  crossing  even  the  smallest  stream, 
and  swim  either  imperfectly,  or  not  at  all,  without  assistance;  this 
aversion  doubtless  indicating  that  the  original  home  of  the  animal  was 
in  desert  lands.  On  this  subject,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  observes  that  "a  camel  either 
cannot  or  will  not  swim  unless  it  is  supported  by  inflated  skins;  thus  the  passage  of 
the  broad  river,  Atbara  (about  three  hundred  yards  wide),  is  an  ajfair  of  great 
difficulty.  Two  water  skins  are  inflated,  and  attached  to  the  camel  by  a  band 
passed  like  a  girth  beneath  the  belly.  This  arranged,  a  man  sits  upon  its  back, 


THE    BACTRIAN  CAMEI,. 
(One-twenty-third  natural  size.) 

while  one  or  two  swim  by  the  side  as  guides.  The  current  of  the  Atbara  runs  at  a 
rapid  rate,  and  the  camel  is  generally  carried  at  least  half  a  mile  down  the  river 
before  it  can  gain  the  opposite  bank. 

The  Bactrian  camel  (C.  bactrianus},  of  Central  Asia,  is  distinguished 
from  the  Arabian  species,  not  only  by  its  double  hump,  but  likewise 
by  its  inferior  height,  stouter  and  more  clumsy  build,  shorter  legs, 
and  harder  and  shorter  feet,  as  well  as  by  the  greater  length  and  abundance  of  the 
hair.  This  animal  is,  indeed,  in  all  respects,  better  adapted  for  a  rocky  and  hilly 


Bactrian 
Camel 


998  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

country  than  its  southern  congener;  its  shorter  and  stouter  limbs  rendering  it  far 
less  liable  to  accidents  in  traversing  precipitous  ascents.  The  largest  development 
of  hair  occurs  upon  the  top  of  the  head,  the  neck  and  shoulders,  the  upper  part  of 
the  fore-limbs  and  the  humps. 

The  Bactrian  camel  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  desert  regions  of  Cen- 
Distribution  ira^  ^gja  ivjng  between  Afghanistan  and  Turkestan,  and  China  and 
Southern  Siberia.  In  the  regions  lying  to  the  eastward  of  Yarkand,  there  occur 
droves  of  these  camels  now  living  in  a  wild  condition,  which  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  are  descended  from  domesticated  individuals  escaped  from  captivity. 
According  to  Prejevalski,  these  wild  camels  differ  from  the  ordinary  domestic  race 
by  the  smaller  size  of  their  humps,  the  more  distinct  pads  on  their  wrists  (front 
knees),  and  certain  peculiarities  in  the  conformation  of  the  skull.  Major  C.  S. 
Cumberland  states  that  "the  habitat  of  the  wild  camel  is  the  Gobi  steppes,  from 
Khoten  to  L/ob  Nor.  Except  when  snow  lies  on  the  ground,  these  animals  may  be 
met  with  here  and  there  along  the  old  bed  of  the  Yarkand  and  Tarim  rivers,  which 
they  frequent  for  the  pools  of  brackish  water*  that  are  to  be  found  here  and  there. 
But  as  soon  as  the  snow  falls,  they  move  off  into  the  desert,  as  if  then  independent 
of  the  water  supply.  They  prefer  the  snow,  I  imagine,  as  being  less  salt  than  the 
water,  although  it  also  is  impregnated  to  a  certain  extent  soon  after  it  falls.  The 
camel  is  very  shy  in  its  habitSj  and,  so  far  as  I  could  ascertain,  has  never  been 
caught  and  domesticated.  The  natives  told  me  that  no  horse  in  the  country  could 
catch  the  camels  in  the  deep  sand  of  the  region  they  frequent.  .  .  .  They  vary 
in  color,  like  the  domestic  species,  from  dark  brown  to  lightish  dun.  Their  origin 
has  yet  to  be  traced.  I  take  it  that  they  have  sprung  from  camels  which  escaped 
when  the  district  known  as  Takla  Makun  was  buried  in  a  great  sand  storm  some 
two  centuries  ago.  Tradition  relates  that  no  human  beings  survived,  but  it  is  likely 
enough  that  some  of  the  camels  and  horses  did  so,  and  that  this  was  the  origin  of 
the  wild  camels  and  ponies  which  are  found  in  the  district." 

The  Bactrian  camel  feeds  chiefly  upon  the  saline  and  bitter  plants  of 

the  steppes  which  are  rejected  by  almost  all  other  animals;  and  dis- 
plays a  curious  partiality  for  salt,  drinking  freely  at  the  brackish  water  and  salt 
lakes,  which  are  so  common  throughout  its  habitat.  Instead  of  confining  itself  to 
a  strictly  vegetable  diet,  the  Bactrian  camel,  according  to  the  reports  of  Prejevalski, 
will,  when  pressed  by  hunger,  readily  devour  almost  anything  that  it  may  come 
across,  including  felt  blankets,  bones  and  skins  of  animals,  flesh  and  fish. 

The  pairing  season  occurs  during  February,  March,  and  April;  and 

the  young  (of  which  but  one  is  produced  at  a  birth)  are  not  born  till 
thirteen  months  later,  so  that  the  period  of  gestation  is  considerably  longer  than  in 
the  Arabian  camel.  At  birth  the  young  are  so  helpless  when  the  animals  are  kept 
in  the  domesticated  state  that  they  have  to  be  attended  with  the  greatest  care;  but 
they  very  soon  gain  strength,  and  in  about  a  week  are  able  to  eat.  They  are 
weaned  at  an  early  period  for  the  sake  of  the  milk  of  the  parents,  which  is  largely 
used  by  their  owners.  In  their  third  year  they  are  ridden  on  short  journeys,  while 
in  their  fifth  year  they  attain  their  full  stature  and  vigor;  and  with  good  manage- 
ment they  are  said  to  be  serviceable  until  they  attain  the  age  of  some  five-and- 


THE    LLAMAS  999 

twenty  years.     In  Mongolia  and  on  the  Kirghiz  steppes  the  Bactrian  camel  is  fully 
as  important  to  the  nomad  inhabitants  as  is  its  southern  cousin  in  Arabia. 


THE  LLAMAS 
Genus  Lama 

Under  the  general  title  of  llamas  may  be  conveniently  included  all  the  existing 
South  American  representatives  of  the  camel  family,  although  that  name  properly 
belongs  only  to  a  domesticated  variety  of  one  of  the  two  wild  species.  All  the 
llamas  are  smaller  in  size  and  lighter  in  build  than  the  camels,  and  owing  to  the  ab- 
sence of  any  hump  on  the  back  depart  less  widely  from  the  ordinary  type  of  Ungu- 
lates. Their  pointed  ears  are  relatively  much  longer  than  in  the  camels,  while  their 
thickly-haired  tails  are  reduced  to  a  little  more  than  a  stump.  The  feet,  again,  are 
narrower  and  more  pointed  than  in  their  Old  World  relatives,  and  have  their  toes 
more  completely  separated,  each  toe  being  furnished  with  a  distinct  pad  on  the  sole. 
The  whole  of  the  body  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  long  hair  partaking  of  a 
woolly  nature;  and  there  are  fewer  callosities  on  the  limbs  than  in  the  camels.  As 
characteristics  of  minor  import,  it  may  be  added  that  the  head  is  proportionately 
longer  than  in  the  latter,  and  has  a  tapering  and  sharply-pointed  muzzle,  while  the 
neck  is  relatively  thinner. 

The  skull  has  one  tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  less  than  in  the  camels, 
the  missing  tooth  being  the  isolated  sharp-pointed  premolar  which  is  found  in  the 
latter  in  the  middle  of  the  gap  between  the  tusk  and  the  main  series  of  cheek-teeth. 
Consequently  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  only  thirty-two  instead  of  thirty-four. 
The  premolar  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  of  very  small  size,  not  unfrequently, 
however,  falls  out  in  the  adult,  and  thus  reduces  the  number  to  thirty. 

Llamas  at  the  present  day  are  entirely  confined  to  the  western  and 
southern  regions  of  South  America,  and  can  live  only  where  the  climate 
is  temperate.  Thus  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent  they  are  restricted  to  the 
higher  ranges  of  the  Andes,  but  in  many  parts,  Patagonia  and  Tierra-del-Fuego, 
they  flourish  on  the  plains  at  the  sea  level.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  Equator 
they  are  generally  found  at  elevations  of  between  twelve  thousand  and  sixteen  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea,  and  they  never  descend  lower  than  between  six  thousand 
and  seven  thousand  feet.  During  the  rainy  part  of  the  year  the  wild  species  which 
inhabit  the  mountains  ascend  to  the  limits  of  vegetation,  but  in  the  hot  season  they 
descend  to  the  valleys  where  alone  sustenance  is  to  be  found.  They  live  in  larger 
or  smaller  parties,  and  sometimes  congregate  in  herds  comprising  many  hundreds 
of  individuals.  All  the  species  are  characterized  by  their  very  objectionable  habit 
of  spitting,  as  many  visitors  to  zoological  gardens  well  know. 

There  are  two  wild  species  of  llamas  now  existing,  respectively  known 

as  the  vicuna  and  the  guanaco,  and  likewise  two  domesticated  races, 

namely,  the  llama  and  the  alpaca.     For  a  long  period  much  uncertainty  existed  as 

to  the  relationship  of  these  domesticated  races  to  the  wild  species,  but  the  researches 

of  Mr.  O.  Thomas  have  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  both  the  former  are  in  all  prob- 


IOOO 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


ability  derived  from  the  wild  guanaco,  with  which  they  agree  in  the  proportionately- 
large  size  of  their  skulls,  and  the  presence  of  naked  patches  on  the  hind-limbs. 

The  vicuna  (Lama  -vicuna)  is  the  smaller  of  the  two  wild  species, 
and  is  of  a  uniform  light  brown  color,  becoming  paler  on  the  under 
parts  and  limbs,  and  with  light  markings  on  the  face  and  jaws.     The  build  of  the 


Vicuna 


A   DROVE   OF   VICUNAS. 

(One-sixteenth   natural   size.) 


animal  is  very  light  and  graceful;  its  head  is  relatively  short,  and  it  has  no  naked 

llosities  on  the  hind-legs.     In  corelation  with  the  shortness  of  the  head   the  skull 

>f  proportionately-small  size.     This  species  has  a  somewhat  restricted  range   be- 

ig  confined  to  the  mountains  in  the  district  between  Southern  Ecuador  and  Central 

-Bolivia,  which  includes  the  whole  of  Peru. 


THE  LLAMAS  1001 

c^ 
According  to  the  account  of  Tschudi,  during  the  wet  season  of  the 

year  the  vicunas  seek  the  highest  ridges  of  the  Cordillera,  where 
plant  life  is  but  sparse.  On  account  of  the  softness  of  their  feet,  they  prefer  upland 
meadows,  and  avoid  the  stony,  naked  peaks,  while  they  still  more  carefully  shun 
glaciers  and  snow-fields.  In  the  hot  season,  on  the  other  hand,  they  descend  into 
the  higher  valleys.  The  reason  of  this  reversal  of  the  usual  plan  of  migration  ap- 
pears to  be  that  in  the  Cordillera  the  vegetation  on  the  higher  ridges  is  completely 
withered  up  by  the  heat  of  the  dry  summer  season,  and  that  such  herbage  as  remains 
is  only  to  be  found  in  the  valleys,  where  it  is  nourished  by  springs  or  swamps. 
Vicunas  feed  all  day,  and  it  is  seldom  that  a  flock  is  seen  lying  down.  During  the 
pairing  season  the  males  fight  with  great  fierceness  for  the  supremacy  of  the  flocks, 
each  of  which  comprises  one  male  accompanied  by  from  six  to  fifteen  females.  The 
male  always  remains  a  few  paces  behind  the  flock,  and  gives  notice  of  any  approach- 
ing danger  by  uttering  a  shrill  whistle,  at  the  same  time  rapidly  advancing;  the 
flock  then  collects,  and  takes  to  immediate  flight  in  a  swift  gallop,  the  male  bring- 
ing up  the  rear,  and  often  stopping  to  observe  the  foe. 

In  the  month  of  February  the  females  give  birth  to  a  single  fawn,  which  as  soon 
as  it  comes  into  the  world  is  endowed  with  remarkable  speed  and  endurance.  The 
young  males  remain  with  their  dams  until  full  grown,  when  they  are  expelled 
from  the  flock  by  the  united  force  of  the  females.  These  young  males  unite  in 
separate  flocks  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  head;  and  as  such  flocks  have  no  special 
guardian,  but  all  the  members  are  constantly  on  the  alert,  they  are  exceedingly 
difficult  to  approach.  During  the  pairing  season  incessant  fights  take  place  among 
these  male  flocks,  and  the  animals  then  utter  a  peculiar  neighing  sort  of  cry  which 
can  be  heard  at  a  great  distance. 

The  Indians  hunt  vicunas  by  forming  a  circular  enclosure  of  stakes 

connected  by  cords,  with  a  diameter  of  about  half  a  mile,  and  an  en- 
trance of  some  couple  of  hundred  feet  in  width.  The  cords  connecting  the  stakes 
are  hung  with  bright-colored  pieces  of  cloth,  which  flutter  in  the  wind  and  prevent 
the  animals  from  trying  to  break  through.  When  the  enclosure  is  ready,  the 
hunters  make  a  wide  circuit  on  the  mountains,  and  drive  in  all  the  flocks  of  vicunas 
there  may  be  in  the  neighborhood;  the  animals  being  dispatched  by  the  bolas  —  a 
weapon  consisting  of  two  large  balls  connected  by  a  string,  which  is  whirled  round 
the  hunter's  head  and  then  hurled  with  unerring  aim  at  his  victim.  The  flesh  is 
divided  among  the  Indians,  but  the  skins  belong  to  the  priests.  The  wool,  although 
small  in  quantity,  is  fine  and  of  excellent  quality;  and  in  1826  a  law  was  made  that 
the  vicunas  should  be  caught  and  shorn,  instead  of  killed,  but  the  wildness  of  the 
animals  rendered  this  impracticable.  In  the  time  of  the  Incas,  vicuna  hunts,  in 
which  as  many  as  thirty  thousand  men  took  part,  were  organized  upon  a  large  scale. 
An  area  of  some  twenty  miles  would  be  completely  surrounded,  and  every  living 
thing  driven  in';  and  it  is  said  that  at  times  as  many  as  forty  thousand  head  of  game, 
including  bears,  pumas,  foxes,  deer,  vicunas,  and  guanacos,  would  be  thus  sur- 
rounded. Such  a  hunt  would  last  for  a  week,  during  which  many  hundred  head  of 
game  would  be  killed,  Tschudi  mentioning  that  in  a  hunt  which  he  joined,  upward 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  vicunas  were  slaughtered. 


1002  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  guanaco   (L.  guanacus)     is  a  rather  larger  and  heavier-built 
Guanaco  animal  than  the  vicuna,  with  a  longer  head,  larger  skull,  and  distinct, 

naked  patches  on  the  knees  of  the  hind-legs.  A  full-grown  male  will  measure  four 
feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  from  seven  to  eight  feet  in  length.  The  thick 
and  woolly  hair  is  of  a  pale  reddish  color,  longest  and  palest  on  the  under  parts. 
The  geographical  range  of  this  species  is  very  wide,  extending  from  the  lofty 
mountains  of  Ecuador  and  Peru,  where  it  is  found  in  company  with  the  vicuna,  to 
the  plains  of  Patagonia  and  the  islands  of  Tierra-del-Fuego. 

In  the  mountains  the  habits  of  the  guanaco  appear  to  be  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  vicuna,  but  is  not  unfrequently  seen  in  larger  flocks, 
which  may  occasionally  reach  as  many  as  one  hundred  or  even  five  hundred  head. 
The  pairing  season  occurs  in  August  and  September,  and  the  young  are  born  ten  or 
eleven  months  afterward.  Darwin  states  that  these  animals  are  very  wild  and  wary, 
and  that  frequently  the  first  evidence  of  their  presence  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
hunter  is  their  loud,  neighing  alarm  cry,  which  makes  itself  heard  at  a  great  dis- 
tance. ' '  If  the  hunter  looks  attentively,  he  will  then, ' '  writes  Darwin,  ' '  probably  see 
the  herd  standing  in  a  line  on  the  side  of  some  distant  hill.  On  approaching  nearer, 
a  few  more  squeals  are  given,  and  off  they  set  at  an  apparently  slow  but  really  quick 
canter,  along  some  narrow  beaten  track  to  a  neighboring  hill.  If,  however,  by 
chance  he  abruptly  •  meets  a  single  animal,  or  several  together,  they  will  generally 
stand  motionless  and  intently  gaze  at  him,  then  perhaps  move  on  a  few  yards,  turn 
round,  and  look  again. ' '  The  writer  then  proceeds  to  give  instances  of  their  ex- 
treme curiosity,  and  adds  that  they  are  easily  domesticated,  and  in  the  wild  state 
have  no  notion  of  defending  themselves.  He  continues  that  ' '  guanacos  take  readily 
to  the  water;  several  times  at  Port  Valdes  they  were  seen  swimming  from  island  to 
island.  Byron,  in  his  voyage,  says  he  saw  them  drinking  salt  water.  Some  of  our 
officers  likewise  saw  a  herd  apparently  drinking  the  briny  fluid  from  a  salina  near 
Cape  Blanco.  I  imagine  in  several  parts  of  the  country  if  they  do  not  drink  salt 
water  they  do  not  drink  at  all.  In  the  middle  of  the  day  they  frequently  roll  in  the 
dust,  in  saucer-shaped  hollows.  The  males  fight  together;  two  one  day  passed  quite 
close  to  me,  squealing  and  trying  to  bite  each  other;  and  several  were  shot  with 
their  hides  deeply  scored.  Herds  sometimes  appear  to  set  out  on  exploring  parties; 
at  Bahia  Blanca,  where,  within  thirty  miles  of  the  coast,  these  animals  are  extremely 
unfrequent,  I  one  day  saw  the  tracks  of  thirty  or  forty,  which  had  come  in  a  direct 
line  to  a  muddy  salt-water  creek.  They  then  must  have  perceived  that  they  were 
approaching  the  sea,  for  they  had  wheeled  with  the  regularity  of  cavalry,  and  had 
returned  in  as  straight  a  line  as  they  had  advanced." 

The  most  singular  circumstance  connected  with  the  guanacos  is  their 
Dying  Places 

habit  of  resorting  to  certain  particular  spots  when  they  feel  their  end 

approaching.  On  this  point  Darwin  observes  that  "on  the  banks  of  the  Santa  Cruz, 
in  certain  circumscribed  spaces,  which  were  generally  bushy  and  always  near  the 
river  the  ground  was  actually  white  with  bones.  On  one  such  spot  I  counted  between 
ten  and  twenty  heads.  I  particularly  examined  the  bones;  they  did  not  appear 
as  some  scattered  ones  which  I  had  seen,  gnawed  or  broken,  as  if  dragged  together 
by  beasts  of  prey.  The  animals  in  most  cases  must  have  crawled  before  dying 


THE  LLAMAS 


1003 


beneath  and  among  the  bushes."  Although  mentioning  that  wounded  guanacos 
invariably  make  their  way  toward  the  river,  Darwin  did  not  attempt  any  explana- 
tion of  this  strange  habit.  A  later  observer,  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson,  after  stating  that 
this  habit  is  only  developed  among  the  guanacos  of  Southern  Patagonia,  suggests, 
however,  that  it  is  due  to  an  inherited  instinct,  derived  from  a  time  when  the  ani- 
mals were  accustomed  during  a  period  of  exceptional  cold  to  seek  refuge  beneath  the 
cover  of  the  bushes  growing  in  the  sheltered  river  valleys.  "  Once  we  accept  this 


. 


THK     U.AMA. 

(  One-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

explanation  as  probable,"  writes  Mr.  Hudson,  "namely,  that  the  guanaco,  in  with- 
drawing from  the  herd  to  drop  down  and  die  in  the  ancient  dying  ground,  is  in 
reality  only  seeking  an  historically-remembered  place  of  refuge,  and  not  of  death  - 
the  action  of  the  animal  loses  much  of  its  mysterious  character;  we  come  on  to 
firm  ground,  and  find  that  we  are  no  longer  considering  an  instinct  absolutely 
unique  with  no  action  or  instinct  in  any  other  animal  leading  up  to  or  suggesting 
any  family  likeness  to  it." 


1004  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

With  the  true  llama  (L.  glama)  we  come  to  the  first  of  the  two  do- 
mesticated representatives  of  the  genus,  both  of  which  are  now  con- 
sidered to  have  originated  from  the  wild  guanaco.  The  llama  attains  larger 
dimensions  than  the  guanaco,  and  is  very  variable  in  color,  although  generally 
white,  or  white  spotted  with  brown  or  black,  and  more  rarely  completely  brown 
or  black.  The  skull  .is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  guanaco,  and  the  knees 
have  the  same  naked  patches.  In  general  appearance  the  llama  is  a  long-necked 
and  long-limbed  creature,  with  comparatively-short  hair  falling  but  little  below 
the  lower  line  of  the  body.  It  was  bred  by  the  ancient  Peruvians  mainly  as 
a  beast  of  burden,  or  for  riding,  and  was  chiefly  characteristic  of  the  southern 
portion  of  Peru,  where,  before  the  Spanish  conquest,  enormous  numbers  of 
these  animals  were  kept.  The  introduction  of  horses  and  mules  has,  however, 
gradually  led  to  the  displacement  of  the  llama  as  a  beast  of  burden.  When,  how- 
ever, llamas  and  alpacas  were  the  only  domesticated  Ungulates  in  South  America, 
their  importance  to  the  Peruvians  was  fully  as  great  as  is  that  of  the  reindeer  to  the 
modern  Laplander,  since  between  them  they  not  only  did  all  the  carrying  work  of 
the  country,  but  likewise  supplied  their  masters  with  wool  and  flesh.  The  complete 
distinction  between  llamas  and  alpacas  from  as  far  back  as  tradition  or  records  ex- 
tend, coupled  with  the  extreme  antiquity  of  the  Peruvian  civilization,  indicates  that 
the  domestication  of  the  wild  guanaco  must  in  all  probability  have  taken  place  at  a 
very  early  period.  As  showing  the  security  of  the  country  it  may  be  mentioned 
that,  soon  after  the  Spanish  conquest,  it  was  not  uncommon  to  meet  droves  of  from 
three  hundred  to  five  hundred  or  even  one  thousand  llamas,  each  laden  with  silver 
ingots,  and  the  whole  in  charge  of  a  single  native.  Such  droves  slept  in  the  open 
fields  without  the  slightest  danger  from  loss  by  robbers.  Only  the  male  llamas  were 
used  as  beasts  of  burden,  while  the  smaller  females  were  kept  for  their  milk  and 
flesh.  In  traveling  along  the  roads  the  droves  marched  in  single  file,  under  the 
guidance  of  a  leader;  and  such  a  line  would  traverse  the  highest  passes  of  the  Cor- 
dillera, and  skirt  the  most  stupendous  precipices  with  perfect  safety.  When  not  in 
active  use,  the  herds  of  llamas  were  kept  on  the  higher  mountain  pastures,  where 
they  would  often  temporarily  associate  with  wild  guanacos.  The  Spanish  con- 
querors of  Peru  spoke  of  llama  flesh  as  being  fully  equal  to  the  best  mutton,  and 
they  established  in  the  towns  shops  for  its  regular  sale. ,  At  the  period  of  the  conquest 
it  is  estimated  that  upward  of  three  hundred  thousand  llamas  were  employed  in  the 
transport  of  the  product  of  the  mines  of  Potosi  alone.  Llamas  produce  only  one  off- 
spring at  a  time,  so  that  their  rate  of  increase  is  not  very  rapid.  Usually  the  young 
are  suckled  by  the  mother  for  about  four  months,  but  in  one  race  the  period  is 
longer;  and  it  is  stated  that  the  young  of  two  successive  seasons  may  not  unfre- 
quently  be  seen  suckling  at  the  same  time. 

Alpaca  ^he  alPaca  (L-  Pacos}   is  a  considerably-smaller    animal  than  the 

llama,  and  is  bred  for  the  sake  of  its  wool,  which  is  of  great  fineness 
and  length,  reaching  in  some  specimens  almost  to  the  ground.  The  usual  color  of 
the  wool  is  very  dark  brown  or  black.  In  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  alpaca,  Mr. 
Thomas  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  old  view  of  the  vicuna  being  the 
parent  stock  is  untenable,  and  that  we  must  look  to  the  guanaco  as  the  true  ancestor. 


THE  LLAMAS 


1005 


He  observes,  for  instance,  that  the  size  of  the  alpaca,  "although  less  than  that 
of  the  llama,  is  far  greater  than  that  of  the  vicuna.  Its  skull  and  teeth  wholly 
agree  with  those  of  the  former,  and  the  naked  patches  on  the  legs,  so  distinctive  of 
the  guanaco  as  compared  with  the  vicuna,  are  very  often,  although  not  always, 
present,  the  exceptions  being  easily  explainable  in  the  case  of  an  animal  bred  and 
selected  for  generations  solely  with  an  eye  to  the  thickness  and  extent  of  its  furry 
covering.  The  occasional  growth  of  the  fur  over  the  naked  patches  is  not  therefore 


p. 


THE    ALPACA. 

(One-eighteenth  natural  size.) 


to  be  wondered  at.  The  probabilities  also  are  much  in  favor  of  the  Peruvians  hav- 
ing domesticated  one  wild  species  only  rather  than  two,  and  of  their  having  gradu- 
ally developed  two  races  out  of  it  —  the  one  large,  strong,  and  suitable  for  the 
carriage  of  burdens,  and  the  other  smaller  in  size,  but  exceptional  in  its  capacity  for 
producing  a  quantity  of  useful  wool. ' ' 

Alpacas  are  kept  throughout  the  year  in  large  herds  on  the  high 
plateaus  of  Bolivia  and  Southern  Peru,  and  are  only  driven  down  to 
the  villages  at  the  shearing  season.     The  wool  is  of  two  kinds  —  a   longer  and 


Uses 


ioo6  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

coarser,  and  a  finer  and  shorter;  the  former  being  termed  by  the  Peruvians  hanaska, 
and  the  latter  kumbi.  The  Incas  dyed  both  kinds  with  bright  and  lasting  colors, 
and  wove  them  into  cloth  and  blankets;  and  alpaca  wool  has  been  introduced  into 
England,  the  late  Sir  Titus  Salt  having  established  mills  for  its  manufacture  into 
cloth  at  Bradford. 

Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  acclimatize  the  alpaca  in  Europe 
Acchmati-  &^  Australia.  A  large  herd  was  imported  by  a  late  Earl  of  Derby 
and  established  at  Knowsley,  and  it  was  thought  that  these  animals 
might  be  successfully  introduced  into  the  Highlands  of  Scotland;  but  if  the  attempt 
was  ever  made,  it  had  no  permanent  results.  In  Australia,  after  great  difficulties  in 
getting  permission  from  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Governments  for  the  export  of 
such  a  large  number,  three  hundred  head  were  introduced,  but  in  five  years  these  had 
dwindled  down  to  a  dozen,  and  the  experiment  does  not  appear  to  have  been  re- 
peated. Probably  one  of  the  great  difficulties  to  be  contended  with  in  the  success- 
ful introduction  of  llamas  into  other  countries  would  be  to  find  a  locality  where  they 
could  be  left  almost  to  themselves,  and  yet  where  they  would  be  safe.  The  climate 
of  Britain  is  doubtless  far  to  damp  for  them,  and  in  this  respect  parts  of  Australia 
would  be  much  more  suitable. 

The  alpaca  goes  with  young  eleven  months,  and  produces  but  one  at  a  birth. 
Its  flesh  is  as  excellent  as  that  of  the  llama. 


EXTINCT   CAMEL-LJKB  UNGULATES 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  extinct  camels  occur  in  India  and  Northern 
Africa,  while  fossil  species  of  llamas  —  some  as  large  as  camels  —  are  found  in  East- 
ern South  America.  In  addition  to  these,  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  formations  of 
the  United  States  have,  however,  yielded  the  remains  of  a  number  of  extinct  genera 
of  camel-like  Ungulates,  from  which  both  camels  and  llamas  have  probably  been 
derived;  and  as  no  such  forms  have  hitherto  been  discovered  in  Europe,  we  may 
probably  regard  North  America  as  the  original  home  of  the  family,  from  which  the 
modern  representatives  have  migrated  southward  across  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and 
westward  over  Behring  Strait  into  Asia.  In  the  older  Tertiary  formations  of  Pata- 
gonia the  group  is  unknown. 

Some  of  these  North- American  Pliocene  types,  like  Procamelus,  were  not  unlike 
existing  members  of  the  family,  but  had  four  premolar  teeth  in  each  jaw.  In  the 
Miocene  we  come  to  still  more  generalized  forms,  having  the  typical  number  of 
forty-four  teeth  (that  is  to  say,  with  three  pairs  of  incisors  in  each  jaw),  while  one 
kind  (Poebrotkerium) ,  which  was  no  larger  than  .a  fox,  had  the  main  metacarpal 
and  metatarsal  bones  of  the  feet  separate,  and  also  showed  traces  of  the  bones  of  the 
lateral  toes.  From  this  form  a  transition  can  be  traced  to  others  with  four  com- 
plete toes  and  bunodont*  molar  teeth;  and  we  thus  reach  the  important  conclusion 
that  camels  and  llamas  were  derived  from  pig-like  animals  quite  independently  of 
the  true  Ruminants. 

*The  meaning  of  this  term  is  explained  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER   XXV 
THE  UNGULATES— continued 


THE  PIG-LIKE  UNGULATES 
Family 


THE  whole  of  the  even-toed  Ungulates  described  in  the  five  preceding  chapters 
are  characterized  by  their  power  of  ruminating,  with  which  is  associated  their 
crescent-like,  or  selenodont,  molar  teeth  (see  figures  on  p.  745),  and,  with  but  one 


Extinct  Links 


SKELETON    OF    WILD    BOAR. 

exception,  the  presence  of  a  canon  bone  in  the  limbs  (see  p.  744).  We  now  come  to 
more  generalized  forms  of  the  same  great  group  of  Ungulates,  such  as  pigs  and 
hippopotami,  which  lack  the  power  of  rumination,  and  in  which  the  structure  of 
the  molar  teeth  and  lower  portion  of  the  limbs  is  of  different  nature. 

At  the  present  day  there  is  a  great  gap  between  the  types  with 
crescent-like  molars  and  the  pig-like  animals;  a  gap  so  wide  that  the 
earlier  naturalists  failed  to  recognize  the  intimate  relation  that  really  exists  between 
the  two.  This  gap  is,  however,  almost  completely  bridged  over  by  a  number  of 
extinct  Ungulates,  and  since,  in  order  to  have  any  adequate  idea  of  the  relations  of 
the  existing  groups,  some  knowledge  of  the  fossil  forms  is  absolutely  essential,  we 
must  devote  a  brief  space  to  their  consideration. 

First,  with  regard  to  the  molar  teeth.     On  p.  745  there  is  figured  an  upper 
molar  of   a  modern   Ruminant,    showing  that  the  crown  is  surmounted  by  four 

crescentic  columns  of  great  height,  and  separated  by  deep  pocket-like  pits,  while  no 

1007) 


iocs  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  same  page  there  is  also  represented  the  corresponding  tooth  of  an  extinct  Ungu- 
late, in  which  the  same  columns,  although  still  crescent-like,  are  very  much  lower, 
and  are  separated  by  quite  shallow  valleys,  of  which  the  base  is  visible  from  the  sur- 
face. Now  from  such  a  tooth  there  is  but  a  step  to  the  teeth  represented  in  the 
cuts  on  the  present  page,  marked  i  and  2.  It  will  be  observed,  however,  that  the 
front  inner  column  of  the  Ruminant  molar  is  here  divided  into  two  moieties  (/>/.  />), 
so  that  the  tooth  becomes  five  columned.  The  molar  represented  in  figure  i  is  that 
of  the  anoplothere,  a  two  or  a  three-toed  Ungulate  from  the  upper  Eocene  rocks  of 
Europe,  furnished  with  the  full  number  of  forty-four  teeth.  The  one  marked  2  be- 
longs to  the  so-called  Hyopotamus,  which  also  occurs  in  the  upper  Eocene  rocks.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  columns  of  the  latter,  although  very  low,  still  have  an  im- 
perfect crescentic  shape;  but  in  the  allied  anthracothere  of  the  same  horizon  this 
structure  is  far  less  apparent,  and  the  columns  assume  the  form  of  flattened  cones. 
From  such  a  tooth  the  transition  is  easy  to  the  type  of  the  pair  marked  3  in  our 
illustration,  which  belonged  to  an  extinct  pig  known  as  the  hyothere.  In  the  latter 


I,EFT    UPPER    MOI,AR    TEETH   OF    EXTINCT    PIG-I,IKE    ANIMALS. 

i.   Anoplothere   (after  Gaudry);  2.  Hyopotamus;  3.  Hyothere.     (The  specimen   represented  in   the 
second   figure  is  imperfect  on  the  anterior  side.) 

figure  it  will  be  seen  that  each  tooth  carries  four  low,  conical,  hillock-like  columns, 
or  tubercles,  the  column  marked  pi  in  the  molar  of  the  anoplothere  having  almost 
completely  disappeared.  From  the  hillock-like  form  of  the  columns  the  type  of 
tooth  found  in  the  pigs  is  known  as  the  bunodont  (Gr.  bounos,  a  hillock)  form,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  selenodont  (Gr.  selene,  the  crescent  moon)  form  distinctive 
of  all  the  ruminating  Ungulates.  This  essential  distinction  in  the  structure  of  their 
molar  teeth  is  the  most  readily  recognized  characteristic  by  which  the  pig-like  Ungu- 
lates are  distinguished  from  all  those  treated  in  the  preceding  chapters;  but  from  the 
transition  between  one  type  and  the  other  indicated  by  extinct  forms,  it  is  perfectly 
clear  that  the  true  Ruminants,  the  chevrotains,  and  the  camels,  are  all  severally 
descended  from  bunodont  ancestors. 

Characteristics     ^he  P*gs  and  t^ie^r  a^es  are  further  distinguished  from  the  true 

of  Pigs       Ruminants  and  camels,  by  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  the 

two  main  digits  of  the  feet  remaining  distinct  instead  of  being  fused 

into  a  canon  bone,  while  in  the  fore-limb  at  least  the  lateral  toes  are  likewise  fur- 


THE  PIGS 


1009 


nished  with  complete  metacarpals,  as  shown  in  the  accompaning  figure.  In  these 
respects  the  pigs,  are,  however,  approached  by  the  water  chevrotain  (p.  989) ;  and  they 
also  resemble  all  the  chevrotains  in  having  a  conical  process  on 
the  front  of  the  second  vertebra  of  the  neck  for  articulation 
with  the  first  of  that  series. 

All  members  of  the  pig-like  group  —  technically  known 
as  the  Suina  —  have  front  or  incisor  teeth  in  their  upper  jaws, 
and  their  lower  tusks  are  quite  unlike,  and  distinct  from  the 
incisors.  Further  in  correlation  with  the  absence  of  the  power 
of  rumination,  the  stomachs  of  these  animals  are  always  less 
complex  than  those  of  the  Ruminants,  and  they  may  be  per- 
fectly simple,  and  comprise  only  a  single  chamber.  It  is,  per- 
haps, well  to  add  that  pig-like  animals  existed  at  a  date  when 
Ruminants  were  unknown,  as,  indeed,  must  necessarily  have 
been  the  case  if  the  one  group  be  the  ancestor  of  the  other. 

With  these  introductory  remarks  as  to  the  characteristics  of 
the  members  of  the  group,  and  their  relationship  through  ex- 
tinct forms  with  the  Ruminants  we  may  proceed  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  existing  pig-like  Ungulates,  which  are 
divided  into  the  three  families  of  the  Pigs,  the  Peccaries, 
and  the  Hippopotami. 

THE  PIGS 
Family  SuiD^ 

The  pigs,  or  swine,  of  which  there  are  three  existing  generic  types,  are  such 
well-known  animals  that  but  little  description  is  necessary.     They  are  however, 


THE  BONES  of  THE 

LEFT  FORE-FOOT  OF 
THE  PIG. 

(From  Dawkins.) 


SKUI,!.    OF  THE   BEARDED    PIG. 

(From  Nehring.) 


distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  group  to  which  they  belong  by  the 
following  assemblage  of  characteristics.     The  head  and  skull  are  greatly  elongated, 
.and  the  muzzle  terminates  in  an  abruptly-truncated  mobile  snout,  with  a  disc-like 
64 


THE    TRUE  PIGS  ion 

naked  surface  at  the  extremity,  in  which  are  situated  the  nostrils,  the  disc  being 
supported  by  an  additional  separate  bone  at  the  extremity  of  the  skull,  shown  in  the 
cut  on  p.  1009.  The  feet  are  narrow,  and  carry  four  completely-developed  toes,  of 
which  the  hindmost  do  not  touch  the  ground  in  walking,  while  the  inner  surfaces 
of  the  main  pair  are  flattened.  The  molar  teeth  are  narrow,  the  last  one  in  both 
the  upper  and  lower  jaws  being  more  or  less  elongated; 
and  the  large  tusks  grow  continuously  throughout  life, 
those  of  the  upper  jaw  curving  upward,  instead  of 
pointing  downward,  after  the  usual  fashion.  Swine 
have  large  flapping  ears,  and  rather  long  cylindrical 
tails,  with  a  tuft  at  the  end.  Their  bodies  are  more  or 

1  i          1    ^    j          -xi      i_    •   .1         i-    •  j     .LI     •  THE    LAST    RIGHT    LOWER 

less   sparsely   clothed    with   bristly    hairs    and   their         MOI<AR  TOQTH  QF  A  pIG 
stomachs   are  quite  simple.      I,ike   all   unspecialized 

Ungulates,  swine  have  the  neck  short  and  thick,  and  imperfectly  differentiated  both 
from  the  body  and  the  head,  the  latter  being  consequently  carried  low.  The  whole 
of  the  existing  members  of  the  family  are  restricted  to  the  Old  World;  and  they 
chiefly  frequent  damp  or  swampy  districts,  and  are  fond  of  wallowing  in  wet  mud. 


THE  TRUE  PIGS 
Genus    Sus 

The  typical  representatives  of  the  Pig  family,  such  as  the  European  wild  boar, 
are  characterized  by  having  forty-four  teeth,  among  which  the  last  molar  in  each 
jaw  is  greatly  elongated,  while  the  thick  and  short  upper  tusk  is  turned  sharply 
upward,  and  has  a  large  smooth  facet  worn  on  the  outer  side  of  its  upturned  ex- 
tremity by  the  abrasion  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  extremity  of  the  lower  tusk. 
Consequently,  if  either  tusk  happens  to  be  broken,  the  opposing  one  continues  to 
grow  indefinitely  and,  from  its  curved  form,  generally  pierces  some  portion  of  the 
skull  with  its  tip,  thus  ultimately  leading  to  the  death  of  the  animal  which  has  had 
the  misfortune  to  meet  with  an  accident  of  this  nature.  In  addition  to  the  bristly 
hairs,  there  is  generally  a  more  or  less  developed  woolly  under-fur.  The  skull  of 
the  pigs,  besides  the  presence  of  the  additional  bone  in  the  snout,  already  mentioned, 
is  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  the  nasal  bones,  an4  also  for  the  high  eleva- 
tion of  the  crest  of  the  occiput,  which  is  generally  even  more  developed  than  in  the 
specimen  figured  here.  In  wild  pigs  the  profile  of  the  face  is  straight,  although  in 
most  domesticated  races  it  is  more  or  less  concave.  Pigs  are  exceedingly  prolific 
animals;  and  the  young  of  all  the  wild  species  (as  shown  in  our  illustration)  are 
marked  with  light  longitudinal  stripes,  although  these  markings  are  very  rarely 
observed  in  those  of  domesticated  breeds. 

The  distributional  area  of  the  genus,  before  curtailed  by  human 
agency,  was  extensive,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  South- 
ern, and  a  portion  of  Central  Asia,  Japan,  the  islands  of  the  Malayan  region,  and 
Africa.      The  two  species  inhabiting  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  and  a  third  from 


ioi2  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Madagascar,  belong,  however,  to  a  group  distinct  from  that  including  the  rest. 
Domesticated  pigs  have  been  turned  loose  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  such  as 
America,  the  West  Indies,  and  New  Zealand,  where  they  have  formed  feral  races 
tending  to  revert  more  or  less  completely  to  the  wild  type,  some  even  producing 
striped  young. 

Although  some  of  the  species  are  markedly  distinct,  the  pigs 
(exclusive  of  those  from  Southern  Africa)  are  an  exceedingly  puzzling 
group,  scarcely  any  two  zoologists  being  in  accord  as  to  the  number  of  existing 
species.  Some  of  the  most  important  distinctive  features  are  afforded  by  the  cheek- 
teeth; but  as  such  differences,  after  all,  are  but  slight,  and  difficult  to  recognize,  we 
shall,  in  the  main,  confine  our  attention  to  some  of  the  better-known  species,  such  as 
those  of  Europe  and  India. 

The  type  of  the  genus  is  the  European  wild  pig,  or  wild  boar  (Sus 
W'ldB  scrofa),  ranging  over  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  part  of  Western 
and  Central  Asia.  In  Asia,  it  is  believed  by  Mr.  Blanford  to  extend 
into  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  Baluchistan,  and  Afghanistan,  while  northward  it  ranges 
to  the  neighborhood  of  Yarkand.  It  was  formerly  abundant  throughout  the  British 
Islands,  as  is  attested  not  only  by  historical  evidence,  but  also  by  the  abundance  of 
its  remains  in  the  peat  mosses  and  fens;  and  boar  hunting  was  a  favorite  pursuit  of 
our  ancestors.  Although  the  exact  date  of  the  extermination  of  wild  boars  from 
the  British  Islands  does  not  appear  to  be  ascertained,  Mr.  J.  E.  Harting  has  shown 
that  they  still  existed  in  Oxfordshire  in  the  year  1339,  in  Suffolk  in  1572,  and  in 
Chartley  forest,  Staffordshire,  as  late  as  1593;  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  in 
Scotland,  and  perhaps  in  Ireland  also,  they  may  have  lingered  till  a  still  more 
recent  date.  In  many  parts  of  the  Continent,  and  especially  in  the  Black  Forest, 
wild  boars  are  still  abundant. 

The  Indian  wild  boar  (S.  cristatus]  is  so  closely  allied  to  its  Euro- 
Indian  Wild 

Boar          Pean  cousln  tnat  Jt  1S  frequently  regarded  as  specifically  inseparable. 

It  is,  however,  a  somewhat  taller  animal,  with  a  thinner  coat  of  hair 
and  no  under-fur;  but  it  is  more  especially  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  crest 
or  mane  of  long  black  bristles  running  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  along  the  back, 
and  by  the  more  complex  structure  and  larger  size  of  the  last  molar  tooth  in  each 
jaw.  As  regards  the  latter  characteristic,  it  may  be  observed  that  in  the  European 
wild  boar  the  hindmost  of  the  three  lobes  constituting  the  last  lower  molar,  is  not 
more  complex  than  in  the  specimen  figured  on  p.  ion;  but  in  the  Indian  species, 
and  more  especially  in  the  males,  this  lobe  (the  one  on  the  left  of  the  figure)  is  com- 
plicated by  the  addition  of  one  or  more  extra  tubercles  to  the  hinder  extremity, 
thus  making  the  whole  of  this  tooth  considerably  longer  and  more  complex.  Analo- 
gous but  less  strongly-marked  differences  may  be  observed  between  the  correspond- 
ing upper  teeth  of  the  two  species.  The  usual  height  of  the  Indian  wild  boar  varies 
from  thirty  to  forty  inches  at  the  shoulder,  but  it  is  stated  that  one  specimen  has 
been  killed  standing  upward  of  forty-three  and  one-half  inches;  while  the  weight 
ranges  from  two  hundred  to  considerably  over  three  hundred  pounds.  When  ex- 
tracted from  the  jaw,  the  lower  tusk  of  a  fine  boar  will  measure  somewhere  about 
eight  or  nine  inches  in  length;  but  specimens  measuring  nine  and  one-fourth  and  ten 


THE    TRUE  PIGS 


1013 


Habits 


inches  have  been  recorded,  and  one  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  which  measured 
upward  of  twelve  inches.  The  Indian  wild  boar  is  found  in  suitable  spots  through- 
out India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma,  and  also  in  the  wooded  districts  of  the  outer  Hima- 
layas, extending  into  the  interior  as  far  as  Kashmir. 

Since  the  habits  of  all  swine  are  very  similar,  while  those  of  the 
Indian  wild  boar  are  best  known  to  Englishmen,  we  may  give  an  ac- 
count of  them  in  this  place.  As  we  have  said,  pigs  generally  frequent  moist  or 
marshy  situations,  where  there  is  plenty  of  cover,  and  their  great  characteristic  is 
their  habit  of  turning  up  the  ground  with  their  snouts  in  search  of  food,  leaving 
marks  by  which  their  presence  in  a  district  can  be  instantly  recognized.  It  is  this 
habit  which  renders  these  animals  so  especially  obnoxious  to  the  cultivator.  Dur- 
ing the  day  the  Indian  wild  boar  makes  his  lair  in  any  convenient  cover,  sometimes 


A  "SOUNDER"  OF  WII.D  SWINE. 

in  tall  grass,  at  others  in  reeds  or  sugar  cane,  and  at  others  in  bushes  or  forest, 
while  not  unfrequently  standing  crops  other  than  sugar  cane  afford  the  necessary 
shelter.  In  the  morning  and  evening  he  wanders  forth  in  search  of  food,  in  cul- 
tivated districts  devastating  the  crops,  but  away  from  human  haunts  he  depends 
chiefly  upon  roots,  those  of  a  kind  of  sedge  being  especial  favorites.  Wild  pigs  will, 
however,  readily  feed  on  the  carcasses  of  animals  and  other  carrion,  while  in  Assam 
they  are  stated  to  be  in  the  habit  of  digging  out  the  fish  which  bury  themselves  in  the 
mud  during  the  dry  season.  According  to  Mr.  Blanford,  pigs  are  less  nocturnal  in 
their  habits  in  remote  districts  than  in  those  where  they  are  much  disturbed.  While 
the  females  and  young  associate  in  droves  or  ' '  sounders, ' '  usually  comprising  from  ten 
to  a  dozen  head,  and  rarely  exceeding  twenty,  the  old  boars  are  solitary.  The  number 
of  young  produced  at  a  birth  by  the  European  species  varies  from  six  to  ten,  after  a 
gestation  of  four  months;  and  frequently  at  least  two  litters  are  produced  in  a  year. 


The  lower  tusks  of  the  male  wild  boar,  which  project  about  three  inches  from 
the  jaw,  and  are  kept  with  edges  as  sharp  as  razors  by  wear  against  those  of  the 
tipper  jaw,  are  most  formidable  weapons,  capable  of  ripping  open  a  horse  at  a  single 
stroke.  Both  the  European  and  the  Indian  species  are  among  the  boldest  and  fiercest 
of  alt  animals,  charging  men,  horses,  or  elephants  time  after  time  without  a  mo- 
ment's hesitation,  and  in  spite  of  the  most  desperate  wounds.  Indeed,  the  injuries 
that  a  wild  boar  will  sustain  without  loss  of  life  are  perfectly  marvelous.  A  corre- 
spondent of  the  Asian  newspaper  relates  that  he  once  killed  an  old  boar,  in  the  skull 
of  which  the  broken  extremity  of  the  tusk  of  another  boar  was  firmly  embedded, 
with  its  point  penetrating  into  the  brain  cavity  a  short  distance  behind  the  left  eye. 


BERKSHIRE  PIG. 
(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

Although  the  speed  of  a  wild  pig  is  considerable,  yet  it  cannot  be  maintained 
for  any  long  distance,  and  accordingly,  either  a  boar  or  a  sow  may  be  easily  over- 
taken by  a  well-mounted  horseman  after  a  comparatively  short  run.     Both  as  re- 
gards speed  and  inclination  to  fight  there  is,  however,  considerable  local  variation 
among  the  wild  pigs  of  India;  the  large  heavily-built  animal  found  in  Bengal  being 
nuch  more  disposed  to  show  fight  than  the  lighter  pig  of  the  Punjab,  which  has  a 
r  turn  of  speed.     In  spite  of  its  boldness,  the  Indian  wild  boar  seldom  makes  un- 
id  attacks;  but  when  once  roused  nothing  will  stop  it.    An  instance  is  on  record 
boar  charging,  overthrowing,  and  ripping  open  a  camel;  and  there  are  several 
ithenticated  cases  of  boars  having  attacked  and  killed  or  beaten  off  tigers 


THE    TRUE  PIGS  1015 

In  Germany,  the  European  wild  boar  is  hunted  with  boarhounds; 
and  when  in  the  highlands  of  Ceylon,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  was  in  the  habit 
of  hunting  the  Indian  pig  with  a  pack  of  dogs,  and  dispatching  his  quarry  single 
handed  with  a  hunting  knife.  In  all  parts  of  India  where  riding  is  possible  the  wild 
boar  is,  however,  always  speared;  and  the  sport  of  "pig-sticking,"  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  is  undoubtedly  by  far  the  finest  and  most  exciting  of  all  the  many  kinds 
of  Indian  shikar.  One  of  the  best  grounds  for  pig-sticking  is  the  old  valley  of  the 
Ganges  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mirut,  locally  known  as  the  Khadir.  Here  "the 
ground,"  writes  General  Kinloch,  "consists  of  level  plains  covered  with  grass  and 
intersected  with  deep  nullas  or  ravines,  some  dry,  others  full  of  water;  with  deep 
but  invisible  ditches;  holes  varying  in  size,  from  pits  large  enough  to  swallow  up 
horse  and  rider  to  others  just  big  enough  to  admit  a  horse's  leg;  hidden  stumps,  and 
tangled  bushes;  and  over  this  one  has  to  gallop  at  racing  pace."  Falls  are  of  course 
frequent,  although  severe  accidents  are  less  common  than  might  have  been  expected. 

A  smaller  species  of  pig  inhabits  the  forests  of  the  Andaman  islands 
"  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  stands  only  some  twenty  inches  in  height  at 
the  shoulder.  In  addition  to  its  small  stature,  the  Andaman  pig  (S.  andaman- 
ensis]  is  further  distinguished  by  its  relatively-short  tail,  the  shagginess  of  the  coat, 
the  absence  of  the  crest  of  long  hair  on  the  neck,  and,  above  all,  by  the  relative 
shortness  of  the  hindmost  lobe  of  the  last  molar  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw. 

The  third  Indian  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  pygmy  hog  (S. 
salvanius]  of  the  forests  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  in  Bhutan,  Sik- 
kim,  and  Nipal.  These  tiny  little  pigs  are  scarcely  larger  than  hares,  standing  only 
about  eleven  inches  at  the  shoulder.  They  are  brown  or  blackish  brown  in  color, 
with  small,  naked  ears,  very  short  tails,  and  only  three  pairs  of  teats  in  the  female 
instead  of  the  usual  six.  From  the  little  that  is  known  of  the  habits  of  these  pigs 
in  the  wild  state,  it  appears  that  they  generally  live  in  herds  of  from  five  to  twenty 
head  in  grass  jungle,  and  that  the  old  boars  remain  with  the  sows.  Probably  the 
number  of  young  produced  at  a  birth  is  less  than  in  other  pigs. 

We  have  now  to  consider  briefly  the  wild  pigs  of  the  islands  of  the 
lgs  Malayan  region  and  Japan;  and  it  is  among  these  that  the  greatest 
uncertainty  prevails  among  zoologists,  as  to  the  real  number  of  species  discoverable. 
These  pigs  may,  however,  be  divided  into  three  groups,  of  which  the  first  is  nearly 
related  to  the  Indian  pig.  The  best-known  representative  of  the  first  group  is  the 
collared  pig  (S.  vittatus)  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  characterized  by  the  white 
streak  running  along  the  sides  of  the  face  to  the  neck,  and  by  the  absence  of  any 
crest  of  hair  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  of  warts  on  the  face;  the  last  lower 
molar  tooth  being  large  and  complex.  The  white- whiskered  Japan  pig  (S.  leucomys- 
tax),  as  well  as  the  Papuan  pig  (S.  papuensis},  and  the  Formosan  pig  (S.  taevanus} 
are  nearly  allied  species.  The  second  group  is  represented  by  a  well-marked  species 
known  as  the  warty  pig  (S.  verrucosus),  from  Java  and  Borneo,  readily  distin- 
guished by  the  presence  of  three  small  warts  on  each  side  of  the  face,  the  largest 
of  these  carrying  a  number  of  bristles  and  being  situated  just  below  the  eye.  The 
skull  in  this  pig  is  of  ordinary  length;  while  the  last  lower  molar  tooth  is  of  medium 
size  and  complexity.  The  Ceram  pig  (S.  ceratncnsis]  and  the  Celebes  pig  (S.  cele- 


ioi6 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


bensis}  belong  to  this  group.  L,astly ,  we  have  the  bearded  pig  (S.  barbatus)  of  Borneo, 
which  is  markedly  distinct  from  all  the  others,  having  a  fringe  of  long  hairs  on  the 
cheeks,  an  extremely-elongated  skull  (shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  1009),  and  the  last 
molar  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw  relatively  short,  and  of  simple  structure.  The  great 
elongation  of  the  skull  is  shown  by  the  circumstance  that  the  first  cheek-tooth  of  the 
upper  jaw  is  separated  by  a  considerable  interval  from  the  tusk,  whereas  in  other 
species  the  two  are  placed  close  together. 

Since  there  is  nothing  in  the  habits  of  these  pigs  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Indian  wild  pig,  we  may  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  some  of  the  domesticated 
breeds  of  swine.  It  may,  however,  be  mentioned  that  with  the  exception  of  the 


HARRISON    PIG. 

(One-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

European  wild  boar,  which  ranges  into  Algeria  and  the  adjacent  districts,  the  only 
typical  representative  of  the  genus  found  in  Africa  is  the  Sennar  pig  (S.  sennaren- 
sis)  of  the  northeastern  regions  of  that  continent. 

Domestic  Much  discussion  has  taken  P^ce  as  to  the  origin  of  the  numerous 

Swine  domesticated  breeds  of  swine,  and  very  different  views  on  this  subject 

have  been  expressed  by  different  writers;  some  urging  that  certain  of 
the  earlier  races  found  in  Europe  had  an  eastern  origin,  while  others  regard  the 
whole  of  them  as  descended  directly  from  the  European  wild  boar.  The  earliest  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  domesticated  swine  in  Europe  is  afforded  by  remains  found 
on  the  sites  of  the  prehistoric  lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland.  These  were  regarded 


THE    TRUE  PIGS  1017 

by  Professor  Riitimeyer,  of  Basle,  as  indicating  two  distinct  breeds  —  one  nearly 
allied  to  the  European  wild  boar,  and  the  other  more  resembling  some  of  the  Asiatic 
kinds.  The  late  Professor  Rolleston  failed,  however,  to  detect  evidence  of  Asiatic 
affinity  in  any  of  the  prehistoric  swine  of  Europe,  and  accordingly  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  they  were  all  probably  derived  from  the  European  wild  species,  although 
these  might  possibly  have  some  crossing  with  an  Asiatic  stock.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  this  view  is,  at  first  sight,  the  most  probable;  and  that  the  original 
domesticated  races  of  different  parts  of  the  world  have  been  derived  from  the  wild 
species  inhabiting  the  same  districts.  This  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Blanford,  who 
states  that  the  tame  pig  of  India  is  doubtless  derived  from  the  wild  6".  cristatus, 
with  which  it  probably  interbreeds.  In  modern  times,  however,  there  has  certainly 
been  a  great  amount  of  intercrossing  between  the  various  breeds  of  domestic  swine; 
and  many  of  the  races  now  most  esteemed  in  Europe  have  a  large  proportion  of 
Asiatic  blood  in  their  veins. 

The  effects  of  domestication  have  been  very  marked  on  the  swine,  although  the 
degree  of  variation  from  the  wild  type  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of  care  that 
has  been  bestowed  upon  the  breed.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  European 
domestic  breed  differs  from  all  wild  species  by  the  concave  profile  of  the  face;  while 
as  a  rule  domesticated  races  have  uniformly-colored  young.  Indeed,  whenever  the 
young  of  the  domestic  swine  are  striped,  a  recent  crossing  with  a  wild  race  may  not 
unreasonably  be  suspected.  When  domesticated  pigs  revert  to  a  wild  condition,  the 
striping  of  the  young  is,  however,  frequently  resumed.  Domestication  invariably 
greatly  reduces  the  size  of  the  tusks  of  the  boars,  which  in  some  breeds  are  very 
small  indeed;  and  in  this  respect  we  have  a  reversion  to  extinct  species  of  swine,  in 
the  earlier  forms  of  which  the  tusks  were  but  slightly  developed.  There  are  also 
modifications  in  the  form  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull,  in  the  number  of  joints  in 
the  backbone,  and  in  the  length  of  the  intestines.  Equally  marked  differences 
obtain  in  the  shape  of  the  ears,  which  in  some  of  the  inferior  breeds  are  large,  flap- 
ping, and  pendent,  while  in  the  superior  breeds  they  are  small  and  erect.  As  regards 
bodily  form,  we  have  but  to  contrast  the  long-legged,  large-headed,  and  thin-bodied 
"greyhound  pig  "  of  Ireland,  with  some  of  the  best  modern  breeds,  like  the  Harri- 
son swine  represented  on  p.  1016,  to  see  how  enormous  is  the  difference  in  this 
respect.  Darwin  remarks,  however,  that  the  observations  of  Professor  Nathusius 
tend  to  show  "that  the  peculiar  form  of  the  skull  and  body  in  the  most  highly- 
cultivated  races  is  not  characteristic  of  any  one  race,  but  is  common  to  all  when 
improved  up  to  the  same  standard.  Thus  the  large-bodied,  long-eared  English 
breed  with  a  convex  back,  and  the  small-bodied,  short-eared  Chinese  breed  with  a 
concave  back,  when  bred  to  the  same  state  of  perfection,  nearly  resemble  each  other 
in  the  form  of  the  head  and  body.  This  result,  it  appears,  is  partly  due  to  similar 
causes  of  change  acting  on  the  several  races,  and  partly  to  man  breeding  the  pig  for 
one  sole  purpose,  namely,  for  the  greatest  amount  of  flesh  and  fat;  so  that  selection 
has  always  tended  toward  one  and  the  same  end.  With  most  domestic  animals  the 
result  of  selection  has  been  divergence  of  character,  here  it  has  been  convergence. 

Domesticated  pigs  are  now  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the  habitable  world; 
but  while  those  kept  in  more  northern  regions  are  generally  confined  more  or  less 


ioi8  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

closely  to  the  homestead,  the  races  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world  are  allowed  to 
run  more  or  less  fully  at  liberty.  Those  kept  in  confinement  are  generally  larger 
and  fatter,  although  often  more  delicate  animals,  than  the  breeds  which  are  allowec 
to  roam  almost  at  will;  the  latter  being  longer  limbed  and  thinner  than  the  former, 
but  at  the  same  time  bolder  and  more  independent  in  disposition.  In  Southern 
Hungary,  Croatia,  Bosnia,  Servia,  Turkey,  and  Spain,  the  herds  of  swine  are  al- 
lowed to  run  in  the  woods  throughout  the  year,  but  in  less  warm  districts  they  have 
to  be  taken  in  and  fed  during  the  winter.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Spain,  these 


DWARF  CHINESE  PIG. 
(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

herds  ascend  to  an  elevation  of  some  nine  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  thus 
become  expert  climbers. 

The  different  breeds  of  European  domestic  pigs  vary  so  much  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  classify  them,  and  only  a  few  of  the  more  im- 
portant ones  can  even  be  mentioned  in  this  work.  Many  of  the  best 
breeds  have  been  produced  by  crossing  original  stocks  with  the  so-called  Siamese 
breed,  which  is  distributed  over  a  great  part  of  the  Malayan  region,  and  has  been 
imported  into  China.  This  breed  (frequently  termed  S.  indicus}  is  characterized  by 
its  small  size,  cylindrical  trunk,  hollow  back,  short  limbs,  and  the  approximation  of 
the  belly  to  the  ground.  The  color  is  generally  black,  with  the  skin  externally  of 
a  rich  copper  color,  and  the  bristles  are  soft;  but  there  is  also  a  white  variety.  The 


European 
Breeds 


THE    TRUE  PIGS  1019 

ears  are  small  and  somewhat  erect,  and  the  face  is  short.  According  to  Mr.  D.  Low, 
these  pigs  ' '  are  less  hardy  and  prolific  than  the  native  races  of  Europe,  and  the 
females  do  not  yield  the  same  quantity  of  milk;  but  they  arrive  very  soon  at 
maturity,  they  fatten  on  a  small  quantity  of  food,  and  their  flesh  is  white  and  deli- 
cate." The  native  breeds  of  Britain,  according  to  the  same  authority,  may  be 
divided  into  those  of  small  size,  with  erect  or  semierect  ears;  and  those  with  larger 
bodies  and  long  pendent  ears.  Nearly  all  these  have,  however,  been  more  or  less 
largely  crossed  with  the  Siamese,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  Chinese  breed;  and  the 
general  tendency  of  modern  breeding  is  toward  a  reduction  in  size  and  uniformity 
in  character.  Of  the  smaller  kinds,  with  short  erect  ears,  one  of  the  most  distinct 
is  the  Highland  breed;  these  pigs  being  lean,  wiry,  grayish  animals,  of  great  hardi- 
hood, roaming  over  the  Scottish  moors  almost  at  will,  and  doing  great  harm  to 
game  and  birds.  Near  the  sea  they  will  feed  on  mollusks  and  dead  fish,  and  their 
flesh,  at  all  times  coarse,  then  acquires  a  fishy  taste.  They  are  also  found  in  the 
Hebrides  and  Orkneys. 

The  larger  breeds  with  pendent,  flapping  ears  are  chiefly  characteristic  of  the 
lowlands,  but  few  now  remain  which  have  not  been  crossed  with  foreign  blood. 
In  color  they  are  mostly  white,  or  white  spotted  with  black.  They  are  long  in  com- 
ing to  maturity  and  fatten  slowly,  but  they  attain  enormous  dimensions,  and  have 
the  advantage  of  producing  large  litters,  and  being  excellent  mothers.  The  York- 
shire and  the  Lincolnshire  breeds,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Eastern  counties,  are  large 
white  pigs,  with  pendent  ears;  the  Essex  breed  (which  has  now  been  largely  crossed 
with  the  Chinese)  being  remarkable  for  the  fineness  of  the  skin  and  the  softness  of 
the  bristles.  The  Hampshire  is  also  a  noted  breed,  while  the  largest  of  all  is  the 
Rudgwick.  One  of  the  most  valuable  is,  however,  the  Berkshire  breed,  which  is 
somewhat  inferior  in  point  of  size.  Originally  these  pigs,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion on  p.  1014,  were  generally  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  with  brown  or  black  spots; 
but  by  crossing  with  the  Chinese  breed,  or  derivates  thereof,  the  size  has  been  re- 
duced, and  the  color  changed  to  black,  although,  when  the  crossing  has  been  with 
the  white  breed,  it  is  more  generally  black  mixed  with  white.  "The  original  Berk- 
shire," writes  Mr.  Low,  "is  still  regarded  as  one  of  the  superior  breeds  of  England, 
combining  size  with  a  sufficient  aptitude  to  fatten,  and  being  fitted  for  pork  and  ba- 
con, and  it  is  held  to  be  the  hardiest  of  the  more  improved  races."  The  Harrison 
pig,  figured  on  p.  1016,  is  intended  to  exhibit  one  of  the  best  types  of  fattening 
breeds;  while  the  white  dwarf  Chinese  pig,  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  1018, 
exhibits  the  greatest  diminution  in  size,  coupled  with  an  almost  completely  cylindri- 
cal form  of  body. 

It  may  be  observed  that  although  the  usual  mode  of  life  led  by  pigs  in  England 
is  not  calculated  to  develop  their  intellectual  faculties,  yet  they  are  by  no  means  de- 
ficient in  intelligence,  and  display  a  remarkable  acuteness  of  scent.  Indeed,  a  pig 
has  been  trained  to  stand  to  game  as  steadily  as  the  best-bred  pointer. 

Before  taking  leave  of  domesticated  swine,  we  must  not  omit  to 

Mas^edine         mention  the  curious  Japanese  masked  pig,  represented  in  the  figure  on 

p.  1020.    "This  pig,"  writes  Darwin,  "has  an  extraordinary  appearance, 

from  its  short  head,  broad  forehead  and  nose,  great  fleshy  ears  and  deeply-furrowed 


IO20 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


skin.  Not  only  is  the  face  furrowed,  but  thick  folds  of  skin,  which  are  harder  than 
the  other  parts,  almost  like  the  plates  on  the  Indian  rhinoceros,  hang  about  the 
shoulders  and  rump.  It  is  colored  black,  with  white  feet,  and  breeds  true.  That 
it  has  long  been  domesticated,  there  can  be  little  doubt;  and  this  might  have  been 
inferred  even  from  the  circumstance  that  its  young  are  not  longitudinally  striped." 
From  a  study  of  its  skull,  Professor  Nathusius  regards  the  masked  pig  as  nearly  al- 
lied to  the  Chinese  breed;  but,  as  Darwin  remarks,  "if  this  be  really  the  case,  it  is  a 
wonderful  instance  of  the  amount  of  modification  which  can  be  effected  under 
domestication.,' ' 


MASKED    JAPANESE    PIG. 

(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

The  African  bush  pigs  —  the  Bosch- Varks  of  the  Cape  Boers  —  dif- 
fer from  the  typical  members  of  the  genus  by  always  having  one  pair 
less  of  cheek-teeth,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  first  premolar  on  each  side  of  the 
lower  jaw,  while  frequently  the  corresponding  upper  tooth  is  likewise  wanting  in 
the  adult.  The  molar  teeth  are  also  distinguished  by  their  simpler  structure,  the 
last  in  the  lower  jaw  having  the  third  lobe  much  reduced  in  size.  The  tusks  are 
scarcely  larger  than  those  of  domestic  pigs,  and  the  snout  is  unusually  elongated. 
On  each  side  of  the  face  immediately  below  the  eye  there  is  a  large  swelling,  due  to 
the  great  development  of  a  ridge  of  bone  on  the  sheath  of  the  upper  tusk.  The 
gray  bush  pig  (S.  africanus},  ranging  from  South  to  Central  Africa,  has  the  hair  of 
a  grayish-brown  color,  and  no  pencils  of  hair  on  the  ears.  It  generally  frequents 


THE    TRUE  PIGS 


IO2I 


thick  forest,  although  occasionally  found  in  thorny  bush  and  among  reeds  in  the 
river  valleys.  Mr.  E.  H.  Drummond  says  that  "  the  ingulabi,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
natives,  does  an  immense  amount  of  damage  to  their  sweet  potatoes  and  fields,  and 
has  in  consequence  been  exterminated  in  many  districts. ' '  Its  habits  appear  to  be 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  ordinary  swine. 

The  red  bush  pig  or  river  hog  (S.  porcus)  is  a  rather  smaller  species  than  the 
last,  inhabiting  West  Africa,  and  distinguished  by  the  long  pencils  of  hair  with 
which  the  ears  terminate,  and  also  by  the  brilliant  reddish  color  of  the  hair.  As 
in  the  last  species,  the  bristles  of  the  neck,  back,  chin,  and  throat  are  elongated 
into  a  distinct  mane,  and  the  tail  terminates  in  a  distinct  tuft.  The  prevailing  color 
is  either  a  shining  brownish  red  with  a  tinge  of  yellow,  or  a  dark  reddish  yellow; 


THE  RED  BUSH  PIG. 

the  forehead,  ears,  and  limbs  are,  however,  blackish,  while  the  mane  on  the  back, 
part  of  the  margins'  of  the  ears,  and  the  tips  of  their  pencils  of  hair,  the  eye- 
brows, a  streak  under  the  eyes,  and  the  margins  of  the  cheeks,  are  white  or 
whitish.  The  under  parts  are  whitish  gray,  and  the  snout  gray.  These  brilliant 
contrasts  of  color  make  the  red  bush  pig  decidedly  the  handsomest  member  of 
the  Swine  family.  These  pigs  are  found  in  large  herds,  and  frequent  moist 
forests  and  the  banks  of  rivers,  while  they  are  occasionally  seen  on  the  mountains. 
The  first  living  example  of  this  species  brought  to  Europe  was  exhibited  in  the 
London  Zoological  Gardens  in  1852,  since  which  date  many  specimens  have  been 
imported  into  Europe.  A  third  species  (S.  edwardsi)  inhabits  Madagascar. 

Numerous  fossil  pigs  are  found  in  the  Pliocene  and  Pleistocene  Tertiary  de- 
posits of  the  Old  World,  which  may  be  referred  to  the  genus  Sus,  and  several  of 


1022  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

which  differ  markedly  from  all  existing  species;  these  fossil  pigs  occurring  in  Eu- 
rope, North  Africa,  India,  and  China.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  Titan, 
pig  (S.  titan)  from  the  Siwalik  hills,  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas. 
Extinct  Pigs  In  thig  monster  the  iength  of  the  skull  was  twenty-three  inches, 
against  sixteen  in  an  average-sized  Indian  wild  pig,  so  that  the  height  of  the  animal 
could  not  have  been  much  less  than  that  of  a  fair-sized  mule.  The  same  deposits- 
have  also  yielded  remains  of  an  extinct  species  which  did  not  exceed  the  living 
pygmy  hog  in  point  of  size.  Still  more  noteworthy  are  Falconer's  pig  (S .  falconeri) 
from  the  Siwalik  hills,  and  some  allied  species  from  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of 
Southern  India  and  Algeria,  which  in  the  extreme  complexity  of  the  lower  teeth, 
approximated  to  the  under-mentioned  wart  hogs.  The  Auvergne  pig  (S.  arver- 
nensis)  from  the  Pliocene  of  France,  is  believed,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  related  to 
the  African  bush  pigs.  In  most  of  these  extinct  species  the  tusks  of  the  boars,  as 
already  mentioned,  were  relatively  small. 


THE  BABIROUSSA 
Genus  Babiroussa 

The  extraordinary  development  of  the  tusks  in  the  males  of  the  animal  to 
which  the  Malays  have  given  the  name  of  babiroussa  (meaning  pig-deer)  is  so  re- 
markable as  to  suggest  at  first  sight  the  idea  of  a  malformation.  The  babiroussa 
(Babiroussa  alfurus),  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  Celebes  and  Boru,  and  is  the  sole 
representative  of  its  genus,  has,  indeed,  derived  its  name  from  these  abnormally- 
developed  tusks,  which  have  led  the  Malays  to  liken  them  to  the  antlers  of  the  deer. 
In  the  boars,  as  is  well  exhibited  in  our  figure  of  the  skull,  the  upper  tusks,  while 
curving  upward  like  those  of  an  ordinary  wild  pig,  instead  of  protruding  from  the 
margins  of  the  jaws,  arise  close  together  near  the  middle  line  of  the  face,  and 
thence,  after  being  directed  upward  for  a  short  distance,  sweep  backward,  fre- 
quently coming  into  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  forehead,  and  are  then  finally 
directed  forward  at  the  tip.  The  lower  tusks  have  the  same  upward  and  back- 
ward direction  as  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  but  are  frequently  less  strongly  curved, 
although  in  other  cases  the  direction  of  their  sweep  is  not  very  different  from  that 
of  the  latter.  Both  pairs  of  tusks  are  quite  devoid  of  enamel,  and,, as  there  is  no- 
abrasion  of  the  one  pair  against  the  other,  both  grow  uninterruptedly;  the  upper 
tusks  occasionally  attaining  a  length  of  fourteen  and  one-half  inches,  we  believe, 
exclusive  of  the  portion  buried  in  the  socket.  In  addition  to  the  peculiar  conforma- 
tion of  its  tusks,  the  babiroussa  differs  from  ordinary  pigs  in  the  diminished  number 
of  its  teeth,  of  which  the  total  is  only  thirty-four;  the  missing  teeth  comprising  the 
outermost  incisors  and  the  first  two  premolars  on  each  side  of  both  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws.  The  molar  teeth  are  characterized  by  their  simple  structure  and  the 
small  development  of  the  third  lobe  of  the  last  one  in  each  jaw. 

The  babiroussa  has  a  nearly-naked  skin  of  a  dark  ashy-gray  color,  sparsely  cov- 
ered with  hair  along  the  line  of  the  back,  and  thrown  into  numerous  wrinkles.  The 
ears  are  small,  the  tail  is  short  and  devoid  of  a  terminal  tuft,  and  the  back  is  much 


THE  BABIROUSSA 


1023 


arched.  The  female  has  small  tusks,  and  only  a  single  pair  of  teats.  The  height 
at  the  middle  of  the  back  is  about  forty-two  inches.  The  young,  of  which  there 
are  either  one  or  two  at  a  birth,  are  devoid  of  stripes. 

The  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  tusks,  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  the 
teeth,  and  the  uniform  coloration  of  the  young,  indicate  that  the  babiroussa  is  a  more 
specialized  creature  than  the  ordinary  pigs.  At  the  same  time,  the  simple  structure 
of  the  molar  teeth  indicates  that  it  must  be  directly  descended  from  one  of  the  ex- 
tinct genera  of  pigs  in  which  a  similar  type  of  dentition  obtains. 

The  habits  of  the  babiroussa  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  other 
wild  swine;   moist  forests,  canebrakes,  and    the  banks  of  rivers  and 
lakes  where  abundance  of  water  plants  are  to  be  found,  being  its  favorite  resorts. 


Habits 


THE  BABIROUSSA. 
(One-eighth  natural  size. ) 

Here  these  animals  collect  in  larger  or  smaller  herds,  sleeping  by  day  and  going 
forth  to  feed  at  night.  The  babiroussa  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  not  only  entering 
lakes  to  feed  on  water  plants,  but  likewise  traversing  small  channels  of  the  sea  sep- 
arating one  island  from  another.  Its  gallop  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  wild  boar. 
The  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  are  very  acute  in  the  babiroussa,  and  its  grunt  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  other  swine.  The  young  are  born  in  February,  and  of  very 
small  size,  and  require  great  attention  on  the  part  of  the  sow. 

Babiroussa  are  frequently  tamed  in  Celebes,  and  may  be  found  in  the  houses  of 
some  of  the  chiefs.  The  first  living  examples  brought  to  Europe  were  a  pair  exhib- 
ited in  Paris  in  the  year  1820. 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  as  to  the  use  of  the  tusks  of  the  male  babiroussa. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  they  may  be  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  eyes  when 


1024 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


Use  of  Tusks 


the  animal  is  rushing  through  dense  forest;  but  if  this  were  so,  as  Mr.  Wallace  points 
out,  how  are  we  to  account  for  the  slight  development  of  these  organs  in  the  sows. 
On  the  whole,  the  same  observer  considers  it  most  probable  that 
the  tusks  were  at  one  period  useful  to  their  owner,  and  were  then 
kept  of  moderate  size  by  mutual  attrition,  but  that,  for  some  reason  or  other,  they 
have  become  of  no  benefit  to  the  animal,  and  have  assumed  a  monstrous  growth  like 
that  occuring  in  the  lower  tusk  of  a  wild  boar  when  the  corresponding  upper  one 
has  been  accidentally  broken  off. 

The  natives  of  Celebes  organize  carefully-planned  hunts  for  the  cap- 
ture of  the  babiroussa,  an  account  of  one  of  these  being  given  by  Dr. 
Ouillemard  in  the  following  words:  "The  animals  being  driven  into  a  corral, 
with  a  V-shaped  opening  and  flanked  by  netting,  we  had  plenty  of  time  to  wait  be- 
fore the  sport  began,  and  meanwhile  the  natives  arranged  themselves  at  their  posts. 
One  stood  at  the  door  of  the  corral,  ready  to  close  it  directly  any  animal  rushed  in; 
others  took  up  their  places  on  either  side  of  the  wide  entrance,  while  the  remainder 
crouched  in  front  of  the  long  net  at  intervals  of  a  few  yards,  each  grasping  his 
spear,  and  hidden  from  view  by  a  huge  L,ivistonia  (a  kind  of  palm)  frond.  We 

had  not  long  been 
settled      before      a 
peculiar  barking 
grunt    in    the    dis- 
tance announced  the 
arrival   of  the   first 
victim.       Everyone 
was    instantly    mo- 
tionless,   and  di- 
rectly   afterward    a 
dark  object  dashed 
up    at  great  speed 
and  buried  itself  in 
the  net  a  short  way 
down      the     slope. 
There  was  a  short 
struggle,  and  in  less 
than    five    minutes 
the  captive,  a  full- 
grown  female  babi- 
roussa, was  quietly  reposing  on  her  back,  with  her  legs  tied  together  with  rattan,  and 
we  were  once  more  in  ambush  for  the  next  comer.     We  were  hardly  quiet  before 
the  same  peculiar  sound  was  heard  rapidly  approaching,  and  the  next  moment  a 
magnificent  old  boar  babiroussa  rushed  past  within  five  yards  of  us,  and  plunged  into 
2  net  between  our  tree  and  the  entrance  to  the  corral.     His  long  tusks  became 
entangled  in  the  meshes,  and  the  natives  ran  up  to  spear  him.     Just  at  this  moment, 
lowever,  he  broke  loose,  and,  turning  on  his  antagonists,  scattered  them  in  all  direc- 
tions.    It  was  a  most  determined  charge,  and,  as  we  were  unable  to  fire  for  fear  of 


SKTJU,    OK  BABIROUSSA. 
(From  Guillemard's  Cruise  of  the  "Marchesa.") 


THE    WART  HOGS 


1025 


hitting  some  of  our  own  men,  it  might  have  proved  a  serious  affair  for  the  native  he 
singled  out."  After  some  trouble  the  animal  was,  however,  finally  dispatched  with 
a  spear  thrust;  but,  "even  with  four  spears  buried  in  his  body,  the  old  boar  died 
game,  striving  to  the  very  last  to  get  at  his  antagonists." 

THE  WART  HOGS 
Genus  Phacochcerus 

As  Africa  possesses  in  the  red  bush  pig  the  handsomest  representative  of  the 
Swine  family,  so  in  the  wart  hogs  it  presents  us  with  the  most  hideous  members, 
not  only  of  that  group,  but  of  the  whole  Ungulate  order. 


WART  HOG. 
(One-twelfth  natural  size.) 

The  wart  hogs,  of  which  there  are  two  nearly-allied  species,  are  characterized 
by  the  enormous  size  of  their  heads,  in  which  the  lower  part  of  the  face  is  extremely 
flat  and  broad,  while  below  each  eye  is  a  huge  warty  protuberance  between  which 
and  the  tusk  there  are  two  other  of  smaller  size.  The  head  is  likewise  distinguished 
by  the  great  length  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  consequent  backward  position  of  the  eyes; 
the  hideous  physiognomy  being  completed  by  the  huge  tusks  with  which  the  jaws 
of  both  sexes  are  armed,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  being  considerably  longer  than  those 
65 


IO26 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


of  the  lower,  or  just  the  reverse  of  what  occurs  in  the  true  pigs.  This  differ- 
ence in  the  proportionate  length  of  the  upper  and  lower  tusks  in  the  two  groups  is 
due  to  the  circumstance  that  in  the  wart  hogs  the  lower  pair  only  bite  against  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  upper  ones,  instead  of  abrading  their  whole  summits.  The 
upper  tusks  are  devoid  of  enamel  except  at  their  tips,  and  these  small  caps  are  worn 
away  at  an  early  period.  They  curve  in  an  upward  and  inward  direction,  and  some- 
times project  as  much  as  eight  and  three-fourths  inches  from  the  jaw,  having  a  basal 
girth  of  five  inches.  The  shorter  and  more  slender  lower  tusks  have  a  nearly  simi- 
lar curvature,  and  are  coated  throughout  with  enamel. 

The  tusks  are  not,  however,  the  only  peculiarity  in  the  dentition  of  the  wart 
hogs.  In  young  animals  there  are  thirty-four  teeth,  namely,  one  pair  of  upper  and 
three  pairs  of  lower  incisors,  a  pair  of  tusks  in  each  jaw,  and  six  cheek-teeth  on 
each  side  of  the  upper,  and  five  in  the  lower  jaw.  In  the  adult,  the  incisors  and 
anterior  cheek-teeth  tend,  however,  to  disappear,  till  in  some  instances  the  tusks  and 
the  last  molars  alone  remain,  thus  leaving  a  total  of  eight  teeth.  This  paucity  in 
the  number  of  cheek-teeth  is  compensated,  however,  by  the  enormous  size  and  com- 
plex structure  of  the  single  molar  remaining  in  each  jaw.  The  tooth  in  question  is 
composed  of  a  number  of  small,  elongated,  cylindrical  denticles,  closely  packed  to- 
gether; its  total  length  from  back  to  front,  being  something  over  two  inches,  and  its 
height  proportionately  great,  although  its  width  is  small.  This  is,  however,  only 
an  extreme  development  of  the  structure  already  referred  to  as  occurring  in  certain 
extinct  species  of  the  genus  Sus;  and  in  possessing  such  a  single  tooth  on  each  side 
of  the  jaws  in  the  adult  condition,  the  wart  hogs  may  be  compared  to  the  elephants. 
The  body  in  these  animals  is  massive  and  nearly  cylindrical,  the  ears  are  small 
and  sharply  pointed,  the  tail  is  long  and  tufted  at  the  tip,  and  the  neck  and  back  are 
furnished  with  a  mane  of  long  bristly  hair,  the  rest  of  the  body  being  nearly  naked. 
The  young  are  uniformly  colored. 

Of  the  two  species,  ./Elian's  wart  hog  (Phacochcerus  africanus)  (figured  on  p. 
1025)  is  distributed  over  a  large  part  of  the  eastern  side  of  Africa,  ranging  as  far 

north  as  Abyssinia.  On 
the  other  hand,  Pallas' s 
wart  hog  (P.  pallasi],  of 
which  the  head  is  here 
figured,  is  confined  to 
Southeastern  Africa.  Both 
species  stand  about 
twenty-seven  and  one-half 
inches  at  the  shoulder. 
The  second  is  distin- 
guished from  the  first 
species  by  its  shorter  head, 
which  is  more  convex  be- 
tween the  eyes;  and  it  has 
also  the  warts  below  the 
latter  very  long  and  pendent,  instead  of  projecting  outward,  while  the  tusks  are 


HEAD    OK     PAU,AS'S    WART   HOG. 

(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool,  Soc.,   1869.) 


THE    WART  HOGS  1027 

more  inclined  outward.  The  mane  is  also  wider  and  shorter,  and  there  is  a  greater 
development  of  hair  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  the  ears.  It  has  also  been  consid- 
ered that  it  is  only  this  species  in  which  all  the  teeth,  except  the  tusks  and  last 
molars  are  habitually  shed,  but  this  is  doubtful.  The  color  of  Pallas' s  wart  hog  is 
redder  than  that  of  its  northern  relative. 

Our  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  wart  hogs  are  not  so  full  as  might 
be  desired,  and  there  is  some  discrepancy  between  those  given  by 
different  observers.  The  statement  made  by  Heuglin  that  these  animals  habitually 
repose  on  swampy  ground,  or  even  in  water,  is,  however,  not  borne  out  by  later 
writers.  The  northern  species  is  found  everywhere  in  Abyssinia,  from  the  level  of 
the  sea  at  Annesley  bay  to  heights  of  nine  thousand  or  ten  thousand  feet  in  the 
highlands  of  the  interior.  Mr.  Blanford  writes,  that  ' '  its  habits  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  ordinary  pigs.  It  lives  among  bushes  or  in  ravines  during  the  day,  and 
comes  out  to  feed  in  the  evening,  still  keeping  much  to  bush  jungle.  The  large 
males  are  usually  solitary;  the  younger  animals  and  females  live  in  small  herds, 
apparently  not  exceeding  eight  or  ten  in  number.  I  never  saw  large  'sounders,' 
such  as  are  so  commonly  met  with  in  the  case  of  the  Indian  hog.  It  feeds  much  on 
roots,  which  it  digs  up  by  means  of  its  huge  tusks.  It  also  appears  to  dig  large 
holes,  in  which  it  occasionally  lies;  these  are  perhaps  intended  for  the  young. 
Despite  its  formidable  appearance,  the  Abyssinian  wart  hog  is  a  comparatively-timid 
animal,  far  inferior  in  courage  to  the  Indian  wild  hog.  Several  which  I  wounded 
showed  no  inclination  to  charge  under  circumstances  in  which  an  Indian  pig  would 
certainly  have  shown  fight.  The  flesh  is  savory,  but  dry  and  hard,  even  in  com- 
paratively-young animals." 

The  foregoing  opinion  of  the  courage  of  these  animals  is  confirmed  by  Sir 
Samuel  Baker,  who  states  that  it  is  but  rarely  that  they  ever  charge.  One  kept 
in  confinement  at  Khartum  on  one  occasion,  however,  broke  out  from  its  cage 
and  deliberately  charged  at  Sir  Samuel  Baker's  party,  when  its  rush  was 
effectually  stopped  by  having  a  huge  rhinoceros  horn  hurled  at  its  head.  When 
brought  to  bay  by  dogs,  wart  hogs  make  a  determined  stand,  and  inflict  severe 
injuries  on  their  assailants.  If  excited,  they  carry  their  long  tails  stuck  straight 
upright. 

In  Southeastern  Africa  —  where  they  are  known  to  the  natives  by  the  name  of 
Indhlovudawani  —  wart  hogs,  according  to  Mr.  E.  H.  Drummond,  are  found  on  the 
plains  in  light  thorn  jungles;  and  they  are  abundant  in  the  districts  around  Mount 
Kilima-Njaro.  In  those  regions  they  generally  occupy  the  deserted  burrow  of  an 
aard-vark,  or  other  animal.  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  wart  hogs,  occupying  such 
burrows,  "  have  a  most  curious  mode  of  exit  when  they  bolt — a  dangerous  one  if 
ytiu  are  not  up  to  it.  As  they  emerge  from  a  hole,  they  turn  a  somersault  on  to  the 
back  of  it,  instead  of  coming  straight  out  like  an  ordinary  animal,  and  as  that  is 
just  the  spot  where  one  would  naturally  stand,  more  than  one  man  has  had  his  legs 
ripped  open  before  he  learned  the  wisdom  of  experience. ' '  The  same  writer  mentions 
that  he  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  seen  a  male  wart  hog  walk  deliberately 
through  a  pack  of  large  hounds  without  taking  the  slighest  notice  of  them,  so  long 
as  they  refrain  from  biting.  Did,  however,  one  bolder  than  the  rest,  venture  to 


1028  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

come  to  close  quarters,  the  wart  hog  with  a  sudden  jerk  would  either  lay  its  assail- 
ant crippled  on  the  ground,  or  send  it  howling  away. 

We  have  no  information  as  to  the  breeding  habits  of  the  wart  hogs,  but  from 
the  number  of  teats  in  the  female  being  only  four,  it  may  be  inferred  that  but  few 
young  are  produced  at  a  birth.  The  young  are  striped. 


THE  PECCARIES 
Family  DlCOTTLID^E 

The  peccaries,  which  are  the  American  representatives  of  the  swine,  differ  so 
markedly  from  the  latter  that  they  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  separate  family, 
of  which  there  is  but  a  single  genus.  The  most  important  differences  between  the 
two  groups  are  that  the  upper  tusks  of  the  peccaries  have  their  points  directed 
downward  instead  of  upward,  that  their  hind-limbs  have  three  instead  of  four  toes, 
while  instead  of  the  simple  stomach  of  the  Old-World  swine,  the  peccaries  have  a 
complex  one  approaching  that  of  the  Ruminants. 

Peccaries  have  a  total  of  thirty-eight  teeth,  that  is  to  say,  they  have  a  pair  of 
incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  a  premolar  on  each  side  of  both  jaws  less  than  the 
wild  boar.  The  downwardly-directed  upper  tusks,  which  are  at  first  completely 
covered  with  enamel,  are  of  small  size,  with  sharp,  cutting  edges  behind;  while  those 
of  the  lower  jaw  are  directed  upward,  outward,  and  slightly  backward,  and  are 
received  in  notches  in  the  sides  of  the  opposite  jaw  just  in  front  of  the  upper  tusks. 
The  last  molar  tooth  in  each  jaw  lacks  the  hind  lobe  characteristic  of  the  Old- World 
swine  (see  figure  on  p.  1008),  and  the  fourth  premolar  tooth  in  the  upper  jaw  resem- 
bles the  first  molar  in  having  four  tubercles  on  its  crown,  instead  of  only  three.  In 
addition  to  the  difference  in  the  number  of  toes  in  the  hind-feet,  the  peccaries  are 
further  distinguished  by  the  upper  ends  of  the  two  larger  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
bones  being  united,  so  that  we  have  here  an  approach  to  the  formation  of  canon 
bones.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  the  complex  structure  of  their  stomachs,  and 
the  presence  of  four  tubercles  on  their  last  upper  premolar  teeth,  the  peccaries  are 
clearly  one  step  in  advance  of  their  allies  of  the  Old  World. 

An  altogether  unique  feature  in  these  animals  is  the  presence  of  a  large  gland 
in  the  middle  of  the  back,  from  which  is  secreted  in  great  abundance  a  most  evil- 
smelling  oily  substance.  In  appearance,  peccaries  are  not  unlike  small  hogs  but 
with  very  slender  limbs;  they  are  devoid  of  any  externally  visible  tails,  and  their 
snouts  are  much  elongated  and  extremely  mobile.  Their  ears  are  small  and  pointed, 
and  their  bodies  are  covered  with  thick  bristle-like  hairs,  elongated  into  a  mane  on 
the  neck,  and  forming  a  fringe  on  the  throat  and  hind-quarters.  The  young  are 
uniformly  colored,  like  their  parents,  and  never  exceed  two  in  number  at  a  birth. - 

.  Of   the   two   well-defined   species,    the   collared   peccary    (Dicotyles 

tajacu]  is  the  smaller,   and  has  the  most  northerly  habitat,  its  range 

extending  from  Arkansas  and  Texas  to  the  Rio  Negro  in  Patagonia.     This  species 

stands  from  about  thirteen  and  one-half  to  fifteen  and  one-half  inches  in  height  at 

the  shoulder.     The  bristly  hairs  are  parti-colored,  and  the  general  hue  of  the  pelage 


THE  PECCARIES 


1029 


is  blackish  brown,  becoming  yellowish  brown  mingled  with  white  on  the  flanks. 
The  under  parts  are  brown,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  white,  while  a  broad 
yellowish-white  stripe  runs  from  the  hinder  part  of  the  shoulders  obliquely  downward 
to  the  chest. 

The  white-lipped  peccary  (D.  labiatus}  is  a  rather  larger  species  than  the  last, 
its  height  at  the  shoulder  varying  from  fifteen  and  one-half  to  nearly  eighteen 
inches.  It  is  further  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  large  white  spot  on  the  lower 
jaw,  and  the  white  lips;  the  general  color  of  the  hair  being  grayish  black.  There  is 
also  a  difference  in  the  mane  and  fringe  on  the  neck  of  the  two  species.  The  range 
of  the  white-lipped  peccary  is  comparatively  small,  including  only  the  region  lying 
between  British  Honduras  and  Paraguay. 


Habits 


THE    COLLARED    PECCARY    AND    YOUNG. 

(One-ninth  natural  size.) 

All  peccaries  are  essentially  forest-dwelling  animals,  but  whereas  the 
collared  peccary  is  found  only  singly  or  in  pairs,  or  in  small  parties  of 
from  eight  to  ten  individuals,  the  white-lipped  species  associates  in  large  herds,  of 
whicjh  the  members  may  be  numbered  by  scores.  Moreover,  there  is  a  marked  dif- 
ference in  the  disposition  of  the  two  species,  the  former  being  a  harmless  and  inof- 
fensive creature,  whereas  the  other  is  comparatively  fierce,  and  not  unfrequently 
inflicts  severe  wounds  with  its  tusks.  Indeed,  when  a  herd  of  these  animals  is  en- 
countered in  the  forest,  the  hunter  frequently  has  to  seek  protection  by  climbing  a 
tree.  Both  species  frequent  only  the  densest  and  most  extensive  forests,  dwell- 
ing either  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  in  burrows  excavated  by  other  animals,  or  among 
bushes  and  grass;  and  in  parts  of  South  America  they  ascend  in  the  mountains  to 
heights  of  between  three  thousand  and  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The  herds 
or  parties  are  under  the  leadership  of  an  old  boar.  Peccaries  wander  about  both 


1030  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

during  the  day  and  at  night;  and  when  food  is  scarce  they  make  long  migrations  in 
search  of  it.  Their  chief  food  consists  of  fruits  and  roots;  and  their  teeth  and  jaws 
are  of  such  strength  as  to  enable  them  to  crack  with  ease  the  hard  seeds  of  palms. 
In  inhabited  districts  peccaries  inflict  much  damage  on  growing  crops;  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  roots  and  fruits,  they  are  by  no  means  averse  to  varying  their  diet  with  car- 
rion, worms,  or  insects.  Their  flesh  is  not  much  esteemed;  and  it  is  essential  that 
immediately  the  animals  are  killed,  the  ill-smelling  gland  on  the  back  should  be  re- 
moved, as  otherwise  the  flesh  will  become  tainted.  As  a  general  rule,  but  a  single 
young  one  is  produced  at  a  birth,  two  being  comparatively  rare.  When  taken 
young,  peccaries  are  easily  tamed,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  any  attempts 
have  been  made  to  establish  a  domesticated  breed.  Large  numbers  of  them  are  de- 
stroyed by  jaguars  and  pumas. 

Fossil  remains  of  peccaries,  some  belonging  to  living  and  others  to 
ypes  extinct  species,  occur  in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  both  North  and 
South  America.  In  addition  to  these,  certain  extinct  Pliocene  and  Miocene  hog-like 
animals  seem  to  indicate  the  parent  stock  from  which  both  the  peccaries  and  the 
true  pigs  have  been  derived.  Of  these  Chcerohyus,  from  North  America,  comes 
closest  to  the  peccaries,  while  the  Old-World  Hyotherium,  of  which  two  upper  molar 
teeth  are  figured  on  p.  1008,  is  more  like  the  pigs.  Listriodon  is  another  European 
type,  in  which  the  molars  have  a  pair  of  transverse  ridges  instead  of  four  tubercles. 
Finally  Chceropotamus ,  from  the  upper  Eocene  of  England  and  France,  connects  the 
type  of  molar  teeth  characteristic  of  the  pigs  with  that  of  the  extinct  anthracothere 
referred  to  on  p.  1008. 

THE  HIPPOPOTAMI 
Family  HlPPOPOTAMlD^ 

Although  the  Greek  term  hippopotamus,  and  its  English  equivalent  river  horse, 
are  etymologically  decidedly  objectionable  ones  to  denote  the  animals  we  have  now 
to  describe,  yet  the  former  at  least  is  so  firmly  established  in  European  languages 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  attempt  to  change  it.  The  Dutch  term  see-kuh,  com- 
monly translated  sea-cow,  but  which  we  think  might  equally  bear  the  interpretation 
lake-cow,  and  a  name  used  by  the  Arabs  which  means  water  buffalo,  are  far  less  ob- 
jectionable; but  a  title  equivalent  to  river  swine,  which  is  said  to  have  been  conferred 
on  these  animals  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  is,  from  a  zoological  standpoint,  faj  and 
away  the  best  of  all. 

The  common  hippopotamus,  together  with  a  much  smaller  species  from  West 
Africa1,  constitute  a  family  by  themselves,  which  is  also  the  last  group  of  the  Even- 
Toed  Ungulates.  Hippopotami  are  bulky  animals,  with  round,  barrel-like  bodies  of 
great  length,  very  short  and  thick  legs,  and  enormous  heads,  in  which  the  muzzle 
is  angular  and  greatly  expanded  transversely,  and  has  no  trace  of  the  terminal  disc 
characteristic  of  the  swine  and  peccaries.  Indeed,  the  ugly  head  of  a  hippopotamus 
appears  as  if  it  were  too  large  and  heavy  for  its  owner,  since  the  animal  may  fre- 
quently be  seen  resting  its  ungainly  muzzle  on  the  ground,  as  though  to  relieve  the 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMI 


1031 


neck  from  the  strain  of  its  weight.  The  portion  of  the  skull  iff^  front  of  the  eyes  is 
very  much  longer  than  that  behind  them,  and  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  (as  seen  incur 
£gure  of  the  skeleton)  are  completely  surrrounded  by  a  very  prominent  bony  ring, 
which  has  an  almost  tubular  form.  In  the  pigs,  on  the  other  hand,  the  socket  of 
the  eye  is  open  behind  (compare  the  figure  on  p.  1009).  The  prominence  of  these 
sockets  causes  the  relatively-small  eyes  of  the  hippopotamus  to  project  far  above  the 
level  of  the  forehead.  The  ears  are  small  and  rounded,  and  the  slit-like  nostrils  are 
placed  rather  close  together  on  the  highest  point  of  the  broad,  bristly  muzzle;  while 
both  ears  and  nostrils  alike  can  be  completely  closed  at  the  will  of  the  animal.  The 
neck  is  extremely  short  and  powerful;  and  the  body  is  so  deep,  that  when  the  ani- 
mal is  walking  on  soft  mud,  the  under  surface  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
Disproportionately  short  for  the  size  of  the  animal,  the  tail  is  laterally  compressed 
from  side  to  side.  The  short  and  broad  feet  are  furnished  with  four  well-developed 
short  toes,  all  of  which  touch  the  ground  when  walking;  and  are  incased  in  rounded 
black  hoofs,  of  which  the  middle  pair  have  not  their  inner  surfaces  flattened,  so  that 


SKELETON    OF    HIPPOPOTAMUS. 

the  hippopotamus  lacks  the  cloven  hoof  of  the  pigs  and  the  Ruminants.  The  toes 
of  the  feet  are  partially  connected  by  webs.  Although  there  are  a  number  of  bris- 
tles on  the  muzzle,  and  also  a  few  on  the  sides  of  the  head  and  neck,  as  well  as  at 
the  extremity  of  the  tail,  the  skin  of  the  hippopotamus  is  naked;  it  is  also  rather 
rough  and  warty,  and  of  enormous  thickness. 

The  gigantic  mouth  of  a  hippopotamus,  when  opened  to  the  widest,  is  one  of 
the  ugliest  sights  imaginable,  looking  like  a  huge  red  cavern,  from  the  edges  of 
which  project  the  enormous  tusks  and  incisor  teeth.  The  tusks,  or  canines,  are  the 
largest  of  the  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  are  curved  backward  in  a  bold  sweep,  with 
their  extremities  obliquely  beveled  off  by  mutual  attrition;  they  grow  throughout 
the  life  of  the  animal,  and  their  points  are  directed  downward.  The  incisor  teeth 
likewise  grow  during  the  whole  period  of  existence,  and  thereby  differ  from  those  of 
the  pigs,  which  form  roots.  In  the  existing  species,  there  are  not  more  than  two 
pairs  of  these  teeth,  and  whereas  those  of  the  upper  jaw  are  directed  downward, 
the  lower  ones  project  forward  in  advance  of  the  jaw.  The  sides  of  the  jaws  are 


1032  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

severally  provided  with  seven  cheek-teeth,  of  which  the  four  premolars  have  sub- 
conical,  pointed  crowns,  while  the  broad  molar  teeth  carry  four  distinct  columns, 
which,  when  worn  by  use,  show  on  their  summits  well-defined,  trefoil-shaped  sur- 
faces of  ivory  surrounded  by  a  rim  of  enamel.  A  peculiarity  in  the  lower  jaw  of 
the  hippopotamus  is  the  presence  of  a  hook-like  flange  at  its  hinder  extremity,  as 
shown  in  our  figure  of  the  skeleton. 

Summarizing  the  result  of  the  foregoing  description,  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  hippopotami  are  entitled  to  rank  as  a  distinct  family  on  account  of  the  following 
differences  from  the  pigs  and  peccaries,  viz. ,  the  broad  and  expanded  muzzle,  not 
terminating  in  a  disc;  the  subequal  size  of  the  hoofs,  all  of  which  touch  the  ground, 
and  the  absence  of  flattening  in  the  opposing  surfaces  of  the  middle  pair;  the 
continually-growing  incisor  teeth;  the  complete  ring  of  bone  round  the  socket  of 
the  eye;  and  the  hook-like  flange  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw. 

The  common  hippopotamus  (Hippopotamus  amphibius}  is  by  far  the 
Common  Hip- 
popotamus larger  of  the  two  living  species,  and  next  to  the  elephant  would  seem 

to  be  the  bulkiest  of  all  existing  terrestrial  Mammals.  A  male  which 
lived  for  many  years  in  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  measured  twelve 
feet  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  the  length  of  the  latter  append- 
age being  twenty-two  inches,  and  its  total  weight  was  about  four  tons.  Sir  Samuel 
Baker  states  that  in  an  old  male  measured  by  himself  the  length  was  fourteen  feet 
three  inches  from  the  snout  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  the  latter  being  about  nine  inches. 
And  the  same  writer  estimates  the  weight  of  the  hide,  when  freshly  removed,  at 
about  five  hundred  pounds.  The  height  at  the  shoulder  is  some  three  feet  eight 
inches.  This  species  is  further  characterized  by  having  two  pairs  of  incisor  teeth  in 
each  jaw,  the  middle  lower  pair  being  of  far  larger  dimensions  than  the  others. 
The  general  color  of  the  skin  is  a  slaty-copper  brown,  tending  more  to  blackish 
brown  on  the  back  and  purplish  brown  beneath.  There  is,  however,  considerable 
sexual  and  individual  variation  in  this  respect;  and  the  hue  of  the  skin  also  varies 
according  to  whether  the  animal  has  recently  emerged  from  the  water,  or  whether 
it  is  thoroughly  dry.  Dr.  Livingstone  says  that  while  the  males  are  of  a  dark  color, 
the  females  are  of  a  yellowish  brown;  and  when  hippopotami  first  leave  the  water 
the  upper  parts  appear  brownish  blue  and  the  under  parts  almost  flesh  colored,  but 
when  thoroughly  dry  the  color  of  the  back  is  blackish  brown  or  slaty.  Sir  John 
Kirk  observed  in  East  Africa  nearly  pure  white  and  also  spotted  individuals;  while 
in  others  only  the  feet  were  white.  In  certain  cases,  however,  a  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct reddish,  purple,  or  yellow  tinge  has  been  noticed.  The  largest  recorded  pair 
of  lower  tusks  of  the  hippopotamus  have  a  total  length  of  thirty-one  and  one-half 
inches  along  the  curve,  and  a  basal  circumference  of  just  over  nine  inches. 

That  the  hippopotamus  formerly  inhabited  Lower  Egypt  is  indicated  by  the 
occurrence  of  its  remains  in  the  mud  of  the  delta,  while  this  is  also  confirmed  by 
the  frequency  with  which  it  is  depicted  in  the  ancient  frescoes  of  that  country. 
One  of  these  frescoes  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Edfu  shows  that  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians were  in  the  habit  of  harpooning  these  animals  in  much  the  same  manner  as  is 
now  practiced  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Nile.  Teeth  of  the  hippopotamus  have 
been  dug  up  at  Kalabsheh,  a  short  distance  above  the  first  cataract;  but  at  the  present 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMI 


1033 


day  the  animal  is  not  to  be  met  with  north  of  the  neighborhood  of  Dongola,  in  the 
Sudan,  between  the  second  and  third  cataracts.     And  even  there,  according  to  Sir 


A    FAMILY    PARTY    OF    HIPPOPoTAM 

(One-twentieth  natural  size.) 


S.  Baker,  it  is  comparatively  rare,  although  a  certain  number  take  refuge  in  the 
wooded  islands  between  Abou  Hamed  and  Berber.     Above  Khartum,  hippopotami 


1034  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

are  still  to  be  found  in  large  numbers.  Generally,  it  may  be  stated  that  at  the  pres- 
ent day  the  hippopotamus  inhabits  most  of  the  African  rivers  and  lakes  lying  be- 
tween the  seventeenth  parallel  of  north  and  the  twenty -fifth  of  south  latitude;  that 
is  to  say,  in  the  south  it  is  found  in  the  upper  course  of  the  Limpopo.  Formerly, 
however,  its  distribution  embraced  the  greater  part  of  the  Cape  Colony.  In  East, 
South,  and  West  Africa  the  hippopotamus  comes  much  nearer  to  the  coast  than  in 
the  north,  and  in  many  districts  it  is  to  be  found  quite  close  to,  or  even  in  the  sea 
itself.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Abyssinia  these  animals  are  found  dwelling  in  Lake 
Dembea,  at  an  elevation  of  over  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The 
existing  species  is  unknown  in  Madagascar;  but  from  the  reference  to  it  in  the  Bible, 
under  the  name  of  Behemoth,  it  is  just  possible  that  it  may  have  inhabited  Palestine 
within  the  historic  period. 

In  the  Pleistocene  and  upper  portion  of  the  Pliocene  epoch  a  large  hippopotamus 
which  appears  specifically  indistinguishable  from  the  living  kind  was  widely  spread 
over  Europe,  extending  from  Italy  in  the  south  to  England  in  the  north.  These 
fossil  hippopotami  were,  however,  of  considerably  larger  dimensions  than  at  least 
the  average  of  the  existing  race.  In  England,  the  range  of  the  animal  extended  as 
far  north  as  Yorkshire;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  circumstance  that  in  several  English 
localities  remains  of  the  hippopotamus  are  found  lying  side  by  side  with  those  of  the 
reindeer.  It  has  been  attempted  to  explain  this  association  of  such  southern  and 
northern  types  by  assuming  that  in  the  Pleistocene  period  the  summers  were  very 
hot  and  the  winters  very  cold,  and  that  during  the  summer  the  hippopotami 
wandered  northward  into  regions  tenanted  in  winter  by  the  reindeer.  There  are, 
however,  difficulties  in  the  way  of  accepting  this  explanation,  not  the  least  being 
the  circumstance  that  the  living  African  hippopotamus  is  not  a  migratory  animal. 
We  may,  however,  be  pretty  confident  that  wherever  remains  of  hippopotami  are 
found,  there  the  rivers  must  have  been  free  from  ice  throughout  at  least  the  greater 
part  of  the  year. 

The  hippopotamus  is  more  essentially  an  aquatic  animal  than  any 
other  Ungulate,  the  greater  portion  of  its  time  being  spent  in  the 
water,  where  its  movements  are  far  more  rapid  and  natural  than  they  are  on  land. 
As  the  carcass  of  a  hippopotamus  when  freshly  killed  sinks  rapidly  to  the  bottom, 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  animal  when  the  lungs  are  inflated  with  air  cannot  be  far, 
if  at  all,  below  that  of  water,  and  the  animal  is  consequently  enabled  to  stay  with- 
out difficulty  at  the  bottom  of  a  river  or  lake,  where  it  can  run  with  ease  and  speed. 
Sir  S.  Baker  states  that,  when  undisturbed,  the  average  duration  of  time  during 
which  a  hippopotamus  remains  under  water  does  not  exceed  five  minutes;  but  in 
regions  where  these  animals  are  much  hunted  the  length  of  the  immersion  is  often 
much  greater,  sometimes  extending  to  as  much  as  ten  minutes.  The  same  writer 
also  mentions  that  when  on  the  Upper  Nile  in  a  steamer  that  was  traveling  about 
ten  knots  an  hour,  it  was  not  till  the  engineer  increased  the  pace  by  putting  on  full 
steam,  they  were  able  to  overtake  a  hippopotamus  swimming  about  a  hundred  yards 
in  advance  of  the  vessel.  When  a  hippopotamus  comes  to  the  surface  it  generally 
spouts  up  a  column  of  water  by  the  violent  blowing-out  of  air  through  the  nostrils, 
accompanied  by  a  loud  snorting  noise;  but,  as  we  shall  again  notice,  these  animals 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMI  1035 

learn  caution  in  these  respects  when  much  persecuted.  A  peculiarity  of  the  hippo- 
potamus is  that  when  swimming  in  the  water  and  about  to  dive,  it  gradually  sub- 
sides by  slowly  sinking  the  hind-quarters  and  afterward  the  rest  of  the  body,  instead 
of  sinking  down  headforemost.  When  on  a  high  bank  and  suddenly  frightened,  it 
will  not,  however,  hesitate  to  precipitate  itself  headlong  into  the  water. 

As  the  giraffe  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  characteristic  and  striking  animal 
in  an  African  desert  landscape,  so  the  hippopotamus  forms  the  most  distinctive  liv- 
ing feature  in  a  river  scene;  and  nothing  can  be  more  impressive  than  to  come  sud- 
denly upon  a  herd  of  these  gigantic  animals  on  the  margin  of  some  unfrequented 
lake  or  river.  Such  a  scene  is  graphically  described  by  Mr.  Selous,  who  writes  that 
on  one  occasion  his  companion  and  himself,  after  making  their  way  through  a  thick 
bush  jungle,  suddenly  emerged  upon  a  river  bank.  "Upon  a  spit  of  white  sand 
which  jutted  into  the  pool  from  the  opposite  bank,  stood,  high  and  dry,  a  herd  of 
at  least  twenty  hippopotami,  their  huge,  bulky  carcasses  looking,  as  they  stood  all 
huddled  together,  like  so  many  black  rocks. ' '  After  mentioning  that  a  water  buck 
standing  on  the  further  shore  soon  took  alarm,  Mr.  Selous  continues  that  the  hippo- 
potami, "  though  we  were  in  full  view  and  only  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  yards 
from  them,  did  not  seem  to  notice  us,  but  stood  quite  motionless  and  apparently 
asleep,  except  that  now  and  then  one  would  move  his  enormous  head  slowly  to 
the  one  side  or  the  other.  ...  At  length  they  heard  us  talking,  and  com- 
menced, one  after  the  other,  to  walk  into  the  river.  When  their  bodies  were  half 
immersed  they  let  themselves  down  with  a  splash,  and  either  swam  into  deep  water 
with  just  the  tips  of  their  heads  out,  or  dived  out  of  sight  at  once;  I  suppose  there 
must  have  been  a  ledge  beside  which  the  water  deepened  suddenly.  There  were 
some  quite  small  calves  among  them,  and  these  little  beasts  all  ran  into  the  water 
with  a  splash,  while  the  full-grown  animals  stepped  in  slowly  and  sedately." 
Similar  testimony  as  to  the  ease  with  which  hippopotami  may  be  approached  in 
undisturbed  districts  is  afforded  by  Sir  J.  Willoughby  in  East  Africa.  When 
stealthily  punting  on  a  raft  toward  a  small  herd,  this  writer  observes  that  the  hip- 
popotami, ' '  did  not  seem  to  mind  our  approach  in  the  least  degree,  but  continued 
to  enjoy  themselves  by  puffing  and  snorting  and  blowing  water  in  jets  from  their 
nostrils,  and  now  and  again  sinking  down,  to  reappear  at  the  end  of  two  or  three 
minutes,  and,  with  their  heads  half  out  of  the  water,  to  take  a  look  round.  When 
we  were  within  thirty  yards,  they  ceased  their  gambols  to  gaze  with  astonishment 
at  what  I  suppose  was  the  first  attempt  to  navigate  these  waters." 

On  the  White  Nile  Sir  S.  Baker  states  that  during  the  dry  season  he  has  seen 
a  bend  of  the  river  so  crowded  with  hippopotami,  that  it  seemed  impossible  that 
his  steamer  would  be  able  to  make  its  way  without  coming  into  collision  with  some 
of  the  monsters.  All,  however,  managed  to  steer  clear  of  the  path  of  the  vessel, 
which  passed  through  a  perfect  crowd  of  snorting  and  blowing  heads. 

Regarding  the  general  habits  and  haunts  of  the  hippopotamus,  Dr.  Livingstone 
states,  that  on  the  Chobe  and  other  large  rivers,  the  banks  are  marked  by  numerous 
furrows  made  by  these  animals  in  ascending  during  the  night  to  graze  on  the  herb- 
age of  the  adjacent  lands;  and  he  adds  that  as  they  are  guided  back  to  these  paths 
solely  by  scent,  if  a  heavy  rain  comes  on  during  their  nocturnal  excursions  they  are 


1036  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

unable  to  find  their  way  back  to  the  river,  and  stand  helpless  on  the  land.  The 
males  generally  remain  in  company  with  the  females,  although  a  few  very  aged  in- 
dividuals of  the  former  sex  may  lead  more  or  less  solitary  lives.  '  The  still 
reaches,"  continues  the  same  observer,  "  are  their  favorite  haunts,  as  elsewhere  the 
constant  exertion  necessary  to  keep  themselves  from  being  carried  down  the  stream 
disturbs  their  nap.  They  remain  by  day  in  a  drowsy  yawning  state,  taking  little 
notice  of  things  at  a  distance.  The  males  utter  loud,  snorting  grunts,  which  may 
be  heard  a  mile  off.  The  young  ones  stand  on  the  necks  of  their  dams,  and  their 
small  heads  appear  first  above  the  surface  as  they  rise  to  breathe.  The  dam,  know- 
ing the  more  urgent  need  of  her  calf,  rises  more  frequently  when  it  is  in  her  care. 
In  the  rivers  of  L,onda,  where  they  are  in  danger  of  being  shot,  the  hippopotami 
gain  wit  by  experience;  for  while  those  in  the  Zambezi  expose  their  heads,  the 
others  keep  their  noses  among  the  water  plants,  and  breathe  so  quickly  as  to  elude 
all  observation." 

On  the  banks  of  the  White  Nile,  Sir  S.  Baker  states  that  the  favorite  haunts  of 
hippopotami  are  the  dense  masses  of  tall  reeds  fringing  the  river.  There  they  pass 
a  considerable  portion  of  their  time  in  marshy  retreats  among  the  canes;  such  dens 
would  be  impervious  to  human  beings,  and  would  not  be  observed  unless  from  a 
vessel  upon  the  river.  The  tangled  mass  of  vegetation  is  pierced  in  numerous 
places  by  dark  tunnels,  which  have  been  bored  out  by  their  bulky  forms,  and  these 
gloomy  routes  form  their  channels  of  retreat,  where  they  retire  to  sleep.  Females, 
with  their  calves,  are  especially  fond  of  these  impervious  bowers,  where  they  are 
secure  from  all  chances  of  molestation  by  man  or  beast. 

The  hippopotamus  is  a  purely  herbivorous  animal,  and  from  its  gigantic  bulk 
consumes  an  enormous  amount  of  food.  The  capacious  stomach,  which,  when  ex- 
tended, measures  some  eleven  feet  in  length,  is  indeed  capable  of  containing  between 
five  and  six  bushels,  which  gives  some  idea  of  the  vast  quantity  of  nutriment  the 
creature  requires.  In  uncultivated  districts,  grass  and  various  water  plants  —  more 
especially  the  lotus  and  papyrus  —  afford  the  chief  food  supply;  but  where  the  land 
adjoining  the  rivers  is  under  cultivation,  the  damage  done  to  growing  crops  of  rice, 
millet,  maize,  and  sugar  by  hippopotami  is  incalculable.  It  is  not  only  the  amount 
they  actually  eat  (although  this  is  large  enough),  but  the  quantity  damaged  in  their 
passage  from  one  part  of  a  field  to  another.  Water  plants  are  dragged  up  by  the 
roots  from  the  beds  of  rivers  and  lakes,  when  not  too  deep,  by  the  hippopotamus  in 
its  capacious  mouth,  and  after  being  brought  to  the  surface,  are  devoured  at  leisure. 
When  starting  for  their  nocturnal  excursions  in  the  fields,  these  animals  seldom 
leave  the  river  till  about  an  hour  after  sunset,  and  do  not  return  till  dawn.  On 
such  expeditions  they  make  a  prodigious  snorting  and  grunting,  which  may  be 
heard  for  long  distances. 

There  is  usually  but  a  single  offspring  produced  at  a  birth,  and  Sir  S.  Baker  says 
that  he  has  never  seen  a  female  hippopotamus  accompanied  by  more  than  two 
calves.  The  period  of  gestation  is  a  little  short  of  eight  months,  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  young  may  be  brought  forth  at  any  season  of  the  year.  The  mother,  as 
we  have  already  noticed,  is  sedulous  in  her  attention  to  her  offspring,  but  the  male 
is  apt  to  be  evilly  disposed  toward  it.  Males,  according  to  Sir  S.  Baker's  account, 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMI 


1037 


are  constantly  fighting  among  themselves  at  night,  and  apparently  irrespective  of 
any  particular  pairing  season;  and  it  is  also  stated  by  the  same  observer  that  a 
wounded  animal  may  be  furiously  attacked  by  a  comrade. 

The  full  age  attained  by  the  hippopotamus  in  its  wild  state  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained, but,  since  a  calf  brought  to  the  London  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  in  1850 
survived  till  1878,  the  span  of  life  must  be  considerable. 

In  disposition  the  hippopotamus  is  generally  described  as  comparatively  timid, 
but  when  a  boat  passes  unexpectedly  into  the  middle  of  a  sleeping  herd,  or  comes 
close  to  a  solitary  individual  at  night,  the  results  are  apt  to  be  serious.  SirS.  Baker 
says  that,  "  when  traveling  by  night  in  an  ordinary  boat  on  the  Nile,  there  is  no 
possibility  of  escape  should  a  hippopotamus  take  it  into  his  head  that  your  vessel  is 


HIPPOPOTAMI   AT  HOME. 

an  enemy.  The  creature's  snort  may  be  heard  at  a  few  yards'  distance  in  the  dark- 
ness, and  the  next  moment  you  may  be  overturned  by  an  attack  from  beneath, 
where  the  enemy  was  unseen."  Dr.  Livingstone  relates  how,  on  the  Chobe,  a  solitary 
male  issued  from  its  lair  and  charged  some  of  his  company  with  considerable  speed, 
and  it  was  reported  to  him  that  another  had  completely  smashed  a  canoe  with  a 
single  blow  from  its  hind-foot.  On  another  occasion  a  female  hippopotamus,  whose 
young  had  been  speared  the  previous  day,  rose  suddenly  beneath  the  canoe  contain- 
ing Livingstone  and  seven  natives,  and  with  her  head  lifted  one-half  of  it  completely 
out  of  the  water,  so  as  nearly  to  overturn  it.  On  the  White  Nile  one  of  these 
animals  boldly  charged  one  of  Sir  S.  Baker's  steamers,  and,  not  content  with  break- 
ing several  floats  from  one  of  the  paddle  wheels,  actually  knocked  two  large  holes 


1038  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

with  its  tusks  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The  same  writer  also  relates  that  a  hip- 
popotamus once  struck  the  bottom  of  a  "dugout"  canoe  measuring  twenty-seven 
feet  in  length  with  such  force  as  to  lift  it  partially  out  of  the  water.  The  most  ex- 
traordinary incident  of  wanton  maliciousness  on  the  part  of  these  animals  is,  how- 
ever, one  also  recorded  by  Sir  S.  Baker.  His  natives  were  swimming  a  herd  of 
about  twenty  cattle  across  the  Nile,  when  they  were  suddenly  attacked  by  a  party 
of  hippopotami,  some  of  which  seized  with  open  jaws  several  of  the  cows  and  dragged 
them  beneath  the  water,  never  to  reappear. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  in  the  habit  of 
harpooning  the  hippopotamus,  and  this  custom  is  still  kept  up  by  the 
Sudanis  on  the  Upper  Nile.  The  usual  plan  when  a  party  of  these  animals  has  been 
observed  in  the  river,  is  for  a  couple  of  hunters,  each  armed  with  a  harpoon  to 
which  a  line  is  attached,  to  enter  the  river  some  distance  above,  and  swim  cautiously 
down  on  the  herd.  When  within  striking  distance,  both  men  hurl  their  weapons  at 
the  same  time.  To  each  line  is  attached  a  wooden  float,  which  marks  the  position 
of  the  animal  while  below  the  surface,  and  the  chase  is  taken  up  by  other  hunters 
on  the  bank  armed  with  harpoons  and  lances.  By  an  ingenious  arrangement,  the 
float  is  at  length  captured  by  a  rope  and  the  animal  dragged  to  shore,  where  it  is 
dispatched  with  lances.  This,  however,  Sir  S.  Baker  states,  is  frequently  not 
accomplished  without  the  death  of  one  or  more  of  the  intrepid  hunters.  In  Central 
Africa;  on  the  other  hand,  the  hippopotamus  is  harpooned  from  canoes.  In  other 
parts  the  favorite  method  is  to  suspend  a  weighted  spear,  frequently  tipped  with 
poison,  over  a  branch  of  a  tree  near  the  tracks  of  the  hippopotamus,  and  to  make 
fast  the  end  of  the  line,  to  which  it  is  attached,  to  stakes  on  either  side  of  the  path. 
When  the  animal  comes  along,  it  strikes  against  the  line,  the  stakes  are  loosened, 
and  the  heavy  spear  comes  down  with  a  thud  on  its  head  or  back.  Yet  another  plan, 
is  to  construct  pitfalls  in  the  paths  frequented  by  these  animals,  and  to  cover  them 
over  carefully  on  the  top  with  boughs,  reeds,  or  grass. 

The  most  cruel  method  is,  however,  one  sometimes  employed  by  the  Kaffirs  of 
Southeastern  Africa,  who,  as  Mr.  Selous  relates,  are  in  the  habit  of  starving  the  un- 
fortunate brutes.  They  select  a  pool  in  a  river  where  the  bottom  is  sandy,  and 
consequently  where  there  is  no  vegetation;  and  for  choice  they  prefer  a  pool  with  a 
high  bank  on  one  side.  Having  driven  or  watched  a  party  of  hippopotami  into  such 
a  pool,  the  Kaffirs  form  a  hedge  round  the  open  sides,  and  thus  render  egress  impos- 
sible. Mr.  Selous  states  that  on  one  occasion  he  came  across  such  a  pool,  where,  so 
far  as  he  could  ascertain,  the  animals  had  been  inclosed  for  about  three  weeks. 
When  his  party  reached  the  scene  of  operations  there  were  still  ten  living  hippo- 
potami in  the  pool.  "  Eight  of  these  seemed  to  be  standing  on  the  bank  in  the 
middle  of  the  water,  as  more  than  half  their  bodies  were  exposed;  the  poor  brutes 
were  all  huddled  up  in  a  mass,  each  with  his  upraised  head  resting  on  another's 
body.  Two  more  were  swimming  about,  each  with  a  very  heavily-shafted  assagai 
sticking  in  his  back;  these  assagais  are  plunged  into  them  at  night  when  the  starving 
beasts  come  near  the  fences  seeking  for  a  means  of  exit  from  their  horrible  prison." 

Europeans  are  in  the  habit  of  shooting  hippopotami  with  rifles,  but  most  who 
have  tried  this  sport  agree  that,  when  the  novelty  has  worn  off,  it  is  not  of  a  very 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMI  1039 

exciting  nature.  Although  when  first  killed  the  carcass  of  a  hippopotamus  sinks  to 
the  bottom  immediately  after  death,  it  will  rise  within  twenty-four  hours,  owing  to 
the  generation  of  gases  in  the  stomach,  if  the  depth  of  water  does  not  exceed  some 
twenty-five  feet. 

Formerly  hippopotamus  ivory  was  valued  for  the  manufacture  of 

artificial  teeth,  and  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  it  fetched  as  much 
as  six  dollars  per  pound.  Now,  however,  the  animal  is  hunted  solely  for  its  hide 
and  fat,  or  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh  as  food.  The  hide  is  used  for  whips,  and, 
according  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  also  for  facing  revolving  wheels  employed  in  polishing 
steel.  A  good  hippopotamus  will  yield  about  two  hundred  pounds  of  pure  fat; 
and  the  writer  last  named  states  that  the  flesh  of  the  hippopotamus  is  always  pala- 
table, that  of  the  young  calf  being  delicious;  the  feet  of  the  latter  making  an  excel- 
lent stew,  and  its  skin  soup  which  has  been  compared  to  turtle. 
In  Ca  tivit  ^e  nipP°P°tamus  thrives  well  in  capitivity,  and  breeds  not  unfre- 

quently.  The  first  specimen  exhibited  in  the  London  Zoological  So- 
ciety's Gardens  was  captured  on  the  Upper  Nile  in  1849,  and  brought  to  England  in 
the  following  year,  where,  as  already  mentioned,  it  lived  till  1878.  This  was  a 
male,  and  although  a  consort  was  obtained  for  it  in  1853,  no  young  were  produced 
till  1871.  The  calf  born  in  that  year  did  not,  however,  long  survive,  and  the  same 
untimely  fate  also  befell  a  second  calf  produced  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year. 
A  third  calf  was  born  in  the  autumn  of  1872,  and  was  still  living  in  1894. 
p  „.  The  Siberian  or  pygmy  hippopotamus  (ff.  liberiensis}  from  West 

potamus     Africa  is  a  much  smaller  animal,  not  exceeding  a  pig  in  dimensions, 

and  weighing  only  about  four  hundred  pounds.  This  species  differs 
structurally  from  the  common  one  in  having  only  a  single  pair  of  incisor  teeth  in  the 
lower  jaw,  although  a  small  representative  of  the  seco.nd  pair  may  sometimes  occur 
on  one  side.  The  color  of  the  back  is  slaty  black,  while  that  of  the  under  parts  is 
dirty,  grayish  white,  and  the  sides  greenish,  slaty  gray.  The  height  at  the  shoulder 
is  about  two  feet  six  inches,  and  the  total  length  six  feet,  of  which  seven  inches  are 
occupied  by  the  tail. 

This  diminutive  species  appears  to  be  confined  to  Upper  Guinea,  and 

according  to  Herr  Bii ttikofer  is  found  only  in  swamps  and  damp  for- 
ests, and  not  in  rivers.  Its  habits  are  said,  indeed,  to  be  more  like  those  of  wild 
swine  than  those  of  its  gigantic  cousin,  and,  instead  of  traversing  well-beaten  paths, 
it  wanders  great  distances  in  the  woods.  The  author  quoted  is  uncertain  whether 
the  lyiberian  hippopotamus  is  nocturnal  or  diurnal  in  its  habits,  although  he  is  in- 
clined to  believe  that  it  is  the  latter.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  it  lives  either  soli- 
tary or  in  pairs,  and  that  it  never  associates  in  troops  like  the  larger  species. 
E  f  t  Hi  Among  extinct  species  of  genus,  the  Maltese  hippopotamus  (H. 

potami        minutus) ,  of  which  the  remains  are  found  in  such  enormous  quantities 

in  the  caverns  of  Malta  and  Sicily,  appears  to  have  been  no  larger 
than  the  Siberian  species,  though  it  resembled  the  ordinary  living  African  one  in  the 
number  of  its  lower  incisor  teeth.  Intermediate  in  size  between  the  Maltese  and  the 
common  hippopotamus  was  Pentland's  hippopotamus  (H.  pentla ndi},  found  in  the 
same  deposits  as  the  former.  The  vast  quantities  in  which  the  remains  of  these  two 


1040  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

extinct  species  are  found  in  the  Sicilian  caves  present  a  puzzle,  since  hippopotami 
are  not  the  sort  of  animals  which  one  would  expect  to  frequent  such  habitations. 
Some  years  ago  many  shiploads  of  teeth  and  bones  of  these  species  were  imported 
into  England  from  Palermo  for  the  manufacture  of  charcoal. 

Although  hippopotami  are  now  quite  unknown  in  India,  during  the  Pleistocene 
and  Pliocene  epochs  they  were  abundant  in  that  country.  In  the  Pleistocene  of  the 
Narbada  valley  in  Central  India  remains  of  two  species  of  the  genus  are  met  with; 
one  of  these  (ff.  pal&indicus)  being  characterized  by  the  presence  on  each  side  of 
the  lower  jaw  of  a  small  incisor  tooth  between  the  two  larger  ones,  corresponding  to 
those  of  the  common  African  hippopotamus;  while  in  the  second  Narbada  species 
(//.  namadicus)  both  upper  and  lower  jaws  were  provided  with  three  nearly  equal- 
sized  pairs  of  incisor  teeth.  The  same  condition  also  obtains  in  the  Siwalik  hippo- 
potamus (ff.  sivalensis]  from  the  Pliocene  rocks  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  and 
likewise  in  the  Pliocene  Burmese  hippopotamus  (H.  iravadicus)  and  the  Algerian 
hippopotamus  {ff.  bonariensis} ,  which  was  likewise  of  Pliocene  age.  An  extinct 
hippopotamus  (H.  lemerlei)  has  also  been  dicovered  in  the  superficial  deposits  of 
Madagascar. 


CHAPTER    XXVI 


THE  UNGULATES— continued 


TAPIRS,   RHINOCEROSES,   AND   HORSES 

WITH  the  three  groups  of  animals  known  as  tapirs,  rhinoceroses,  and  horses,  we 
come  to  an  assemblage  of  Ungulates  differing  in  many  important  respects  from  all 
those  described  in  the  preceding  chapters,  and  collectively  constituting  a  distinct 


SKELETON   OF    MALAYAN    TAPIR. 

primary  divison  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong.  The  most  obvious  external 
characteristics  of  this  assemblage  of  animals  are  displayed  by  their  feet,  in  which,  as 
we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention  (p.  743),  the  toe  corresponding  to  the 
third  or  middle  finger  of  the  human  hand,  or  to  the  middle  toe  of  the  human  foot, 
is  always  larger  than  either  of  the  others,  and  is  symmetrical  in  itself.  This  pecul- 
iarity of  foot  structure  is  exhibited  in  the  accompanying  figure,  and  likewise  in  the 
illustration  on  p.  1042;  and  how  essentially  different  it  is  from  the  type  of  foot 
obtaining  in  the  Even-Toed  Ungulates  will  be  apparent  by  contrasting  these  figures 
with  the  illustration  of  the  foot  of  the  pig  given  on  p.  1009.  In  all  the  Even-Toed 
Ungulates,  we  may  once  again  remind  our  readers,  instead  of  the  third  toe  being 
symmetrical  in  itself  and  larger  than  either  of  the  others,  it  is  symmetrical  to  a  line 
drawn  between  itself  and  the  fourth  toe,  and  is  equal  in  size  to  the  latter,  with 
which  it  forms  a  pair. 

66  (1041) 


1042 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


Although  in  the  members  of  the  present  group  the  number  of  toes  in  the  foot 
is  frequently  three,  it  may  be  increased  to  four  or  diminished  to  one;  yet  in  all  these 
variations  the  symmetry  of  the  third  digit  is  preserved.  And  it  is  on  account  of  the 
prominence  of  this  same  digit  that  the  group  has  received  the  designation  of  the 
Odd-Toed,  or  Perissodactyle  Ungulates. 

Another  distinctive  feature  of  this  group  is  to  be  found  in  the  conformation  of 
the  astragalus  of  the  ankle  joint  of  the  hind-foot.  This 
bone,  which  forms  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the 
accompanying  figure  of  the  hind-foot  of  a  rhinoceros,  is 
characterized  by  its  deeply-grooved  pulley-like  superior 
surface,  while  inferiorly  it  is  abruptly  truncated;  and, 
unlike  that  of  the  Even-Toed  group,  it  has  not  a  facet  for 
articulation  with  the  fibula,  or  smaller  bone  of  the  leg. 
The  astragalus  of  an  Even-Toed  Ungulate  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  more  elongated  bone,  with  its  lower  surface 
highly  convex,  and  divided  into  two  distinct  moieties. 
A  third  very  important  characteristic  of  the  limbs  of  the 
Odd-Toed  Ungulates  is  that  the  femur,  or  bone  of  the 
upper  segment  of  the  hind-leg,  is  furnished  with  a  pro- 
tecting crest  on  the  upper  part  of  its  hinder  surface 
known  as  the  third  trochanter;  this  trochanter  (of  which 
the  position  is  clearly  shown  in  the  left  hind-limb  of 
the  figure  of  the  skeleton  of  the  tapir)  being  quite  un- 
BONES  OF  THE  RIGHT  HIND-  known  among  the  Even-Toed  Ungulates. 
FOOT  OF  AN  EXTINCT  The  foregoing  characteristics  of  the  feet  are  alone 

sufficient  to  distinguish  the  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  from  the 
Even-Toed  group,  but  there  are  also  certain  other  features 
—  especially  some  connected  with  the  teeth  — which  it  is  advisable  to  notice.  As 
regards  the  cheek-teeth,  it  may  be  observed  that  in  the  upper  jaw  the  premolars  (as 
shown  in  the  accompanying  figure)  are  generally  as  complex  as  the  molars,  whereas 
in  most  members  of  the  Even- 
Toed  group  they  are  simpler. 
Then,  again,  all  the  upper 
cheek-teeth,  with  the  exception 
of  the  first,  in  most  of  the 
earlier  and  more  primitive  rep- 
resentatives of  the  group  are 
characterized  by  carrying  six 
columns  or  cusps  on  their  crowns,  of  which  the  two  innermost  pairs  tend  to  unite 
more  or  less  completely,  and  thus  form  a  pair  of  oblique  transverse  ridges,  extend- 
ing across  the  crown  to  the  two  outer  columns;  the  two  latter  also  uniting  to  form  a 
longitudinal  outer  wall  to  the  tooth.  From  this  primitive  type  of  tooth  all  the  more 
specialized  developments  may  be  derived,  and,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  notice 
later  on,  while  the  earlier  forms  have  low-crowned  molar  teeth,  like  those  represented 
in  the  figure,  some  of  the  later  types  have  the  crowns  greatly  elongated  in  the 


AN 
RHINOCEROS. 

(From  Osborn.) 


THE  LEFT  UPPER  CHEEK-TEETH  OF  THE  ANCHITHERE. 

(From  Osborn.) 


TAPIRS,   RHINOCEROSES,   AND  HORSES  1043 

r^' 

vertical  direction.  In  this  respect,  therefore,  the  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  have 
developed  in  a  manner  exactly  paralleled  among  the  Even-Toed  group,  a  similar 
parallelism  being  also  noticeable  in  respect  to  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  toes  on 
the  feet.  Moreover,  as  we  find  in  the  Even-Toed  Ungulates  an  increased  length  in 
the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  of  those  forms  in  which  but  two  functional 
bones  remain,  so  in  the  present  group  there  is  a  similar  elongation  of  the 
single  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  (canon)  bones  in  its  one-toed  representatives, 
namely,  the  horses.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that  the  great  importance  played  by 
parallelism  in  the  development  of  allied  groups  of  animals  has  been  fully  recognized, 
and  fresh  instances  of  it  are  being  constantly  discovered.  In  no  group  are  there 
better  examples  of  this  phenomenon  than  among  the  Ungulates,  where  it  is  displayed 
among  several  groups,  and  affects  totally  different  parts  of  the  skeleton. 

The  lower  cheek-teeth  of  the  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  very  generally  differ  from 
those  of  the  other  main  group  in  that  the  last  of  the  series  resembles  those  in  ad- 
vance of  it  in  having  two  lobes,  this  feature  being  distinctive  of  the  whole  of  the 
existing  members  of  the  group.  On  the  other  hand,  in  all  the  living  representatives 
of  the  Even-Toed  group,  with  the  single  exception  of  one  small  antelope  (Neotragus, 
p.  897),  the  corresponding  tooth  has  three  distinct  lobes.  Generally,  the  lower 
cheek-teeth  of  the  present  group  carry  either  two  transverse  ridges  or  a  pair  of 
crescents,  one  in  front  of  the  other,  on  their  crowns.  It  may  be  added  that  all  the 
Odd-Toed  Ungulates  have  simple  stomachs,  and  that  in  all  cases  the  liver  is  not  pro- 
vided with  a  gall  bladder. 

The  whole  of  the  living  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  may  be  divided  into  three  well- 
marked  family  groups,  which  are  commonly  designated  as  tapirs,  rhinoceroses,  and 
horses  (the  latter  term  including  zebras,  asses,  etc.);  and  according  to  the  classifica- 
tion adopted  in  this  work,  each  of  these  three  families  is  now  represented  only  by  g 
single  genus.  With  the  exception  of  the  tapirs,  which  are  common  to  the  Malayan 
region  and  Central  and  South  America,  all  the  existing  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  are  Old- 
World  animals.  Moreover,  all  the  three  groups  are  represented  by  a  comparatively- 
small  number  of  species,  while,  with  the  exception  of  the  horses,  these  species  are  fai 
inferior  in  the  number  of  individuals  by  which  they  are  represented  to  the  majority 
of  the  Even-Toed  Ungulates.  All  these  circumstances  point  to  the  conclusion  that, 
as  a  whole,  the  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  are  a  waning  group;  and  this  conclusion  is  fully 
supported  by  the  discoveries  of  palaeontology.  Thus,  in  the  first  place,  both  rhinoc- 
eroses and  horses  were  abundantly  represented  during  former  epochs  in  the  New 
World;  while,  in  the  second  place,  the  rocks  of  both  Hemispheres  have  yielded  fossil 
remains  of  an  enormous  number  of  extinct  genera,  and  even  family  types  of  Odd- 
Toed  Ungulates,  several  of  which  serve  to  connect  very  closely  together  the  three 
living  groups.  What  may  have  been  the  reason  of  this  gradual  waning  of  the  Odd- 
Toed  Ungulates,  and  the  enormous  development  of  the  Even-Toed  group  during  the 
later  geological  epochs,  it  is  not  easy  to  devine.  Perhaps,  however,  it  may  be  that 
the  former  group  is  one  of  a  lower  and  less  adaptive  nature  than  the  latter.  The 
horses  are,  however,  an  exception  to  the  other  members  of  the  present  group,  both 
as  regards  the  number  of  species  and  individuals  (irrespective  of  those  bred  by  man), 
and  belong  to  a  specialized  branch  which  has  been  raised  to  a  platform  of  evolution 


1044  THE    UNGULATES,    OR   HOOFED  MAMMALS 

as  high  as  that  occupied  by  the  Ox  family  in  the  other  group.  Even  here,  how- 
ever, it  is  hard  to  understand  why  horses  (until  reintroduced  by  the  Spaniards)  be- 
came extinct  throughout  the  New  World,  unless  indeed  Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson's 
suggestion  that  they  were  exterminated  by  pumas  should  prove  to  be  well  founded. 


THE  TAPIRS 
Family   TAPIRID^ 

The  tapirs  are  the  least  specialized  of  all  the  existing  Odd-Toed  Ungulates,  and 
their  peculiarly  antediluvian  appearance  would  indeed  suggest  this  even  to  the  un- 
scientific observer.  Their  generalized  characteristic  is  indicated  by  the  circumstance 
that  they  differ  from  all  other  living  members  of  the  same  great  group  by  having 
four  toes  to  their  fore-feet,  although  their  hind-feet  resemble  those  of  the  rhinoc- 
eroses in  being  tridactyl.  In  the  fore-feet  the  three  main  toes  correspond  to  the  three 
middle  fingers  of  the  human  hand,  while  the  small  external  one  represents  the 
fifth,  or  little  finger.  The  tapirs  are  further  characterized  by  the  production  of  the 
extremity  of  the  muzzle  into  a  short  cylindrical  proboscis  or  trunk,  at  the  extremity 
of  which  are  situated  the  nostrils.  The  general  form  of  the  body  is  heavy  and  un- 
gainly, the  limbs  being  relatively  short  and  stout,  and  the  tail  scarcely  more  than  a 
rudiment.  The  eyes  are  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  head,  and  the  erect 
and  oval  ears  of  moderate  size.  The  thick  skin  is  smooth  and  covered  with  a  rather 
scanty  coat  of  short  hair,  which  is  usually  of  uniform  color. 

The  skull,  as  seen  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  on  p.  1041,  is  rather  short,  nar- 
row, and  high,  its  most  distinctive  features  being  the  enormous  size  of  the  aperture 
of  the  nose,  and  the  absence  of  any  bony  bar  dividing  the  socket  of  the  eye  from 
the  great  channel  on  the  side  of  the  brain  case.  The  teeth  are  forty-two  in  number, 
or  two  less  than  the  full  typical  number,  the  missing  ones  being  the  first  premolar  on 
each  side  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  short-crowned  cheek-teeth  are  separated  from 
those  in  the  front  of  the  jaws  by  a  long  gap,  and  the  tusks,  or  canines,  are  small, 
those  of  the  upper  jaw  being  inferior  in  dimensions  to  the  outermost  pair  of  incisors. 
The  upper  cheek-teeth  have  two  transverse  ridges  and  an  outer  longitudinal  wall, 
while  those  of  the  lower  jaw  carry  a  pair  of  transverse  ridges  alone.  In  the  limbs 
all  the  bones  are  fully  developed  and  quite  distinct  from  one  another.  It  may  be 
added  that  the  toes  are  incased  in  long  and  rather  oval  hoofs,  while  inferiorly  the 
foot  is  furnished  with  a  large  callous  pad,  which  takes  a  share  in  supporting  the 
weight  of  the  body.  Except  when  the  soil  is  soft  and  yielding,  the  small  outermost 
toe  of  the  fore- foot  scarcely  touches  the  ground. 

The  existing  tapirs,  all  of  which  may  be  included  in  the  one  genus 
Distribution        _,  -,-,,. 

lapirus,  have  a  most  remarkable  geographical  distribution,  a  solitary 

species  being  found  in  the  Malayan  region ,  while  the  whole  of  the  other  four  are  re- 
stricted to  Central  and  South  America.  Still  more  remarkable  is  the  circumstance 
that,  instead  of  all  the  American  species  being  closely  allied,  two  of  them  are  nearly 
related  to  the  Malayan  tapir,  while  the  other  two  form  a  totally-distinct  group.  A 


THE    TAPIRS 


1045 


flood  of  light  on  this  remarkable  instance  of  what  is  known  as  discontinuous  distri- 
bution is,  however,  thrown  by  palaeontology,  remains  of  extinct  tapirs  having  been 
discovered  in  the  middle  and  upper  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe  (including  those  of 
England)  and  China,  while  nearly-allied  or  identical  forms  occur  in  those  of  the 
United  States.  Such  remains  are  also  found  in  the  cavern  deposits  of  Brazil,  which 
belong  to  the  later  Pleistocene  epoch.  Since  these  extinct  forms  belong  to  the  ex- 
isting genus,  tapirs  may  be  regarded  as  among  the  oldest  of  living  Mammals.  It 


THK     MALAYAN    TAPIR. 

(One-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

was  considered  by  Mr.  Wallace  that  the  Old  World  was  the  original  home  of  the 
group,  from  whence  they  migrated  to  North  America;  but  subsequent  discoveries 
have  rendered  this  doubtful.  Probably,  however,  they  are  but  comparatively- 
recent  immigrants  into  Central  and  South  America.  And  it  is  interesting  to  notice, 
as  Mr.  Wallace  observes,  that  while  in  the  Old  World,  where  they  were  once  so 
abundant,  they  have  dwindled  down  to  a  single  species,  existing  in  small  numbers 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo  only,  in  the  western  continent  they 
occupy  a  much  larger  area,  and  are  represented  by  several  distinct  species.  With 


1046  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

regard  to  the  probable  ancestors  of  the  tapirs,  we  shall  have  some  remarks  to  make 
at  the  conclusion  of  this  chapter. 

Save  for  the  circumstance  that  the  Malayan  species  differs  from  all  the  rest  in 
coloration,  the  various  kinds  of  tapirs  are  remarkably  alike,  both  in  respect  of  bodily 
form  and  habits.  Whereas,  however,  four  of  the  species  are  found  at  or  near  the 
sea  level,  the  fifth  inhabits  comparatively-high  elevations  in  the  Cordillera. 

Speaking  of  tapirs  in  general,  Sir  W.  H.  Flower  remarks  that  "they 

are  solitary,  nocturnal,   shy,   and  inoffensive,  chiefly  frequenting  the 

depths  of  shady  forests  and  the  neighborhood  of  water,  to  which  they  frequently  resort 

for  the  purpose  of  bathing,  and  in  which  they  often  take  refuge  when  pursued.    They 

feed  on  various  vegetable  substances,  as  shoots  of  trees  and  bushes,  buds  and  leaves. ' ' 

The  Malayan  tapir  (  T.  indicus}  is  the  largest  of  the  whole  group, 
Malayan  Tapir  ^  Differs  from  all  the  others  in  its  parti-colored  skin.  In  height 
this  animal  stands  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  at  the  withers,  and  about 
four  inches  more  at  the  rump,  its  length  along  the  curves  from  the  tip  of  the  snout 
to  the  root  of  the  tail  being  about  eight  feet.  In  the  adult  the  color  of  the  head  and 
front  of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  limbs,  is  dark  brown  or  black,  while  the  body  from 
behind  the  shoulders  to  the  rump  and  the  upper  part  of  the  thighs  is  grayish  white, 
as  are  also  the  ears.  On  the  other  hand,  the  newly-born  young  are  brownish  or  vel- 
vety black,  marked  with  spots  and  longitudinal  streaks  of  brownish  yellow  on  the 
sides,  and  of  white  beneath;  the  change  from  the  young  to  the  adult  coloration  tak- 
ing place,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  between  four  and  six  months  after  birth. 

The  Malayan  tapir  is  found  in  the  peninsula  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  ex- 
tending northward  to  Tenasserim,  and  it  also  occurs  in  the  island  of  Sumatra,  and 
perhaps  in  Borneo.  Although  one  of  its  skulls  had  been  sent  to  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Bengal  in  Calcutta  as  far  back  as  the  year  1806,  it  was  not  till  Diard  in  1817  sent  to 
Cuvier  a  portrait  and  description  of  a  specimen  then  living  in  the  viceroy's  men- 
agerie in  Barrackpur,  near  Calcutta,  that  it  was  recognized  in  Europe  as  a  distinct 
species.  Apart  from  a  notice  by  Wahlfeldt  in  1772,  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  had,  how- 
ever, knowledge  of  the  creature's  existence  in  1805,  and  in  1816  Major  Farquhar 
sent  a  description  of  the  animal  to  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal. 

Owing  to  its  retiring  nature,  the  Malayan  tapir  is  but  seldom  seen  in  its  native 
haunts,  and  our  information  as  to  its  habits  is  consequently  meagre  in  the  extreme. 
Indeed,  nothing  is  known  as  to  its  breeding  habits,  although  it  seems  to  be  ascer- 
tained that  but  one  young  is  produced  at  a  birth.  Mr.  Mason  writes  that,  "  though 
seen  so  rarely,  the  tapir  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  the  interior  of  the  Tavoy  and 
Mergui  provinces.  I  have  frequently  come  upon  its  recent  footmarks,  but  it  avoids 
the  inhabited  parts  of  the  country."  When  taking  to  the  water,  it  is  reported  to 
plunge  in  and  walk  along  the  bottom,  instead  of  swimming.  In  spite  of  its  shy  and 
retiring  habits,  this  tapir,  if  captured  at  a  sufficiently  early  period,  can  be  readily 
tamed,  and  is  said  to  exhibit  considerable  attachment  to  its  master. 
American  °f  the  New-World  tapirs  the  best-known  species  is  the  common 

Tapirs        South-American  tapir  (  T.  americanus} ,  originally  described  by  Lin- 
naeus as  a  terrestrial  species  of  hippopotamus.     In  common  with  the 
other  American  kinds,  the  adult  is  of  a  uniform  dark  brown  or  blackish  color, 


THE    TAPIRS 


1047 


although  the  young  are  striped  and  spotted  after  the  manner  of  the  Asiatic  species. 
The  snout  is  shorter  than  in  the  latter,  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  more  elevated, 
and  the  crown  of  the  head  and  neck  furnished  with  a  short,  stiff,  upright  mane. 
The  margins  of  the  ears  are  white.  This  species  inhabits  the  forest  districts  of 
Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  the  northern  part  of  Argentina.  The  second  member  of  this 
group  is  Roulin's  tapir  (71  roulini),  which  is  a  mountain  species  inhabiting  the 
Cordilleras  of  Ecuador  and  Colombia  at  an  elevation  of  from  seven  thousand  to  eight 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  locally  known  as  the  pinchaque.  It  has  a  less 


THE    AMERICAN    TAPIR. 

(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

vaulted  skull  and  a  rounder  neck,  without  a  distinct  crest,  than  the  lowland  species, 
from  which  it  is  further  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  long  white  spot  on  the 
chin. 

The  two  remaining  species  are  Baird's  tapir  (  T.  bairdi},  ranging  from  Mexico  to 
Panama,  and  Dow's  tapir  (T.  dowi),  restricted  to  Guatemala,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa 
Rica,  which  constitute  a  second  group  of  the  genus  distinguished  by  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  skull.  In  all  the  three  species  of  the  first  group,  as  seen  in  the  figure 
of  the  skeleton  given  on  p.  1041,  the  nasal  cavity  is  perfectly  open  in  advance  of  the 
roofing  bones  of  the  skull;  but  in  those  of  the  second  group  this  cavity  is  divided  by 


I048  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

a  vertical  partition  in  the  middle  line,  similar  to  one  shown  later  on  in  the  figure  of 
the  skull  of  an  extinct  rhinoceros. 

The   following   notes  on  the    habits  of  the  American  tapirs  refer 
Habits  mainly  or  exclusively  to  the  common  species.     These  tapirs  confine 

themselves  exclusively  to  the  thickest  parts  of  the  forests,  carefully  avoiding  all 
open  spaces,  and  forming  regular  pathways  along  which  they  travel  in  search  of 
food  and  water.  In  the  forest  itself  it  is  generally  difficult  to  come  across  them,  but 
Humboldt  and  others  state  that,  when  traveling  on  the  rivers  by  boat,  tapirs  may  be 
often  seen  in  the  early  morning,  when  they  come  to  the  bank  for  the  purpose  of 
drinking.  Although  mainly  nocturnal,  it  is  stated  that  in  the  densest  and  darkest 
portions  of  the  forest,  tapirs  may  be  encountered  abroad  during  the  daytime.  They 
are  fond  of  gamboling  in  the  water  and  rolling  in  soft  mud,  their  hides  being  often 
thickly  plastered  with  the  latter,  probably  as  a  protection  against  the  bites  of 
insects.  Indeed  in  many  respects  their  mode  of  life  is  very  similar  to  that  of  swine, 
although  in  their  more  solitary  habits  they  present  a  closer  resemblance  to  their 
cousins,  the  rhinoceroses.  Thus  the  males,  except  during  the  pairing  season,  are 
said  to  be  completely  solitary,  and  even  family  parties  are  but  rarely  met  with;  and 
except  when  several  have  been  temporarily  collected  by  the  attraction  of  unusually 
good  pasture,  it  is  but  very  seldom  that  more  than  three  individuals  are  seen  in 
company.  Tapirs  commence  to  feed  in  the  evening,  and  probably  continue  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  night. 

These  animals  are  slow  and  deliberate  in  their  movements,  usually  walking  with 
their  snouts  close  to  the  ground,  and  by  the  aid  of  scent  or  sound  detecting  the 
presence  of  foes  with  extreme  acuteness.  When  frightened,  however,  they  rush 
blindly  forward,  crashing  through  bushes  or  splashing  through  water  in  precipitate 
flight.  The  American  tapir  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  crossing  the  largest  rivers 
with  facility,  and  even  diving  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  although  with  what 
object  is  not  ascertained.  Not  improbably  it  may  also  walk  along  the  beds  of  shal- 
low rivers  and  lakes,  as  was  observed  to  be  the  habit  of  a  specimen  of  the  Malayan 
species  kept  in  captivity  at  Barrackpur. 

The  •  chief  sound  uttered  by  the  American  tapir  is  a  peculiar,  shrill  whistle, 
which,  according  to  Azara,  has  but  little  volume  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the 
animal  by  which  it  is  emitted.  This  whistle  is  uttered  at  all  seasons,  and  is  not,  as 
has  been  supposed,  restricted  to  the  pairing  season;  the  Malayan  species  is  reported 
to  give  vent  to  a  very  similar  sound.  When  suddenly  disturbed,  the  American  tapir 
utters  a  loud  snort. 

Although  in  general  perfectly  harmless  animals,  fleeing  precipitately  before  the 
smallest  dog,  tapirs  will  sometimes  attack  their  enemies  fiercely,  this  being  more 
especially  the  case  with  females  that  have  been  deprived  of  their  young.  In  such 
instances  they  rush  violently  at  their  foes  —  human  or  otherwise  —  and  after  knock- 
ing them  down  will  trample  upon  and  bite  them  after  the  manner  of  wild  swine. 

In  Brazil,  the  food  of  the  tapir  is  largely  composed  of  palm  leaves  in  districts 
remote  from  cultivation,  but  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  these  animals  subsist 
almost  exclusively  on  fallen  fruits,  while  in  other  districts  swamp  grasses  and  water 
plants  form  their  chief  nutriment.  In  the  neighborhood  of  plantations  they 


THE    TAPIRS  1049 

frequently  do  much  harm  to  the  crops  of  sugar  cane,  melons,  etc. ,  and  they  are  espe- 
cially dreaded  by  the  proprietors  of  cacao  plantations  for  the  amount  of  damage  they 
inflict  on  the  young  plants.  Salt  seems  especially  grateful  to  their  palate,  and  in 
order  to  obtain  it  they  will  eat  the  saline  earth  found  in  many  parts  of  South 
America.  In  captivity  they  are  fond  of  any  sweet  substances,  and  it  is  also  said 
that  in  this  condition  they  frequently  become  almost  as  omnivorous  as  swine  The 
American  species  can  be  as  easily  tamed  as  their  Asiatic  cousin,  and  tame  individu- 
als may  sometimes  be  seen  at  large  in  the  streets  of  some  of  the  South- American 
towns. 

Although  on  account  of  their  affording  no  trophies  in  the  shape  of 
horns,  antlers,  or  tusks,  tapirs  offer  no  attraction  to  European  sports- 
men, yet  they  are  much  sought  after  by  the  native  South- American  hunters  for  the 
sake  of  their  flesh  and  hide.  The  flesh  is  said  to  be  juicy  and  well  flavored,  and 
both  in  appearance  and  taste  resembles  beef.  The  skin,  which  is  of  great  thickness 
and  strength,  is  cut  into  long  thongs,  which,  after  being  rounded  and  treated  with 
fat,  are  used  for  reins  and  bridles.  It  is,  however,  unsuited  for  shoe  leather,  as  it 
becomes  very  hard  and  unyielding  when  dry,  and  very  soft  and  spongy  when  wet. 
The  hair,  hoofs,  and  certain  other  parts  are  used  by  the  natives  as  medicine;  the 
hoofs  being  sometimes  hung  round  the  neck  as  charms,  and  in  other  cases  ground 
to  powder  and  taken  internally. 

In  South  America,  tapirs  are  generally  hunted  with  the  aid  of  dogs,  which  chase 
the  animals  through  the  forest  until  they  enter  the  water.  Here  they  are  attacked 
by  the  hunters,  who  have  lain  concealed  among  the  reeds  on  the  river  bank,  and  by 
them  they  are  pursued  as  they  dive  and  swim  in  the  water.  When  the  area  of 
water  is  not  too  large,  the  chase  is  frequently  of  short  duration,  and  the  animal  is 
before  long  dispatched  either  with  a  club  or  a  hunting  knife.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  hunt  is  more  protracted,  the  tapir  leaving  the  water  and  breaking  away  from 
the  dogs  among  the  dense  reeds  or  bushes,  until  again  brought  to  bay  in  another 
pool  or  river.  The  traveler  Schomburgk  gives  a  graphic  account  of  a  tapir  hunt  he 
once  witnessed  when  in  South  America.  As  his  vessel  rounded  a  headland  on  the 
river,  a  female  tapir  with  her  young  came  into  view  standing  on  a  sandbank. 
Scarcely,  however,  had  his  Indians  time  to  utter  the  word  "  Maipuri  "  (the  native 
name  of  the  common  species),  than  the  two  animals  caught  sight  of  the  party,  and 
dashed  into  the  thick  cover  on  the  bank.  This  cover  was  in  the  form  of  giant  reeds 
and  grass,  with  sharp,  cutting  edges,  some  seven  feet  in  height,  which  formed  a 
formidable  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  Europeans.  The  Indians,  however,  wriggled 
their  way  between  the  stems  like  snakes;  and  soon  two  shots  in  quick  succession, 
followed  by  a  shout  of  triumph,  told  that  they  had  come  up  with  their  quarry. 
When  Schomburgk  reached  the  scene,  he  passed  the  female  tapir  lying  dead  with  a 
bullet  through  the  lungs.  The  dogs  then  took  up  the  trail  of  the  young  one,  which 
was  concealed  among  the  reeds.  As  soon  as  the  creature  perceived  that  it  was  dis- 
covered by  the  dogs,  it  uttered  the  peculiar,  whistling  cry,  mentioned  above,  by 
which  the  hunters  were  guided  to  its  place  of  concealment.  Eventually  the  young 
tapir,  which  was  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  full-grown  pig,  broke  cover,  and 
after  an  exciting  although  short  chase  was  dispatched. 


io5o  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

In  some  parts  the  South- American  Indians  track  the  tapir  to  its  lair,  and  shoot 
it  as  it  lies.  In  Paraguay,  when  the  hunters  capture  a  young  tapir  of  too  large  a 
size  to  be  carried  on  a  horse  in  front  of  the  rider,  they  bore  a  hole  in  one  side  of  the 
snout  through  which  they  pass  a  thong,  and  the  animal  will  then  follow  readily 
enough  when  led. 

Next  to  man,  the  worst  foes  of  the  tapir  are  the  larger  cats;  the 
FOCS  jaguar  preying  largely  on  the  American  species,  and  the  tiger  attack- 

ing its  Malayan  cousin.  It  is  said  that  when  an  American  tapir  is  attacked  by  a 
jaguar,  it  immediately  rushes  into  the  thickest  cover  in  the  hope  of  dislodging  its 
assailant,  which  from  the  thickness  of  the  animal's  hide  is  unable  to  obtain  a  firm 
hold  on  its  back.  It  is  further  reported  that  the  tapir  is  not  unfrequently  success- 
ful; and,  in  any  case,  many  of  these  animals  are  killed  with  the  marks  of  jaguar's 
claws  on  their  backs. 

Before  leaving  these  animals,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  whole  of 
Succession  of  tlie  four  premoiar  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  are  preceded  by 
milk-teeth,  whereas  in  the  pig  and  other  Even-Toed  Ungulates  the 
first  of  these  teeth  never  has  a  deciduous  predecessor,  as,  indeed,  is  the  case  with 
other  groups  of  Mammals.  Some  rhinoceroses,  however,  resemble  the  tapirs  in 
having  the  first  premoiar  preceded  by  a  milk-tooth,  although  this  seems  to  be 
merely  an  individual,  and  not  a  specific  peculiarity. 

THE    RHINOCEROSES 
Family  RHINOCEROTID^ 

Although  inferior  in  length  of  body,  and  probably  also  in  weight,  to  the  hippo- 
potamus, the  larger  species  of  rhinoceroses  exceed  it  in  height,  and,  therefore,  vie 
with  it  in  claiming  the  position  of  being  the  Mammals  next  in  point  of  size  to  the 
elephants.  Unlike  the  tapirs,  the  various  species  of  rhinoceroses,  all  of  which  are 
now  confined  to  the  Old  World,  differ  very  markedly  from  one  another  in  structure 
—  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  by  many  writers  they  are  divided  into  several  genera; 
and  there  is  also  considerable  disparity  in  point  of  size.  In  spite,  however,  of  these 
minor  differences,  all  these  animals  are  so  much  alike  in  general  appearance,  that  it 
seems  preferable  to  include  the  whole  of  them  in  the  single  genus  Rhinoceros.  All 
the  existing  rhinoceroses  differ  from  tapirs  in  having  but  three  toes  on  both  fore 
and  hind-feet,  but  since  there  are  some  extinct  species  with  four  toes  to  the  front 
limbs,  this  point  of  distinction  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  very  important  one.  The 
presence  of  one  or  two  horns  in  the  middle  line  of  the  front  of  the  head  might  at 
first  sight  be  regarded  as  a  more  valuable  diagnostic  characteristic,  but  since  these 
appendages  are  always  or  frequently  absent  in  the  female  of  one  of  the  living  Indian 
rhinoceroses,  and  are  invariably  wanting  in  certain  extinct  kinds,  it  will  be  obvious 
that  other  features  must  be  sought  that  will  distinguish  these  animals  from  the  tapirs. 
Such  characteristics  are  to  be  found  in  the  cheek-teeth,  of  which 
two  from  the  upper  jaws  of  certain  extinct  species  are  represented 
in  the  figures  on  the  next  page.  In  the  molar  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  the  two  outer 


en 

CD 

or 

UJ 
CJ 

CD 


< 


THE   RHINOCEROSES 


1051 


•columns  have  completely  coalesced  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  external  wall  to 
the  crown;  this  wall  being  sinuous,  and  in  some  cases  (as  in  the  upper  figure) 
forming  a  prominent  buttress  at  the  front  outer  angle  of  the  crown.  From  this 
outer  wall  proceed  two  continuous, 
oblique,  transverse  ridges  separated 
from  one  another  by  a  deep  valley, 
interrupted  by  projecting  processes 
from  one  or  both  ridges,  and  some- 
times also  from  the  outer  wall.  This 
middle  valley  is  usually  quite  free 
from  cement;  and  its  form,  as  like- 
wise the  relative  height  of  the  whole 
crown,  varies  considerably  in  the  dif- 
ferent species.  Instead  of  having  the 
simple,  transverse  ridges  found  in 
those  of  the  tapirs,  the  lower  cheek- 
teeth of  the  rhinoceroses  have  a  pair 
of  crescents,  placed  one  in  front  of 
the  other.  On  each  side  of  both  the 
upper  and  lower  jaws  there  are  seven 
cheek-teeth;  but  the  last  molar  in  the 
upper  jaw  differs  from  the  rest  in 
having  its  hinder  ridge  more  or  less 
aborted,  so  that  the  form  of  the  crown 
is  generally  triangular. 

As  regards  their  front  teeth,  the 
different  species  of  rhinocroses  present 
a  considerable  amount  of  variation, 
some  of  them  having  such  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  while  in  others  they  are 
totally  absent;  but  there  are  never 
any  canine  teeth  or  tusks  in  the  upper 
jaw,  and  the  number  of  upper  incisor 
teeth  never  exceeds  two  pairs.  In 
the  lower  jaw  there  may  be  a  pair  of 
large,  pointed  and  nearly  horizontal 
tusks,  and  between  them  a  small  pair 
of  incisor  teeth. 

All  the  living  rhinoc- 
eroses are  animals  of 
large  size  and  heavy  build,  with  the 
legs  comparatively  short  and  stout, 
although  less  so  than  in  the  hippo- 
potamus. Each  of  the  toes  is  furnished  with  a  relatively-small,  but  broad  and  well- 
defined,  hoof-like  nail.  The  head  is  large  and  elongated,  with  a  concave  profile,  and 


LEFT    UPPER    MOLAR    TEETH     OF    TWO    EXTINCT 
SPECIES    OF    RHINOCEROSES. 
(Both  considerably  worn  by  use.) 


1052  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  erect,  oval  ears  placed  very  far  back.  The  eyes  are  very  small  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  head;  and  the  upper  lip  is  generally,  although  not  invariably, 
prehensile,  and  prolonged  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  lower  one.  The  thick  skin 
is  either  nake,d  or  sparsely  clad  with  hair,  and  may  be  thrown  in  certain  parts  of 
the  body  into  a  series  of  deep  folds.  The  tail  is  thin  and  of  moderate  length. 

The  horns,  which  form  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  physiognomy 

of  the  living  species,  are  composed  of  a  closely -packed  mass  of  horny 
fibres,  growing  from  the  skin,  and  having  no  connection  with  the  bones  of  the  skull, 
although  there  are  prominences  on  the  latter  beneath  each  horn.  The  skull,  as  shown 
in  the  figure  of  that  of  an  extinct  species  given  in  the  sequel,  is  characterized  by  its 
elevated  occipital  region,  long,  curved  profile,  the  absence  of  any  bony  bar  at  the 
hinder  part  of  the  socket  of  the  eye,  and  the  large  size  of  the  nasal  bones,  which  are 
completely  fused  together.  In  those  species  with  but  one  horn  this  is  carried  upon 
the  nasal  bones,  and  the  front  horn  of  those  with  two  of  these  appendages  has  a 
similar  situation,  but  the  second  horn,  when  present,  is  placed  on  the  frontal 
bones. 

Rhinoceroses  are  stupid  and  somewhat  timorous  beasts,  generally 

striving  to  escape  from  man,  although  when  brought  to  bay  exceed- 
ingly fierce,  and  consequently  from  their  great  size  very  dangerous.  Although  the 
African  species  are  entirely  dependent  on  their  enormous  horns,  as  weapons  of  of- 
fense and  defense,  the  Asiatic  kinds,  in  which  the  horns  dre  smaller,  seem  to  rely 
chiefly  upon  their  sharply-pointed  lower  tusks  which  are  capable  of  inflicting  ter- 
rific gashes.  All  are  mainly  nocturnal,  and  while  some  resemble  the  tapirs  in  fre- 
quenting tall  grass  jungles  and  swampy  districts,  others  seem  to  prefer  more  or  less 
open  plains.  Their  food  is  entirely  vegetable;  but  whereas  some  species  subsist  al- 
most exclusively  on  grass,  the  food  of  others  consists  mainly  of  twigs  and  small 
boughs  of  trees;  this  difference  in  diet  being  correlated  with  a  difference  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  molar  teeth.  At  the  present  day  these  animals  are  restricted  to  South- 
eastern Asia  and  Africa;  and  they  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups  according 
to  their  geographical  distribution,  the  Asiatic  group  being  again  subdivided  into 
two  minor  groups. 

THE  ASIATIC  RHINOCEROSES 

The  whole  of  the  three  species  of  Rhinoceroses  inhabiting  Asia  are  character- 
ized by  the  skin  being  thrown  in  places  into  thick  folds,  and  by  the  presence  of 
teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws;  the  horns  being  either  one  or  two  in  number. 

Indian  By  f&1  the  lar&est  of  these  three  is  the  £reat  one-horned  Indian  rhi- 

Rhinoceros  nosceros  (R-  unicornis} ,  which  may  be  conveniently  designated  as  the 

Indian  rhinoceros  par  excellence,  and  is  the  one  which  has  been  longest 

known  in  Europe  from  living  examples,  a  specimen  having  been  sent  to  Portugal  as 

long  ago  as  the  year  1513.     In  this  species  there  is  but  a  single  nasal  horn;  and  the 

skin,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  the  tail  and  ears,  is  naked,  and  on  the  sides  of 

the  body  studded  with  a  number  of  large  convex  tubercles,   reminding  one  of  the 

rivets  in  an  iron  boiler,  which  are  the  largest  on  the  fore  and  hind-quarters,  where 


THE  ASIATIC  RHINOCEROSES 


1053 


they  may  be  as  much  as  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  skin  of  the  body  is  divided  into 
a  number  of  shield-like  pieces  by  the  aforesaid  folds.  Thus  there  is  a  fold  before 
and  behind  each  shoulder,  marking  off  a  large  triangular  shield  covering  the  shoul- 
der; and  another  in  front  of  each  thigh  dividing  the  large  saddle-shaped  body  shield 
from  the  one  on  the  hind-quarters.  The  folds  behind  the  shoulder  and  in  front  of 
the  hind-quarters  continue  completely  across  the  back,  but  the  one  in  front  of  the 
shoulder  inclines  backward  and  dies  out  close  to  the  second  great  fold.  Other  folds 
form  great  rolls  of  skin  on  the  neck,  while  there  are  others  below  the  shields  on  the 
fore  and  hind-quarters  and  one  situated  behind  the  buttocks  which  forms  a  groove 
for  the  reception  of  the  tail.  The  head  is  very  large  in  proporti6n  to  the  body,  with 


GREAT    INDIAN    RHINOCEROS    IN    THE   ZOOLOGICAL    GARDENS. 

the  occipital  region  of  the  skull  very  much  elevated;  and  the  ears  are  large,  with 
their  tips  fringed  with  hairs.  The  horns  are  large  in  both  sexes;  and  the  color  of 
the  skin  is  a  uniform  blackish  gray.  In  height  the  Indian  rhinoceros  stands  from 
five  feet  to  five  and  three-fourths  feet  at  the  shoulder.  In  a  male  standing  five  feet 
nine  inches  at  the  shoulder,  measured  by  General  Kinloch,  the  length  from  the  tip 
of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  was  ten  feet  six  inches,  the  length  of  the  tail  two 
feet  five  inches,  and  the  girth  of  the  body  nine  feet  eight,  inches.  The  length  of  the 
horn  is  seldom  more  than  a  foot,  although  Jerdon  says  that  there  are  instances  on 
record  of  horns  of  two  feet  in  length,  and  one  in  the  British  Museum  measures  nine- 
teen inches. 


1054  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  Indian  rhinoceros  is  further  characterized  by  its  teeth.     As  a 
Teeth  rule,  there  is  but  a  single  pair  of  broad  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  al- 

though in  some  cases  there  may  be  a  smaller  pair  behind  them.  In  the  lower  jaw 
there  is  one  pair  of  long,  triangular,  pointed  tusks,  and  between  them  a  pair  of  small, 
cylindrical  incisors  which  can  be  of  no  functional  importance.  The  upper  molar 
teeth  have  tall  crowns,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  buttress  at  their  front  outer  angle, 
and  the  flat  plane  formed  by  their  worn  surface,  resemble  the  one  represented  in  the 
lower  figure  on  p.  1051.  They  are,  however,  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  the 
presence  of  a  small,  vertical  plate,  projecting  from  the  outer  wall  into  the  extremity 
of  the  middle  valley.'  It  will  be  obvious  that  this  flat  plane  of  wear  of  the  cheek- 
teeth implies  that  the  jaws  have  a  backward  and  forward  grinding  motion,  and  not 
a  champing  action;  such  a  mode  of  mastication  being  similar  to  that  existing  in 
horses  and  cattle. 

This  rhinoceros  is  exclusively  confined  to  India,  and  at  the  present 
Distribution 

day,  according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  is  almost  restricted  to  the  Assam  plain, 

being  rarely,  if  ever,  found  to  the  westward  of  the  Tista  river.  Twenty  or  thirty 
years  ago,  it  was,  however,  still  common  in  the  so-called  terai  country  at  the  foot  of 
the  Sikkim  Himalayas,  while  some  years  earlier  it  frequented  the  sub-Himalayan 
districts  of  Nipal,  and  ranged  as  far  west  as  Rohilcund;  while  the  writer  last  quoted 
believes  that,  about  the  year  1850,  it  also  occurred  in  the  grass  jungles  of  the  Gan- 
ges valley  at  the  north  end  of  the  Rahmahal  hills  in  Bengal.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century  it  ranged  over  the  Punjab  as  far  westward  as  Peshawur;  and 
since  its  fossilized  remains  are  found  in  the  Northwest  Provinces,  the  Narbada  valley, 
and  Madras,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Indian  rhinoceros  formerly  ranged  over  the 
greater  part  of  Peninsular  India,  in  localities  suited  to  its  habits. 

The  Indian  rhinoceros  is  a  denizen  of  the  great  grass  jungles  that 
cover  such  a  large  portion  of  the  plains  of  India,  and  from  this  circum- 
stance, coupled  with  the  general  resemblance  of  its  molar  teeth  to  those  of  the  Afri- 
can Burchell's  rhinoceros,  which  is  known  to  be  a  grass  eater,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  its  food  is  chiefly  grass.  Regarding  the  density  and  height  of  these  jungles, 
General  Kinloch  writes  that,  ' '  year  after  year,  in  the  short  space  of  two  or  three 
months,  these  giant  grasses  shoot  up  to  a  height  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet, 
forming,  with  the  wild  cardamum,  various  other  broad-leaved  plants,  and  numerous 
creepers,  a  tangled  cover  which  shelters  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  buf- 
falo, as  effectually  as  a  field  of  standing  corn  affords  concealment  to- the  partridge  or 
the  quail.  I  have  seen  a  line  of  about  fifteen  elephants  beating  a  strip  of  reeds  not 
more  than  two  hundred  yards  in  width,  and  I  could  hardly  see  the  grass  shake. 
There  was  not  as  much  commotion  or  indication  of  what  was  going  on,  as  would  be 
caused  by  a  pack  of  beagles  drawing  a  gorse  cover.  Runs  or  tunnels  among  the 
high  reeds,  like  magnified  '  meuses '  of  hares  and  rabbits,  show  that  the  same  paths 
through  the  thick  jungles  are  generally  made  use  of." 

The  rhinoceros  chiefly  frequents  such  portions  of  these  grass  jungles  as  are  on 
swampy  ground,  and  although  it  is  in  general  a  solitary  animal,  the  writer  just 
quoted  states  that  he  has  known  half  a  dozen  individuals  roused  from  a  belt  of  not 
more  than  half  a  mile  in  length  by  three  hundred  or  four  hundred  yards  in  width. 


THE  ASIATIC  RHINOCEROSES 


1055 


Like  tapirs,  the  Indian  rhinoceros  is  fond  of  a  mud  path.  Although  there  are  many 
stories  extant  as  to  its  ferocity,  and  more  especially  its  enmity  to  the  elephant,  it 
appears  that  this  animal  is  generally  quiet  and  harmless.  Even  when  wounded, 
according  to  Mr.  Blanford,  it  is  but  seldom  that  it  charges  home;  but  when  it  does 
attack,  the  sharp  lower  tusks  are  used  much  after  the  same  manner  as  those  of  a 
wild  boar.  The  only  sound  that  this  rhinoceros  utters  is  a  peculiar  grunt,  which  is 
repeated  at  frequent  intervals  during  excitement.  The  usual  gait  of  this  rhinoceros 
is  a  long,  swinging  trot,  but  when  disturbed,  it  can  break  into  an  awkward  but  very 
rapid  gallop.  Only  a  single  calf  is  produced  at  a  birth,  but  there  is  some  uncertainty 
as  to  the  length  of  the  period  of  gestation,  an  old  writer  stating  that  it  is  nine  months, 
while  a  more  recent  authority  affirms  that  it  is  nearly  or  quite  double  as  long. 
Since  rhinoceroses,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  have  not  bred  in  captivity  in  Europe,  the 
point  is  one  not  likely  to  be  soon  cleared  up.  The  Indian  rhinoceros  thrives  well  in 
confinement,  and  frequently  lives  in  that  state  for  a  long  period.  One  specimen  ac- 


GREAT    INDIAN     RHINOCEROS. 

quired  by  the  London  Zoological  Gardens  in  1834  lived  till  1849,  while  a  second, 
purchased  in  1850,  died  in  1874,  and  a  third,  presented  in  1864,  was  still  flourishing 
in  1894.  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  he  has  heard  of  captive  specimens  living  fifty  or 
sixty  years,  and  Mr.  Brian  Hodgson  was  of  opinion  that  the  natural  term  of  this 
animal's  life  is  upward  of  a  century. 

From  the  immense  thickness  and  apparent  toughness  of  its  enormous  folds,  it 
was  long  considered  that  the  hide  of  the  Indian  rhinoceros  was  bullet  proof,  and 
that  the  only  places  where  the  animal  was  vulnerable  were  the  joints  of  the  armor. 
General  Kinloch  relates  an  amusing  story  of  a  soldier  in  India,  who  had  heard  of 
this  legend,  firing  point-blank  at  a  tame  rhinoceros  which  had  been  captured  by  his 
regiment  during  the  Mutiny,  in  order  to  obtain  ocular  proof  of  its  truth.  Needless 
to  say,  as  the  shot  was  well  aimed,  the  unfortunate  animal  fell  dead,  which  meant 
a  considerable  loss  to  the  regimental  prize  fund.  And  we  may  mention  here  that 
the  Indian  rhinoceros,  like  all  its  kindred,  when  shot  sinks  down  in  its  tracks,  and 
lies  as  if  asleep,  instead  of  falling  over  on  its  side  like  most  other  Mammals. 


1056  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  skin  of  the  living  animal  is  quite  soft,  and  can  readily 
be  penetrated  in  any  place  by  a  bullet,  or  easily  pierced  by  a  hunting  knife.  When 
dried  it  becomes,  however,  exceedingly  hard;  and  it  was  formerly  employed  by  the 
Indian  princes  in  the  manufacture  of  shields  for  their  soldiery.  General  Kinloch 
states  that  "if  polished  the  hide  is  very  handsome  and  semitransparent,  and  when 
held  up  to  the  light  looks  exactly  like  tortoise  shell,  the  tubercles  giving  it  a  beau- 
tiful mottled  appearance." 

The  horn  is  used  by  the  Hindus  (to  whom  in  common  with  the  natives  of  most 
parts  of  India,  the  animal  is  known  by  the  name  of  gainda)  in  some  of  their  relig- 
ious ceremonies;  when  manufactured  into  cups  it  is  considered  by  the  Chinese  to 
possess  the  property  of  indicating  the  presence  of  poison. 

There  are  two  modes,  according  to  General  Kinloch,  of  hunting  the 
Hunting 

Indian  rhinoceros — "  one  by  quietly  tracking  up  the  animal  on  a  sin- 
gle elephant  until  he  is  at  last  found  in  his  lair,  or  perhaps  standing  quite  uncon- 
scious of  danger;  the  other,  by  beating  him  out  of  jungles  with  a  line  of  elephants, 
the  guns  being  stationed  at  the  points  where  he  is  most  likely  to  break  cover.  In 
the  latter  case  it  is  necessary  to  have  reliable  men  with  the  beaters,  who  can  exer- 
cise authority  and  keep  them  in  order,  for  both  mahouts  and  elephants  have  the 
greatest  dread  of  the  huge  brute,  who  appears  to  be  much  more  formidable  than  he 
really  is." 

The  same  writer  gives  his  experience  of  rhinoceros  hunting  as  follows.  On  a 
certain  occasion  the  General  and  his  party  "had  tracked  a  wounded  buffalo  into  a 
large  and  very  thick  cover,  into  which  it  was  useless  to  follow  him  with  any  chance 
of  getting  a  shot.  The  three  guns,  therefore,  went  on  ahead,  and  took  up  their  po- 
sitions at  the  other  end  of  the  cover,  while  the  pad  elephants  were  ordered  to  form 
line  and  beat  steadily  through  the  jungle.  After  waiting  a  long  time  at  my  post  I 
heard  some  large  animal  crashing  through  the  reeds,  and  as  the  line  of  beaters  ad- 
vanced the  waving  of  the  grass  betrayed  its  movements.  It  came  on  very  slowly, 
occasionally  stopping  for  some  time  to  listen,  and  again  making  a  cautious  advance. 
I  remained  still  as  death,  but  I  was  in  a  great  state  of  anxiety  lest  my  elephant 
should  become  uneasy  and  give  the  alarm.  Fortunately,  he  remained  silent,  and  at 
length  the  rhinoceros,  anticipating  no  danger  ahead,  and  pressed  by  the  steadily  ad- 
vancing line  of  elephants  behind  him,  poked  his  ugly  head  out  of  the  reeds  within 
twenty  yards  of  me.  I  could  only  see  his  snout  and  his  horn,  and  aimed  above  the 
latter  for  his  forehead.  I  either  took  a  bad  aim,  or  my  elephant  moved  slightly  as 
I  fired,  for,  as  I  afterward  found,  my  bullet  merely  grazed  the  snout,  cutting  a  deep 
furrow  along  the  base  of  the  horn.  As  the  rhinoceros  wheeled  round,  I  gave  him 
another  bullet  in  the  centre  of  his  ribs,  and  he  rushed  back  into  the  reeds  and 
through  the  beaters  with  an  angry  grunt.  On  search  being  made  in  the  jungle,  it 
was  found  that  the  second  bullet  had  done  its  work,  the  huge  animal  lying  dead 
with  its  legs  folded  beneath  the  body  in  the  usual  recumbent  posture." 
Javan  The  Javan>  or  lesser  one-horned  rhinoceros  (R.  sondaiciis),  is  an  al- 

Rhinoceros  to?etner  smaller  animal  than  the  preceding,  with  the  head  relatively 
less  large  in  proportion  to  the  body,  although  its  height  at  the  shoul- 
der is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior.      The  skin,  which  is  nearly  or  quite  naked,  lacks 


THE  ASIATIC  RHINOCEROSES  1057 

the  large  tubercles  of  the  Indian  rhinoceros;  while  the  fold  in  front  of  the  shoulder, 
instead  of  inclining  backward,  is  continued  right  across  the  body  like  the  other  two 
main  folds.  Superficially,  the  skin  is  divided  by  a  network  of  cracks  into  a  number 
of  small  mosaic-like  discs.  The  great  folds  of  skin  which  are  so  conspicuous  in  the 
neck  of  the  Indian  rhinoceros  are  in  this  species  much  less  strongly  developed.  The 
general  color  is  a  uniform  dusky  gray.  The  skull  is  less  elevated  than  in  the  larger 
species  in  the  occipital  region;  but  there  are  the  same  number  of  front  teeth.  In 
structure,  the  upper  molar  teeth  are,  however,  simpler,  resembling  the  lower  of  the 
two  figured  on  p.  1051;  and  their  crowns  are  not  so  tall.  Measurements  of  wild  in- 
dividuals appear  to  be  very  few,  but  in  a  large  female  the  height  at  the  shoulder  was 
five  and  one-half  feet.  The  female  is  generally  or  invariably  hornless. 

This  species  has  a  much  more  extensive  distribution  than  its  larger 
Distribution  .          ^i  .  .,  ,         .  ,    . 

cousin.     There  is  no  evidence    that  it   ever  occurred  in  Peninsular 

India,  but  it  is  found  in  the  Bengal  sundarbans  and  portions  of  Eastern  Bengal, 
while  it  has  been  met  with  in  the  Sikkim  "terai."  From  the  valley  of  Assam  it 
ranges  eastward  through  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  Sumatra,  Java,  and 
Borneo;  its  partially  fossilized  remains  occurring  in  the  latter  island. 

Mr.  Blanford  observes  that  this  species  "is  more  an  inhabitant  of 
the  forest  than  of  grass,  and  although  it  is  found  in  the  alluvial 
swamps  of  the  sundarbans,  its  usual  habitat  appears  to  be  in  hilly  countries.  It 
has  been  observed  at  considerable  elevations  both  in  Burma  and  Java."  Indeed, 
there  is  evidence  that  it  probably  ascends  occasionally  to  as  much  as  seven  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea  level.  This  species  being  a  forest-dwelling  one,  while  its  molar 
teeth  are  of  the  same  pattern  as  those  of  the  leaf  and  branch-eating  common  African 
rhinoceros,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  its  food  must  be  of  the  same  general  nature  as 
that  of  the  latter.  In  disposition  the  Javan  rhinoceros  is  said  to  be  more  gentle  than 
the  large  Indian  species,  and  it  is  not  unfrequently  tamed  by  the  Malays.  The 
liorns  are  never  large,  and  afford  but  poor  trophies  to  the  sportsman. 

In  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Hima- 
Allied  Siwalik  ]ayas  there  occur  remains  of  a  single -horned  rhinoceros  (R.  sivalensis) , 
which  appears  to  have  been  closely  allied  to  the  Javan  species,  of 
which  the  original  home  may  accordingly  have  been  India.  More  re- 
markable, however,  is  the  occurrence  of  a  fossil  rhinoceros  in  the  interior  of  the 
Himalayas,  at  an  elevation  of  about  sixteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level,  which 
likewise  seems  to  have  been  related  to  the  same  species.  It  may  be  added  that  an- 
other fossil  Indian  rhinoceros  (R.  pal&indicus} ,  of  which  an  upper  molar  tooth  is 
represented  in  the  lower  figure  on  p.  1051 ,  appears  to  have  been  the  forerunner  of  the 
living  great  Indian  rhinoceros;  its  molar  teeth  approximating  to  those  of  the  latter, 
although  of  a  rather  less  complex  structure. 

Reverting  to  the  living  Asiatic  species,  the  last  of  all  is  the  Suma- 

Sumatran  rhinoceros  (R.  sumatrensis) ,  which  is  mainly  characteristic  of  the 

Rhinoceros 

countries  to  the  eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  occurring  but  rarely 

in  Assam,  although  a  single  example  has  been  obtained  from  Bhutan.     From  Assam 
it  ranges  through  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  Siam,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo, 
but  it  is  quite  unknown  in  Java. 
67 


I058  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

This  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  living  species  of  rhinoceroses,  and  differs 
Characteristics  from  thg  preceding  kinds  in  carrying  two  horns.  It  is  further  distin- 
guished by  its  hairiness,  although  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  individual  variation 
in  this  respect.  As  a  rule,  the  greater  part  of  the  body  is  thinly  covered  with  brown 
or  black  hair  of  considerable  length,  while  there  are  larger  or  smaller  fringes  of  hair 
on  the  ears  and  tail.  The  skin,  which  is  rough  and  granular,  and  varies  in  cole 
from  earthy  brown  almost  to  black,  has  the  folds  much  less  developed  than  in  the 
single-horned  species,  and  only  the  one  behind  the  shoulders  continues  right 
across  the  back.  The  two  horns  are  placed  some  distance  apart,  and  when  fully  de- 


THE   SUMATRAN    RHINOCEROS. 
(The  horns,  as  in  most  captive  specimens,  are  abnormally  short.) 

veloped  are  thick  and  massive  at  the  base,  but  very  slender  above,  the  front  and  longer 
one  sweeping  backward-  in  a  graceful  curve.  In  many  specimens  the  horns  are,  how- 
ever, very  short,  and  in  examples  kept  in  confinement  like  the  one  from  which  our 
figure  is  taken,  they  become  worn  down  to  mere  stumps.  The  Sumatran  rhinoceros 
differs  from  its  two  Asiatic  cousins  in  having  lost  the  pair  of  small  incisor  teeth  in  the 
lower  jaw,  in  the  front  of  which  only  the  tusks  remain,  and  even  these  are  sometimes 
shed  in  old  age.  In  these  respects,  therefore,  this  species,  concomitantly  with  the  pres- 
ence of  two  horns,  shows  an  indication  of  approximating  to  the  African  rhinoceroses. 
In  addition  to  the  variation  in  the  degrees  of  development  of  the  hair,  this 
species  shows  considerable  individual  differences  in  color,  and  also  in  the  relative 


THE  ASIATIC  RHINOCEROSES     ^  1059 

breadth  of  the  skull.  A  specimen  purchased  in  1872,  by  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London,  for  over  five  thousand  dollars,  and  exhibited  in  their  gardens,  differed 
from  the  ordinary  form  by  its  superior  size,  paler  and  browner  color,  smoother  skin, 
shorter  and  more  thickly-tufted  tail,  and  the  longer,  finer,  and  more  reddish-colored 
hair;  the  latter  forming  a  long  fringe  on  the  ears,  of  which  the  insides  were  naked. 
This  animal  had  also  a  much  wider  head  than  ordinary.  It  was  accordingly  re- 
garded as  a  distinct  species,  under  the  name  of  the  hairy-eared  rhinoceros  (R. 
lasiotis] ;  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  cannot  be  considered  as  anthing  more  than  a 
well-marked  variety  of  the  Sumatran  species. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  regard  to  the  dimensions  of  this  species,  but 
Mr.  Blanford  considers  that  from  four  to  four  and  one-half  feet  will  represent 
about  the  average  height  at  the  shoulder.  In  the  above-mentioned  specimen  the 
height  at  the  shoulder  was  four  feet  four  inches,  and  the  length  from  the  tip  of 
the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  tail  eight  feet;  the  weight  of  the  animal  being  about 
two  thousand  pounds.  On  the  other  hand,  in  an  adult  female  from  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula, the  shoulder  height  was  only  three  feet  eight  inches.  There  is  also  great 
variation  in  regard  to  the  length  of  the  horns,  the  back  one  being  in  some  cases  re- 
duced to  an  almost  invisible  knob.  Mr.  E.  Bartlett  gives  the  following  particulars 
of  Bornean  specimens.  In  one  example,  the  front  horn  was  four  and  one-half  and 
the  second  two  inches  in  length;  in  a  second,  while  the  front  horn  measured  five 
inches,  the  back  one  was  a  mere  knob;  and  in  a  third,  the  front  horn  had  a  length  of 
nineteen  inches  with  a  girth  of  sixteen  inches,  the  second  horn  being  fairly  developed, 
although  not  more  than  about  three  inches  in  height.  A  single  specimen  of  a  front 
horn  had  a  length  of  eleven  inches,  with  a  basal  girth  of  eleven  and  one-half 
inches;  but  the  maximum  recorded  length  is  upward  of  thirty-two  inches  along 
the  curve. 

The  molar  teeth  of  this  species  are  almost  indistinguishable  from 
those  of  the  Javan  rhinoceros,  and  as  its  habits  appear  to  be  very  much 
the  same  as  those  of  the  latter,  the  diet  of  the  two  is  probably  also  similar.  The 
Sumatran  rhinoceros  inhabits  hilly,  forest  districts,  and  it  has  been  observed  in 
Tenasserim  at  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  good  swim- 
mer, and  is  reported  to  have  been  seen  swimming  in  the  sea  in  the  Mergui  Archi- 
pelago. Although  shy  and  timid  in  the  wild  state,  in  captivity  it  soon  becomes 
tame. 

Mr.  E.  Bartlett  states  that  in  Borneo  the  dyaks  are  very  partial  to  the  flesh  of 
this  species  as  an  article  of  diet.  And  he  adds  that  the  kyans  —  a  race  very  distinct 
from  the  dyaks  —  procure  the  horns  for  barter,  for  which  they  receive  a  high  price 
from  the  Chinese,  who  import  them  to  China  for  medicine.  The  horns  are  ground 
into  powder  for  some  diseases,  while  others  are  cut  into  minute  fragments  to  carry 
about  the  person.  The  same  writer  further  states  that  this  rhinoceros  is  becoming 
extremely  rare  in  the  province  of  Sarawak,  on  account  of  the  value  set  upon  its 
horns,  but  in  Central  and  North  Borneo  in  the  very  old  jungles  it  is  more  plentiful. 

In  1872  a  Sumatran  rhinoceros,  recently  imported  into  London,  gave  birth  to  a 
calf;  and  this  event  afforded  Mr.  A.  D.  Bartlett  data  for  considering  that  the  period 
of  gestation  was  a  little  over  seven  months.  This  however,  as  Mr.  Blanford  points 


io6o 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


out,  seems  a  very  short  period  for  such  a  large  animal,  and  contrasts  very  markedly 
with  the  length  of  time  assigned  by  Hodgson  to  the  great  Indian  rhinoceros. 

No  fossil  species  allied  to  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros  has  hitherto  been 

Allied  Extinct  obtained  from  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  India,  whence  we  may  conclude 
Species 

that  the  latter   is    probably   a  comparatively-recent  immigrant   into 

Northeastern     India.       Schleiermacher's    rhinoceros    (R.    schleiermacheri}   of    the 


THE    COMMON    AFRICAN    RHINOCEROS. 

(One-twenty-ninth  natural   size.) 

Miocene  and  lower  Pliocene  deposits  of  France  and  Germany  appears,  however,  to 
have  been  very  closely  allied  to  the  Sumatran  species,  and  thus  affords,  in  common 
with  some  other  fossil  Mammals,  evidence  of  an  eastward  migration  of  types  formerly 
inhabiting  Western  Europe. 


AFRICAN  RHINOCEROSES 


1061 


Characteristics 


AFRICAN  RHINOCEROSES 

Although  it  is  commonly  reported  by  hunters,  who  in  many  cases  derive  their 
information  from  native  sources,  that  there  are  several  kinds  of  rhinoceroses  inhab- 
iting Africa,  we  have  at  present  definite  acquaintance  with  only  two  species,  namely, 
the  common  African  rhinoceros,  frequently  spoken  of  as  the  black  rhinoceros,  and 
the  square-mouthed,  or  Burchell's  rhinoceros,  commonly  termed  the  white  rhinoc- 
eros. Since  there  is  but  little,  if  any,  marked  difference  in  the  color  of  the  two 
animals,  the  names  founded  on  this  characteristic  are  best  discarded.  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  a  third  species  may  inhabit  East  Africa. 

Both  species  are  furnished  with  two  horns,  which  attain  a  greater 
development  than  in  either  of  their  Asiatic  relatives.  From  all  the 
latter  the  African  rhinoceroses  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  any  permanent 
folds  in  the  skin,  and  also  by  the  want  of  both  incisor  teeth  and  tusks  in  the  adult 
state,  such  teeth  if  they  occur  even  in  the  young  being  rudimentary  and  function- 
less.  In  consequence  of  this  want  of  front  teeth,  the  extremities  of  both  the 
upper  and  lower  jaws  are  much  shorter  than  in  the  Asiatic  species.  Moreover, 
whereas  in  the  latter  the  nasal  bones  are  narrow  and  terminate  in  a  point,  in  the 
African  rhinoceroses  they  are  rounded  and  truncated  in  front.  In  both  kinds  the 
skin  of  the  body  is  almost  entirely  naked  and  comparatively  smooth;  but  there  is 
generally  a  little  fringe  or  tuft  of  hair  on  the  ears  and  tail. 

The  common  African  rhinoceros  (R.  bicornis}  is  the  smaller  of  the 
Common  two  SpecieS)  an(i  is  aiso  the  one  which  has  by  far  the  wider  distribu- 

tion, extending,  in  suitable  districts,  through  Eastern  and  Central 
Africa,  from  Abyssinia  in  the  north  to  the  Cape  Colony  in  the  south. 
From  the  character  of  the  upper  lip  this  species  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
prehensile-lipped  rhinoceros,  while  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Africa  it  is  variously 
termed  the  boreli 
or  upetyani,  the 
keitloa,  and  the 
kulumani ;  these 
different  native 
names,  as  we  shall 
notice  later,  re- 
ferring to  differ- 
ences in  the  rela- 
tive proportions 
of  the  two  horns. 
This  species  is 
best  characterized 
by  the  pointed  and 

slightly     prehen-  HEAD  OF  THE  COMMON  AFRICAN  RHINOCEROS. 

sile  upper  lip,  the 

small  and  rounded  nostrils,  and  the  position  of  the  eyes  being  a  little  behind  the 
continuation  of  the  axis  of  the  second  horn.     The  ears  are  of  moderate  length,  and 


African 
Rhinoceros 


io62  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED -MAMMALS 

furnished  with  a  fringe  of  hair  along  the  upper  edge,  while  in  some  cases  they  are 
rounded  above,  although  in  others  more  pointed.  There  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  individual  variation  as  to  the  length  and  amount  of  the  fringe  of  hair  on  the 
margins  of  the  ears.  The  molar  teeth  of  this  rhinoceros  are  of  the  type  of  the 
uppermost  of  the  two  represented  on  p.  1051 ;  that  is  to  say,  they  have  comparatively- 
low  crowns,  a  well-marked  buttress  at  their  front  outer  angle,  the  middle  valley  not 
divided  into  two  moieties  by  a  cross  partition,  and  the  surface  of  the  crown  when 
worn  raised  into  two  distinct  ridges.  The  latter  feature  shows  that  the  jaws  have  a 
somewhat  champing,  instead  of  a  completely  grinding  action;  and  since  we  know 
that  this  species  feeds  almost  exclusively  on  twigs  and  leaves,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  molar  teeth  of  this  pattern  always  indicate  a  similar  diet  for  their  owners. 
The  horns  are  well  developed  in  both  sexes. 

As  regards  dimensions,  in  an  adult  female  from  Abyssinia  described  by  Mr. 
Blanford,  the  length  from  the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  end  of  the  tail  measured  along 
the  curves  was  six  feet  nine  inches,  of  which  one  foot  nine  and  one-half  inches  was 
occupied  by  the  tail,  and  the  height  at  the  shoulder  four  feet  eight  and  one-half 
inches.  These  dimension  are,  however,  exceeded  by  males,  which,  according  to  Sir 
S.  Baker,  may  stand  from  five  feet  six  inches  to  five  feet  eight  inches  at  the 
shoulder. 

The  proportions  of  the  two  horns  to  one  another  vary  greatly,  the  front  one  be- 
ing in  some  cases  much  longer  than  the  hinder,  while  in  others  the  two  are  nearly 
or  quite  equal,  and,  more  rarely,  the  second  horn  may  be  the  longer  of  the  two. 
The  native  name  boreli  is  applied  to  those  individuals  in  which  the  second  horn  is 
the  shorter,  while  keitloa  is  restricted  to  such  as  have  horns  of  equal  length,  or  the 
second  longer  than  the  first.  Mr.  Selous  has  shown  that  there  is  a  complete  transi- 
tion from  the  one  to  the  other  type,  and  consequently  that  such  differences  cannot 
have  any  specific  value. 

In  regard  to  the  length  attained  by  the  horns  of  this  species,  it  ap- 
pears that  in  Abyssinia  and  other  parts  of  Northeast  Africa,  from  Sir  S. 
Baker's  experience,  the  front  horn  rarely  or  never  exceeds  twenty-three  or  twenty- 
four  inches,  but  much  larger  dimensions  are  recorded  in  South  and  East-African 
specimens.  Thus  examples  of  the  front  horn  are  described  as  measuring  44,  43,  41, 
40  and  38^  inches  in  length;  but  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  in  which  its  length 
is  21  inches,  in  none  of  these  examples  are  the  dimensions  of  the  second  horn  re- 
corded. In  one  specimen  the  length  of  the  first  and  second  horns  were  respectively 
31  and  19%  inches,  in  another  28^  and  15^,  in  a  third  28^  and  8^4,  in  a  fourth 
27  and  i6*/2,  in  a  fifth  21  j£  and  i&%,  and  in  a  sixth  14^  and  14%  inches.  The 
front  horn  is  generally  nearly  circular  in  section  and  slightly  curved  backward, 
while  the  second  is  nearly  straight,  much  compressed,  and  with  its  hinder  edge  often 
sharper  than  the  front  one.  Sir.  J.  Willoughby  killed  in  East  Africa  an  example 
of  this  rhinoceros  having  a  small  rudimental  third  horn  behind  the  normal  pair. 
Habits  In  Abyssinia  Mr-  Blanford  states  that  this  rhinoceros  is  confined  to 

the  lower  elevations,  not  ascending  above  some  five  thousand  feet.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Anseba  he  writes  that  "it  inhabits  the  dense  thickets  on  the  banks 
of  the  stream,  which  are  intersected  in  all  directions  by  the  paths  made  by  these 


AFRICAN  RHINOCEROSES  1063 

animals.  In  the  densest  parts,  where  roots  and  stems  render  the  jungle  almost  im- 
pervious, there  are  places  known  by  the  inhabitants  as  rhinoceros  houses.  The 
stems  and  branches  ha  ••  generally  been  broken  away  or  pushed  back,  so  as  to  leave 
a  clear  space,  about  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the 
•ground  has  been  worn  into  a  hollow  by  the  trampling  and  rolling  of  the  animal  in 
wet  weather.  These  houses  are  used  as  retreats  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  On 
two  or  three  occasions  we  disturbed  a  rhinoceros  from  one  of  these,  and  he  rushed 
•off  with  much  noise  and  loud  snorts  through  the  bushes.  So  far  as  we  could  learn 
from  our  observations,  these  animals  enter  the  thick  jungle  early  in  the  morning 
and  rest  until  one  or  two  o'clock  in  the  day,  then  they  leave  their  thickets  and  go 
out  to  feed,  usually  remaining,  however,  among  high  bushes.  At  the  time  of  year 
in  which  we  visited  the  country,  rain  generally  set  in  in  the  afternoon,  and,  even  if 
it  did  not  rain  the  sky  was  overcast.  In  the  clear  weather  the  rhinoceroses  are  said 
never  to  appear  before  evening.  They  are  great  browsers,  feeding  chiefly  on  the 
young  shoots  and  branches  of  acacia  and  other  trees,  or  on  fruits;  so  far  as  I  could 
see  they  do  not  generally  eat  grass.  Their  movements  are  very  quick,  their  usual 
pace  being  a  smart  trot,  and  the  numerous  tracks  show  that  they  move  about  a  good 
deal."  After  expressing  his  doubts  as  to  the  statements  of  the  natives  that  a  man 
on  horse  cannot  escape  from  one  of  these  animals,  Mr.  Blanford  adds  that  ' '  they 
are  easily  eluded  by  turning,  as  they  are  not  quick  of  sight,  and,  like  most  Mam- 
mals, they  never  look  for  enemies  in  trees;  consequently,  a  man  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  ground  will  remain  unnoticed  by  them  if  he  keeps  quiet.  They  are  said 
to  be  extremely  savage,  and  unquestionably  the  first  one  killed  by  us  charged  most 
viciously.  ...  I  cannot  help  thinking,  however,  that  their  savage  disposition 
has  been  somewhat  exaggerated."  Most  of  these  animals  seen  by  the  members  of 
the  Abyssinian  Epedition  were  in  pairs, —  an  old  female  with  a  nearly  full-grown 
calf, —  but  on  one  occasion  four  were  observed.  Mr.  Blanford  compares  the  snort 
of  alarm  or  rage  uttered  by  these  animals  when  disturbed  to  the  noise  of  a  loo> 
motive  rather  than  to  the  sound  of  any  other  animal. 

The  foregoing  account  is  confirmed  in  all  essential  particulars  by  the  observa- 
tions of  Mr.  Selous  in  Southeastern  Africa,  who  writes  that  this  species  of  rhi- 
noceros "lives  exclusively  upon  bush  and  roots,  eating  not  only  the  young  leaves  as 
they  sprout  from  the  end  of  a  twig,  but  also  chewing  up  a  good  deal  of  the  twig 
itself.  It  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  this  species  lives  upon  bush  that  its  range  is  very 
much  more  extended  than  that  of  the  square-mouthed  rhinoceros;  for  there  are 
many  large  districts  of  the  country  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Zambezi  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  Victoria  Falls  covered  almost  entirely  with  an  endless  succession  of  rug- 
ged hills,  almost  devoid  of  grass,  though  well  wooded,  in  all  of  which  districts  the 
prehensile-lipped  rhinoceros  is  numerous,  as  it  thrives  well  upon  the  scrubby  bush 
with  which  the  hillsides  and  valleys  are  covered;  whereas  the  square-mouthed 
species,  though  common  in  the  forest-clad  sand  belts  and  broad  grassy  valleys  which 
always  skirt  the  hills,  is  seldom  or  never  found  among  the  hills  themselves,  which 
is  doubtless  because  the  pasturage  is  too  scanty  to  enable  it  to  exist." 

The  same  writer  also  tells  us  that  this  rhinoceros,  like  the  larger  African  species, 
•exhibits  extraordinary  activity  in  getting  over  hilly  and  rocky  ground,  and  that  it 


io64  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

can  traverse  places  which  at  first  sight  appear  utterly  impracticable  for  an  animal  of 
its  bulky  and  apparently  clumsy  build.  We  also  learn  from  the  same  observer  that 
while  the  present  species  of  rhinoceros  always  walks  with  its  nose  carried  high  in 
the  air,  the  other  kind  walks  with  its  muzzle  close  to  the  ground.  Again,  whereas 
in  the  common  species  the  calf  invariably  follows  its  mother,  the  offspring  of  Bur- 
chell's  rhinoceros  as  constantly  precedes  its  parent. 

Mr.  Selous  agrees  with  Mr.  Blanford  that  the  ferocity  of  the  prehensile-lipped 
rhinoceros  has  been  much  exaggerated,  and  he  is,  indeed,  inclined  to  regard  it  as  an 
animal  of  a  rather  cowardly,  if  not"  exactly  peaceable,  disposition.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  borne  in  mind  that  those  sportsmen  who  have  attributed  a  ferocious  dis- 
position to  this  species,  always  make  a  distinction  in  this  respect  between  the  boreli 
and  the  keitloa,  and  give  to  the  latter  a  much  better  character  than  they  assign  to 
the  former.  Whether  any  difference  in  this  respect  is  really  associated  with  the 
variations  to  which  these  names  refer,  we  are  not  prepared  to  say  (although  it  seems 
most  unlikely);  but  it  is  important  to  notice  that  even  those  who  attribute  extreme 
ferocity  of  disposition  to  some  individuals  of  this  species  have  never  asserted  that 
this  applies  to  all.  Mr.  Selous  states  that  he  was  only  once  charged  by  a  common 
rhinoceros,  and  this  after  strong  provocation  and  even  then  the  animal  did  not 
charge  home;  and  he  considers  that  vicious  individuals  are  comparatively  few  and 
far  between.  "These  animals,"  writes  the  same  observer,  "are  very  quick  and  rest- 
less in  their  movements,  and  either  very  inquisitive  or  mistrustful  of  their  eyesight, 
for  usually,  when  disturbed  by  anyone  approaching  from  below  the  wind,  they  will 
jump  up  with  a  snort,  gaze  fixedly  at  the  intruder,  then,  with  another  snort, 
trot  quickly  a  few  steps  nearer,  stand  again,  move  their  heads  with  a  quick  motion, 
first  to  one  side  then  to  the  other,  advance  again  perhaps,  and  finally,  when  shouted 
at,  whisk  quickly  round  and  trot  away  in  grand  style,  with  tail  screwed  up  over 
their  backs."  Recounting  his  experiences  in  Mashonaland,  where  he  sometimes 
met  with  five,  six,  or  even  eight  in  a  day,  Mr.  Selous  says  that  whenever  these 
animals  met  his  wind,  they  invariably  made  off  at  once,  but  when  they  only  saw 
him,  they  acted  in  the  manner  above  described.  On  occasions  of  the  latter  kind  the 
Kaffirs  would  take  refuge  up  the  nearest  tree,  and  would  urge  their  master  to  do 
likewise.  He,  however,  always  stood  his  gronnd,  and  found  that  although  the  rhi- 
noceroses would  sometimes  advance  in  his  direction  from  about  forty  to  twenty  yards' 
distance,  yet,  that  if  he  threw  stones  or  assagais  at  them,  or  even  simply  shouted, 
they  always  eventually  turned  tail  and  fled.  If,  however,  a  rhinoceros  is  fired  upon 
when  thus  facing  a  man,  it  will,  after  dropping  upon  its  knees,  very  often  spring  up 
and  rush  straight  forward;  but  Mr.  Selous  attributes  such  action  not  to  any  inten- 
tion of  making  a  charge,  but  merely  to  the  animal  being  maddened  by  the  shock 
and  rushing  blindly  ahead;  and  he  considers  that  it  is  thus  that  many  of  the  accounts 
of  its  fierceness  and  aggressiveness  have  originated.  He  adds,  however,  that  one  of 
these  animals  when  in  full  career,  and  either  wounded  or  tired,  will  not  hesitate 
to  charge  any  obstacle  that  may  be  in  its  path,  even  a  wagon  and  a  team  of  oxen. 
Finally,  Mr.  Selous  states  that  he  believes  the  pursuit  of  the  common  African  rhi- 
noceros to  be  attended  with  less  danger  than  that  of  either  the  lion,  elephant,  or 
buffalo;  and  he  supports  this  opinion  by  observing  that  both  Kaffirs  and  Hottentots, 


AFRICAN  RHINOCEROSES  1065 

who  but  seldom  care  to  molest  a  lion,  never  have  the  slightest  hesitation  in  attack- 
ing a  rhinoceros.  The  foregoing  account  is  confirmed  in  all  essential  particulars  by 
Sir  John  Willoughby,  who  suggests,  however,  that  the  rhinoceros  is  apt  to  be  dan- 
gerous at  certain  seasons. 

In  Southeastern  Africa  Mr.  Drummond  states  that  both  species  of  rhinoceroses 
generally  leave  their  lairs  about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  or,  in  districts  where 
there  are  many  human  beings,  somewhat  later.  They  commence  feeding  in  the 
direction  of  their  drinking  places,  to  which  they  travel  by  regular  beaten  paths,  and 
arrive  at  the  same  somewhere  about  dark.  If  the  drinking  place  is  a  mudhole  they 
frequently  refresh  themselves  with  a  roll,  after  drinking  their  fill.  They  then  start 
for  their  favorite  thorn  feeding  grounds,  where  they  remain  till  daybreak,  when 
they  generally  again  drink.  At  an  earlier  or  later  hour  after  this,  the  time  being 
to  some  extent  dependent  on  the  freedom  of  the  district  from  human  intrusion,  they 
retire  to  their  sleeping  places,  which  they  reach  at  any  rate  before  the  heat  of  the 
day.  The  lair  is  always  in  an  extremly  sheltered  and  deeply-shaded  spot,  and  so 
heavily  do  they  slumber  that  a  practiced  stalker  could  almost  touch  them  with  the 
muzzle  of  a  gun,  unless  they  are  awakened  by  the  birds  which  accompany  them  in 
search  of  the  ticks  with  which  they  are  infested.  Mr.  Hunter  states,  however,  that 
in  the  Kilima-Njaro  district  rhinoceroses  lie  out  in  the  open  plain  during  the  day. 

The  common  rhinoceros  is  met  with  in  Southern  Africa  generally  either  solitary 
or  in  familj'  parties  of  two  or  three.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  usually  a  female  accom- 
panied by  her  calf;  but  Sir  J.  Willoughby  met  a  male,  female,  and  half-grown  calf 
together,  and  as  in  this  instance  the  horns  of  the  male  were  much  shorter  than  those 
of  the  female,  it  may  be  that  the  longer  horns  generally  belong  to  the  latter  sex. 
Occasionally  several  full-grown  individuals  are  seen  together,  Mr.  Drummond  stat- 
ing that  on  one  occasion  he  met  with  a  party  of  six  or  seven.  Sir  J.  Willoughby 
relates  that  once  he  shot  one  of  a  pair  of  these  rhinoceroses,  which  was  immediately 
fiercely  attacked  and  rolled  over  by  its  companion.  When  a  cow  rhinoceros  is  killed, 
the  calf  generally  remains  by  the  dead  body  of  its  parent,  from  which  it  can  with 
difficulty  be  dragged  away. 

Like  most  other  large  African  animals,  the  common  rhinoceros  is 
rapidly  decreasing  in  numbers  from  the  incessant  pursuit  to  which  it 
is  subjected  in  the  southern  and  eastern  portion  of  the  continent.  Writing  in  1881, 
Mr.  Selous  said  that  it  was  still  fairly  common  in  Southeastern  Africa,  although  it 
had  been  nearly  exterminated  in  the  regions  to  the  westward.  Only  a  few  then 
remained  on  the  Chobe,  while  between  that  river  and  the  Zambezi  there  were  none, 
and  the  natives  said  that  there  never  had  been  any  in  that  district.  Northward  of 
the  Zambezi  they  were,  however,  again  met  with,  and  from  thence  they  doubtless 
extend  through  the  whole  of  Central  Africa  to  Abyssinia  and  the  Sudan.  In  the 
Kilima-Njaro  district  Sir  J.  Willoughby 's  party  found  these  rhinoceroses  very  plen- 
tiful in  1886,  having  on  one  occasion  seen  as  many  as  sixteen  head  during  a  single 
day's  march. 

In  Southern  Africa  the  common  rhinoceros  is  hunted  either  by  being  followed 
up  when  out  feeding  on  the  plains,  or  by  the  hunter  lying  in  wait  at  its  drinking 
places.  In  the  Sudan  the  Hamram  Arabs  are,  however,  in  the  habit  of  chasing  the 


1066  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

rhinoceros  on  horseback,  and  of  hamstringing  it  by  a  dexterous  stroke  of  a  long 
two-handed  sword.  This  sport,  according  to  Sir  S.  Baker,  tries  the  speed  of  the 
best  horses,  and  that  writer's  account  of  the  chase  of  a  couple  of  these  animals, 
which,  after  running  more  than  two  miles,  defied  further  pursuit  by  escaping  into 
thick  cover,  is  probably  known  to  many  of  our  readers.  An  Arab  hunter  explained 
to  Sir  S.  Baker,  that  at  all  times  the  rhinoceros  was  the  most  difficult  animal  to 
sabre,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary  swiftness,  and,  although  he  had  killed  many 
with  the  sword,  it  was  always  after  a  long  and  fatiguing  hunt,  at  the  close  of  which 
the  animal  becoming  tired  generally  turned  at  bay,  in  which  case  one  hunter  occu- 
pied his  attention,  while  another  galloped  up  behind  and  severed  the  hamstring. 
The  rhinoceros,  unlike  the  elephant,  can  go  very  well  upon  three  legs,  which 
enhances  the  danger,  as  one  cut  will  not  disable  him.  A  less  sporting  method 
adopted  by  the  Arabs  of  the  same  regions  is  to  dig  a  hole  about  two  feet  deep  by 
fifteen  inches  in  diameter  in  the  animal's  run,  and  to  place  in  the  centre  a  rather 
elaborately-constructed  snare,  to  which  is  attached  a  rope  with  a  heavy  log  of  wood 
at  the  other  end.  When  the  rhinoceros  steps  on  the  pit,  one  of  its  feet  is  caught  in 
the  running  noose.  When  caught,  the  first  effort  of  the  rhinoceros  is  to  escape,  and  he 
forthwith  pulls  the  log  from  the  trench  in  which  it  was  buried.  "  This  log,"  writes 
Sir  S.  Baker,  "  acts  as  a  drag,  and,  by  catching  in  the  jungle  and  the  protruding 
roots  of  trees,  it  quickly  fatigues  him.  On  the  following  morning  the  hunters 
discover  the  rhinoceros  by  the  track  of  the  log  that  has  plowed  along  the  ground, 
and  the  animal  is  killed  by  lances  or  by  the  sword. ' ' 

The  same  writer  adds  that  the  hide  of  a  rhinoceros  will  produce  seven  shields; 
these  being  worth  about  two  dollars  each,  as  simple  hide  before  manufacture.  The 
horn  is  sold  in  Abyssinia  for  about  two  dollars  per  pound,  for  the  manufacture  of 
sword  hilts,  which  are  much  esteemed  if  of  this  material.  In  South  Africa  the  flesh 
of  the  common  rhinoceros  is  much  appreciated  by  the  natives  as  food;  but  as  the 
animal  never  has  any  fat,  the  meat  is  somewhat  dry. 

L,ike  other  members  of  the  genus,  this  rhinoceros  appears  to  be  long  lived  even 
in  captivity,  a  specimen  from  Nubia,  acquired  by  the  Zoological  Society  of  London 
in  1868,  having  lived  in  the  menagerie  till  1891. 

Extinct  Ally         ^^e  immediate  ancestor  of  this  species  appears  to  have  been  the  ex- 
tinct thick-jawed  rhinoceros  (R.  pachygnathus} ,  of  which  a  series  of 
finely-preserved  remains  have  been  obtained  from  the  well-known  fresh-water  depos- 
its of  Pikermi,  near  Attica,  belonging  to  the  Pliocene  period. 

Burchell's  ^e  ^arSest  °f  tne  grouP  is  the  square-mouthed,  or  Burchell's  rhi- 

Rhinoceros  noceros  (R-  simus),  commonly  known  as  the  white  rhinoceros,  which 
is  now,  alas,  practically  exterminated.  In  addition  to  its  great  size, 
this  species  is  characterized  by  its  bluntly-truncated  muzzle  and  the  absence  of  a 
prehensile  extremity  to  the  upper  lip,  as  well  as  by  the  great  proportionate  length 
of  the  head,  which  in  large  specimens  is  more  than  a  foot  longer  than  in  the  com- 
mon species.  Moreover,  the  nostrils  form  long  narrow  slits;  the  eye  is  placed 
entirely  behind  the  line  of  the  second  horn;  and  the  ear  is  very  long,  sharply  pointed 
at  the  extremity,  where  it  has  but  a  very  small  tuft  of  hair,  and  has  its  lower  por- 
tion completely  closed  for  some  distance,  so  as  to  form  a  tube.  The  front  horn 


AFRICAN  RHINOCEROSES 


1067 


attains  a  greater  length  than  in  the  common  species.  In  the  skull  the  extremity  of 
the  lower  jaw  forms  a  much  wider  and  shallower  channel  than  in  the  R.  bicornis, 
and  the  structure  of  the  upper  cheek-teeth  is  different.  These  teeth  resemble  in 
general  structure  those  of  the  great  Indian  rhinoceros,  having  very  tall  crowns, 
with  flat  grinding  surfaces,  no  distinct  buttress  at  the  front  outer  angle,  and  the 
outer  portion  of  the  middle  valley  cut  off  by  a  partition.  They  are,  however,  quite 
peculiar  among  existing  species,  in  having  a  large  amount  of  cement  investing  the 
interior  and  filling  up  the  valleys  of  the  crown.  Moreover,  the  third  molar  in  the 


BURCHEU/S    RHINOCEROS. 

(One-thirtieth  natural  size.) 

Tipper  jaw,  instead  of  -being  triangular  in  shape,  closely  resembles  the  tooth  in  front 
of  it;  a  peculiarity  found  elsewhere  only  among  certain  extinct  hornless  species.  In 
color  Burchell's  rhinoceros  differs  but  little  from  the  common  species,  the  general 
hue  of  both  being  a  slaty  gray. 

In  height  this  rhinoceros  is  known  to  reach  six  and  one-half  feet  at 
tfae  shoulder;  and  it  js  sajd  ^ai  specimens  were  formerly  obtained 
which  slightly  exceeded  these  dimensions.  As  regards  length,  our  information  is 
far  from  satisfactory.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  length  may  be  something  between 


Dimensions 


io68  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

eighteen  and  nineteen  feet;  but  this  seems  quite  incredible,  more  especially  as  the 
proportions  of  our  figure  indicate  that  the  length  was  rather  more  than  double  the 
height,  which  would  make  it  about  fourteen  feet.  One  of  the  specimens  referred  to 
below  has  a  length  of  twelve  feet  one  inch,  and  a  height  at  the  shoulder  of  six  feet 

two  inches. 

There  is  fully  as  much  variation  in  the  relative  length  of  the  horns  as  in  the 
common  species,  the  second  horn  being  sometimes  a  mere  stump,  and  at  others  at- 
taining a  length  of  two  feet,  while  in  some  instances  both  are  comparatively  short. 
The  front  horn  is,  moreover,  liable  to  considerable  variation  in  shape.  Thus,  in  the 
typical  form  of  the  species,  it  curves  backward  in  a  more  or  less  bold  sweep,  as  shown 
in  our  figure  of  the  head,  the  individuals  exhibiting  this  form  being  known  to  the 
Bechuanas  by  the  name  of  mohohu.  In  other  cases,  as  shown  in  our  illustration  of 
the  entire  animal,  the  front  horn  is  nearly  straight,  with  a  forward  inclination, 
specimens  with  this  type  of  horn  being  designated  by  the  natives  as  the  kabaoba. 
When  the  anterior  horn  is  straight  and  attains  the  length  of  about  a  yard,  the  point 
touches  the  ground  as  the  animal  walks  along  when  feeding,  and  such  horns  conse- 
quently always  show  a  flat  surface  on  the  front  of  the  tip  produced  by  friction.  It 
was  at  one  time  considered  that  the  mohohu  and  the  kabaoba  were  distinct  species, 
but  Mr.  Selous  has  shown  not  only  that  they  consort  together,  but  that  there  is  a 
complete  transition  from  the  one  type  of  horn  to  the  other.  As  a  rule,  the  horns  of 
females  are  longer,  and  more  slender  than  those  of  males. 

The  longest-known  horn  is  one  of  the  kabaoba  type  in  the  British  Museum,  of 
which  the  total  length  is  fifty-six  and  one-half  inches.  The  history  of  this  speci- 
men is  unknown,  but  it  has  been  in  the  collection  for  a  very  long  period.  Next  to 
this  is  an  example  of  the  mohohu  type  recorded  by  Mr.  Selous,  of  which  the  length 
is  given  as  fifty-four  inches.  Other  fine  specimens  of  the  front  horn  measure  44, 
42! ,  40,  and  38^-  inches.  In  examples  where  both  horns  have  been  preserved,  the 
length  of  the  front  one  in  one  case  is  thirty-seven  and  three-eighths  and  that  of 
the  back  seventeen  and  seven-eighths  inches,  while  in  another  these  dimensions 
are  thirty-three  and  thirteen  inches.  At  the  time  when  these  rhinoceroses  were 
abundant  it  was  the  ambition  of  every  South- African  chief  to  possess  a  long  staff,  or 
kerrie,  made  from  a  front  horn;  and  it  is,  therefore,  as  Mr.  H.  A.  Bryden  suggests, 
highty  probable  that  the  largest  dimensions  recorded  above  may  have  been  consider- 
ably exceeded. 

The  range  of  this  rhinoceros  was  always  limited,  and  apparently 
never  extended  north  of  the  Zambezi;  this  restricted  distribution  be- 
ing, as  already  mentioned,  largely  due  to  the  creature's  grass-eating  habits.  For 
the  last  seventy  or  eighty  years  it  has  been  unknown  to  the  south  of  the  Orange 
river,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Bryden,  there  is  a  tradition  that  it  formerly  roamed 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  Cape  Colony.  About  the  middle  of  the  present  century, 
when  Gordon  Gumming,  and  afterward  Andersson,  made  their  well-known  hunt- 
ing tours,  Burchell's  rhinoceros  was  comparatively  common  in  parts  of  the  Kala- 
hari desert,  Ngamiland,  and  various  districts  between  the  Orange  and  Zambezi 
rivers.  Indeed,  Gordon  Gumming  states  that  on  one  occasion  he  saw  upward  of 
twelve  of  these  magnificent  animals  together  in  long  grass,  while  Andersson  and 


AFRICAN  RHINOCEROSES 


1069 


Chapman  speak  of  having  shot  as  many  as  eight  in  a  single  night,  while  they  were 
drinking  at  a  water  hole  during  the  dry  season.  Mr.  Selous  remarks,  however,  that 
the  numbers  thus  met  with  were  probably  drawn  together  from  over  a  large  tract  of 
country,  as  at  such  times  drinking  places  are  few  and  far  between.  In  1874,  Mr. 
Selous  met  with  a  considerable  number  of  these  rhinoceroses  on  the  Chobe,  but  on 
again  visiting  the  same  district  in  1877  he  only  came  across  traces  of  two,  while  in 
1879  they  had  completely  disappeared.  In  North  Mashonaland  there  were,  how- 
ever, still  a  considerable  number  between  1878  and  1880,  while  others  were  to  be 
met  with  in  a  small  tract  011  the  Sabi  river  in  Southeastern  Africa.  About  ten  years 


HEAD    OF    BURCHELL'S    RHINOCEROS. 

(After    Sclater.) 

ago  Mr.  Selous  was,  however,  only  able  to  find  a  single  specimen  in  Mashonaland, 
and  it  was  then  thought  that  this  animal,  which  fell  to  his  rifle,  was  actually  the 
last  of  its  race.  In  a  remote  corner  of  Mashonaland  this  indefatigable  hunter  found, 
however,  some  half-dozen  individuals  still  living  in  1892,  two  of  which  were  subse- 
quently shot  by  Mr.  R.  T.  Coryndon.  In  the  North  Kalahari  desert  the  species  had 
been  completely  exterminated  some  years  previous  to  1890. 

The  extirpation  of  this  rhinoceros  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  since  the  mu- 
seums are  very  badly  off  for  specimens.  It  is,  however,  fortunate  that  Mr.  Coryn- 
don has  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  skeletons  and  skins  of  two  adult  examples, 


1070 

which  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum  and  the  Rothschild  Museum  at  Trmg; 
while  there  is  also  a  stuffed  specimen  in  the  Museum  at  Leyden.  In  addition  to  a 
magnificent  skull,  with  horns,  the  British  Museum  likewise  possesses  a  fine  series  of 

detached  horns. 

In  treating  of  the  common  African  rhinoceros,  we  have  already  had 
Habits  occasion  to  refer  to  the  exclusively  grass-eating  habits  of  this  species, 

and  the  consequent  restriction  of  its  habitat  to  open  grassy  plains.  We  have  also 
alluded  to  its  habit  of  walking  with  its  head  carried  close  to  the  ground,  and  like- 
wise to  the  circumstance  that  the  calf  always  precedes  its  mother  when  walking.  It 
may  be  added  that  the  mother  appears  to  direct  the  course  of  her  offspring  with  her 
long  front  horn.  As  regards  its  time  of  feeding  and  taking  repose,  the  animals  of 
this  species  closely  resemble  those  of  the  ordinary  kind.  Mr.  Selous  states  that 
"  their  sight  is  very  bad,  but  they  are  quick  of  hearing  and  their  scent  is  very  keen; 
they  are,  too,  often  accompanied  by  rhinoceros  birds,  which,  by  flying  about  their 
heads,  napping  their  wings,  and  screeching  at  the  same  time,  frequently  give  them 
notice  of  the  approach  of  danger.  When  disturbed,  they  go  off  at  a  swift  trot, 
which  soon  leaves  all  pursuit  from  a  man  on  foot  far  behind;  but  if  chased  by  a 
horseman  they  break  into  a  gallop,  which  they  can  keep  up  for  some  distance. 
However,  although  they  run  very  swiftly,  when  their  size  and  heavy  build  are  con- 
sidered, they  are  no  match  for  an  average  good  horse.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  very 
easy  to  shoot  on  horseback,  as,  if  one  gallops  a  little  in  front  of  and  on  one  side  of 
them,  they  will  hold  their  course,  and  come  sailing  past,  offering  a  magnificent 
broadside  shot,  while  under  similar  circumstances  a  prehensile-lipped  rhinoceros 
will  usually  swerve  away  in  such  a  manner  as  only  to  present  his  hind-quarters  for 
a  shot." 

These  animals  were  generally  found  in  pairs  or  in  parties  of  three,  although 
as  already  mentioned,  sometimes  considerably  more  were  seen  together.  Although, 
as  we  have  seen,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  temper  and  disposition 
of  the  other  species,  all  sportsmen  agree  that  Burchell's  rhinoceros  was  generally  a 
harmless  and  inoffensive  creature.  Still,  sometimes  it  would  when  wounded  make 
a  charge;  and  from  the  enormous  size  of  the  animal  such  a  charge  was  a  serious 
matter  for  those  against  whom  it  was  directed.  On  one  occasion  Mr.  Oswell  caught 
sight  of  one  of  these  rhinoceroses,  and,  putting  spurs  to  his  horse,  soon  came  up 
alongside.  He  fired  with  good  effect,  but  the  animal,  instead  of  attempting  to  es- 
cape, eyed  its  adversary  for  a  moment,  and  then  deliberately  advancing,  made  r\ 
sudden  rush  at  his  horse,  thrusting  the  long  front  horn  completely  through  the  ani- 
mal's body,  so  that  the  point  of  the  weapon  struck  the  rider's  leg  through  the  flap 
of  the  saddle  on  the  other  side.  Fortunately,  Mr.  Oswell  was  so  little  injured,  that 
he  was  enabled  to  disengage  himself  from  the  body  of  his  dead  horse,  and  kill  his 
formidable  opponent. 

When  shot  through  the  heart  or  both  lungs,  this  rhinoceros,  like  the  other 
species,  Mr.  Selous  tells  us,  is  quickly  killed.  If,  however,  the  bullet  penetrates  but 
one  lung,  they  will  go  on  for  miles,  although  blood  may  be  streaming  from  their 
mouth  and  nose.  Similarly,  they  will  hold  on  their  course,  at  first  at  a  gallop  and 
then  at  a  trot,  with  a  broken  shoulder,  for  more  than  a  mile;  but  a  broken  hind-leg 


EXTINCT  RHINOCEROSES 


1071 


brings  them  immediately  to  a  stop.  The  latter  circumstance  is  somewhat  at  vari- 
ance with  Sir  S.  Baker's  account  of  hunting  the  common  rhinoceros  in  the  Sudan, 
referred  to  on  p.  1065. 

Burchell's  rhinoceros  differed  from  the  other  African  species  in  that  during  the 
autumn  and  winter  months,  that  is  to  say  from  March  till  August,  it  accumulated 
an  enormous  quantity  of  fat;  and  at  such  times  its  flesh  is  stated  to  have  been  of 
excellent  quality,  somewhat  resembling  beef,  but  with  a  peculiar  and  characteristic 
flavor  of  its  own.  The  favorite  dish  was  the  hump  on  the  withers,  which  was  cut 
out  and  cooked  with  the  skin  on  in  a  hole  in  the  ground.  The  flesh  of  the  calf  was 
excellent  at  any  season,  and  has  been  compared  to  very  tender  veal. 

Certain  very  remarkable  front  horns  of  a  rhinoceros  obtained  from 
_  traders  at  Zanzibar,  and  doubtless  belonging  to  an  East- African  form, 

'  may  possibly  indicate  a  third  species,  which  may  be  known  as  Holm- 
wood's  rhinoceros.  These  horns,  one  of  which  measures  forty-two  inches,  are 
characterized  by  their  great  length  and  slenderness,  coupled  with  the  small  size  of  the 
base.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  are  abnormal  horns  of  the  female  of  the 
common  species,  but  it  is  quite  probable  that  they  belong  to  a  totally  different  ani- 
mal, which  may  be  more  nearly  allied  to  Burchell's  rhinoceros. 


EXTINCT  RHINOCEROSES 

In  the  course  of  the  preceding  paragraphs,  some  reference  has  been  made  to 
certain  extinct  species  of  rhinoceroses  which  approximate  closely  to  some  of  the 
existing  members  of  the  group.  Besides  these,  there  are,  however,  a  multitude  of 
extinct  species, 
which  ranged  not 
only  over  Europe 
and  Asia,  but 
likewise  North 
America.  It  has, 
indeed,  been  sug- 
gested  that 
America  was  the 
original  home  of 
these  animals, 
from  whence  they 
migrated  to  Asia 
and  Europe;  but 

it  appears   to   us     SKUI<I<  OF  EXTINCT  RHINOCEROS  FROM  THE  BRICK  EARTH  OF  ESSEX. 
that  the  evidence 

is  equally  in  favor  of  the  migration  having  been  in  the  opposite  direction.  These 
rhinoceroses  occur  throughout  the  Tertiary  period  as  far  down  as  the  upper  Eocene 
division;  and  even  at  that  low  horizon  many  of  the  species  may  be  referred  to  the 
living  genus,  although  in  most  cases  they  were  unprovided  with  horns,  while  some 


io;2  THE  UNGULA  TES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

of  them  had  four  toes  to  each  fore-foot.     Rhinoceroses  are,  therefore,  even  more 
ancient  animals  than  tapirs. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  a  rhinoceros  from  Greece,  which  was  closely 
allied  to  the  common  living  African  species;  but  there  were  also  several  other  ex- 
tinct Old- World  kinds  resembling  the  existing  African  rhinoceroses  in  the  presence  of 
two  horns  and  in  the  absence  of  front  teeth,  while  in  some  cases  there  is  evidence 
to  prove  that  their  skins  were  of  the  smooth  type.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  species  is  the  broad-nosed  rhinoceros  (/?.  platyrhinus)  from  the  Siwalik 
Hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  which  was  an  enormous  animal,  with  upper 
molar  teeth  resembling  in  structure  those  of  Burchell's  rhinoceros,  although 
the  last  one  was  of  the  ordinary  triangular  shape.  The  other  species,  with 
molar  teeth  of  similar  type,  is  the  woolly  rhinoceros  (R.  antiquitatis} ,  so  called  from 
the  thick  coat  of  woolly  hair  with  which  its  body  was  covered.  Skeletons,  bones, 
and  teeth  of  this  species  have  been  found  in  the  cavern  and  other  superficial  de- 
posits of  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  including  England,  while  entire  carcasses  occur 
frozen  in  the  ice  of  the  Siberian  ' '  tundra. ' '  From  these  frozen  specimens  it  has 
been  ascertained  not  only  that  the  skin  was  covered  with  woolly  hair,  but  likewise 
that  it  was  devoid  of  the  permanent  folds  characterizing  the  Asiatic  species.  The 
horns  of  the  woolly  rhinoceros  appear  to  have  rivaled  in  size  those  of  the  living 
African  Burchell's  rhinoceros.  From  the  structure  of  their  upper  molar  teeth  it 
may  be  inferred  that  both  the  broad-nosed  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros  were  grass 
eaters.  In  Siberia,  however,  portions  of  needles  of  conifers  and  of  twigs  of  other 
trees  have  been  found  in  the  interstices  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  latter;  from 
which  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  animal  was  a  branch  eater.  It  is,  however, 
quite  probable  that  while  in  Siberia  it  may  have  been  compelled  from  lack  of  its 
proper  food  to  take  to  feeding  upon  leaves  and  twigs,  yet  that  in  the  more  southern 
portion  of  its  range  it  resembled  its  allies  in  being  entirely  a  grass  eater. 

During  the  Pleistocene  period  there  were  three  other  species  of  two-horned 
rhinoceroses  without  front  teeth  inhabiting  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
which  had  upper  molar  teeth  of  the  general  type  of  those  of  the  common  African 
species,  although  their  skulls  were  very  different.  Of  these  the  Leptorhine  rhi- 
noceros {R.  leptorhinus)  and  the  Megarhine  rhinoceros  (R.  megarhinus)  are  found  in 
the  brick  earths  of  the  Thames  valley  and  other  superficial  deposits;  while  the 
Etruscan  rhinoceros  {R.  etruscus)  occurs  in  the  somewhat  older  ' '  forest  bed  ' '  of 
the  Norfolk  coast,  and  likewise  in  the  upper  Pliocene  beds  of  Italy  and  France. 
The  Iveptorhine  and  Megarhine  species  have  tall-crowned  cheek-teeth,  and  (as 
shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  1071)  are  characterized  by  the  presence  of  a  vertical 
bony  partition  in  the  skull  dividing  the  two  chambers  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose.  In 
this  respect  they  resemble  the  woolly  rhinoceros;  a  rudiment  of  the  same  feature 
also  occurring  in  the  living  Javan  rhinoceros.  The  Etruscan  rhinoceros,  on  the 
other  hand;  has  shorter-crowned  cheek-teeth,  and  no  such  bony  septum  in  the  nasal 
cavity.  That  all  these  three  species  browsed  on  leaves  and  twigs  may  be  pretty 
confidently  asserted  from  the  structure  of  their  upper  molar  teeth;  while  a  carcass 
found  embedded  in  the  ice  of  Siberia  belonging  to  either  the  Leptorhine  or  the  Meg- 
arhine species,  shows  that  these  had  smooth  skins  like  the  living  rhinoceroses  of 


EXTINCT  RHINOCEROSES  1073 

Africa.  The  Deccan  rhinoceros  (R.  deccanensis)  and  the  Karnul  rhinoceros  (/?.  kar- 
nuliensis),  from  the  superficial  deposits  of  Southern  India,  indicate  that  smaller 
representatives  of  the  two-horned  branch-eating  group  likewise  inhabited  that 
country.  .  .  . 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  occurrence  in  the  Miocene  deposits  of 
Europe  of  an  extinct  two-horned  rhinoceros  provided  with  upper  and  lower  front 
teeth,  which  was  allied  to  the  living  Sumatran  species.  Throughout  the  middle 
Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene  of  India,  there 
are  found,  however,  a  number  of  rhinoceroses  differing  from  any  living  species  in 
the  total  absence  of  horns,  while  in  those  cases  where  their  limbs  are  known  the 
fore-feet  were  provided  with  four  toes.  Some  of  these  animals  were  of  very  large 
size,  and  all  of  them  had  molar  teeth  of  the  type  of  that  represented  in  the  upper 
figure  on  p.  1051  (which  belongs  to  one  of  the  Indian  species),  and  their  jaws  were 
furnished  with  large  front  teeth.  Moreover,  in  one  of  the  Indian  representatives 
of  this  hornless  group,  the  last  molar  tooth  was  of  nearly  the  same  form  as  that 
in  front  of  it,  instead  of  being  triangular.  That  all  these  species  subsisted  on 
leaves  a-nd  boughs,  may  be  inferred  from  the  structure  of  their  short-crowned 
molar  teeth;  and  it  may  be  observed  here  that  all  the  older  Ungulates  had  short- 
crowned  cheek-teeth,  adapted  for  champing  twigs  and  leaves  rather  than  for  masti- 
cating grass;  whence  it  may  be  concluded  that  grassy  plains  are  probably  a 
comparatively-recent  feature  in  the  history  of  our  globe.  Hornless  rhinoceroses 
also  occur  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  North  America,  but  at  least  the  majority  of 
these  resembled  existing  types  in  having  but  three  toes  on  each  fore-foot;  while 
their  limbs  were  relatively  shorter  than  in  their  Old- World  allies,  and  their  bodies 
more  elongated.  Finally,  there  were  certain  other  small  rhinoceroses  from  the 
lower  Miocene  of  both  Europe  and  the  United  states,  in  which  the  front  of  the 
skull  carried  a  very  small  pair  of  horns  placed  transversely  instead  of  longi- 
tudinally. 

The  above  are  all  the  forms  which  can  be  included  in  the  genus  Rhinoceros. 
There  are,  however,  a  number  of  allied  extinct  animals  which  connect  the  true 
rhinoceroses  with  more  generalized  extinct  types  of  Odd-Toed  Ungulates.  Such  for 
instance  is  the  Amynodon,  from  the  Miocene  Tertiary  of  North  America,  which 
was  a  rhinoceros-like  animal  with  no  horn,  and  the  full  typical  number  of  forty-four 
teeth.  That  is  to  say,  there  were  three  incisors,  a  tusk,  and  seven  cheek-teeth  on 
each  side  of  both  jaws;  the  front  teeth  being  like  those  of  ordinary  Mammals,  and 
not  having  the  peculiarly-modified  form  presented  by  those  of  the  true  rhinoceroses. 
Moreover  the  whole  of  the  three  upper  molar  teeth  were  alike;  and  none  of  them 
had  the  processes  projecting  into  the  middle  valley  which  are  found  in  those  of  all 
true  rhinoceroses.  Probably  the  Amynodon  also  occurred  in  the  lower  Miocene 
and  upper  Eocene  rocks  of  France.  There  were  other  allied  types,  but  the  above 
example  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  earlier  rhinoceroses  were  far  less  different 
from  tapirs  and  some  extinct  generalized  forms  to  be  noticed  later  on  than  are  their 
modern  representatives. 

We  must  not,  however,  take  leave  of  the  Rhinoceros  family  without  referring 
to  a  most  remarkable  creature  known  as  the  elasinothere,  which  flourished  during 
68 


1074  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  Pleistocene  period  in  Siberia.  This  creature  was  probably  as  large  as  Burchell's 
rhinoceros,  and  like  that  species  had  no  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws.  The  skull 
had  a  bony  partition  in  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  and  carried  on  the  forehead  an 
enormous  protuberance  which,  during  life,  doubtless  supported  a  horn  of  very  large 
size.  The  most  remarkable  feature  about  the  elasmothere  is,  however,  to  be  found 
in  the  structure  of  its  cheek-teeth,  which  while  formed  on  the  type  of  those  of  the 
rhinoceroses,  are  greatly  elongated,  and  have  their  enamel  so  much  folded  as  to 
present  some  resemblance  to  those  of  the  horse.  Indeed,  the  elasmothere  may  be 
regarded  as  a  highly-specialized  grass-eating  creature,  presenting  a  relationship  to 
an  ordinary  rhinoceros  somewhat  similar  to  that  which  the  horse  exhibits  to  certain 
extinct  Ungulates. 

THE  HORSE  TRIBE 
Family 


Under  the  general  title  of  horses,  zoologists  include  not  only  the  animals  to 
which  that  name  is  restricted  in  ordinary  language,  but  likewise  the  asses,  zebras, 
and  quaggas,  together  with  certain  nearly-allied  extinct  animals.  All  these  are 
characterized  by  having  very  high-crowned  cheek-teeth,  in  which  the  enamel  is 
thrown  into  a  series  of  complicated  foldings,  and  the  deep  valleys  between  the  com- 
ponent columns  completely  filled  up  with  cement.  In  the  upper  cheek-teeth,  as 
shown  in  B  and  C  of  the  accompanying  figure,  the  outer  columns,  (pa,  me)  of  each 
tooth  are  flattened,  and  the  premolars  somewhat  exceed  the  molars  in  size;  while  in 
the  lower  jaw  the  ridges  are  crescent-like,  although  much  complicated  by  the  fold- 
ings of  the  enamel.  So  different,  indeed,  are  the  molars  of  the  horses  from  those  of 
other  Odd-Toed  Ungulates,  that  it  is  at  first  sight  somewhat  difficult  to  realize  their 
fundamental  unity  of  structure.  A  comparison  of  the  three  figures  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration  will,  however,  clearly  indicate  how  the  structure  of  the  tall- 
crowned  molar  of  the  horse  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  low-crowned 
molar  of  the  extinct  anchithere,  while  that  of  the  latter  does  not  differ  very  widely 
from  the  molars  of  the  rhinoceros  represented  on  p.  1051.  Remembering  that  the 
figured  molar  of  the  anchithere  belongs  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  jaws  to  those  of 
the  horses,  it  will  be  apparent  that  it  would  only  require  a  heightening  of  its 
columns  and  ridges;  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  a  series  of  foldings  in  their 
investing  enamel,  and  the  filling  up  of  the  deepened  intervening  valleys  with 
cement,  to  produce  a  very  similar  type  of  tooth.  It  is  almost  superfluous  to  add 
that  the  tall-crowned  molars  of  the  horse,  with  their  completely-filled  valleys  and 
their  alternating  ridges  of  harder  and  softer  constituents,  are  far  more  efficient  in- 
struments of  mastication  than  the  low-crowned  teeth  of  the  anchithere,  with  their 
perfectly-open  valleys.  Indeed,  while  the  horse's  are  adapted  for  a  grinding  action, 
and  have  nearly  flat  surfaces,  the  anchi  there's  molars  are  suited  to  a  champing 
motion,  and  have  ridged  surfaces. 

Another  peculiarity  in  the  dentition  of  the  horses  is  that  the  incisor 

or  front  teeth  in  both  jaws  have  an  infolding  of  the  enamel  at  the 

summit  of  their  crowns,  as  shown  in  the  figures  A,  B,  C,  on  p.  1078.    This  peculiar 


THE  HORSE    TRIBE 


1075 


structure  may  be  imitated  by  taking  the  finger  of  a  glove  and  pushing  in  the  top, 
and  afterward  filling  the  whole  of  the  inside  with  wax. 

The  skull  of  the  horse  differs  from  that  of  all  other  living  Odd-Toed 
Other   Charac-   _ 

teristics      Ungulates  in  having  the  socket  of  the  eye  completely  surrounded  by 

bone.  In  all  existing  horses  the  number  of  toes  on  each  foot  is  re- 
duced to  one,  which  is  inclosed  in  a  large  solid  hoof.  This  toe,  which  corresponds 
in  the  fore-limb  to  the  human  middle  finger,  is  supported  by  a  single  long  canon 
bone.  On  the  sides  of  this  canon  bone  there  are,  however,  small  splints  represent- 
ing the  remnants  of  the  second  and  fourth  toes;  and  in  certain  extinct  forms  (as 
shown  in  the  figures  on  p.  743)  these  lateral  toes  were  complete  and  furnished  with 
hoofs,  although  they  were  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  middle  toe,  and  could  have 
been  of  little,  if  any,  functional  importance.  In  defining  the  Horse  family,  it  must 
accordingly  be  stated  that  although  the  toes  may  vary  from  one  to  three  in  number, 
it  is  only  the  middle  one  that  is  functionally  important.  Another  distinctive  feature 
of  the  family  is  that  in  the  fore-limb  the  ulna  is  represented  only  by  its  upper  ex- 


UPPER  MOI.AR  TEETH  OF  THE  ANCHITHERE  (A),  THE   HORSE  (B),  AND  THE  HIPPARION  (C). 

(A  is  from  the  left,  and  B  and  C  from  the  right  side  of  the  jaw.) 

t 

tremity,  which  becomes  united  with  the  radius;  while  in  the  hind-limb  the  remnant 
of  the  fibula  becomes  similarly  fused  with  the  tibia. 

So   far   as   their  extremely   specialized  organization  is  concerned, 
Specialization  thg  horses  hold  a  position  amOng  the  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  precisely 

analogous  to  that  occupied  by  the  true  Ruminants,  or  Pecora,  in  the  Even-Toed 
division  of  the  order,  and  it  is  curious  to  observe  how  the  two  groups  have 
undergone  an  almost  exactly  parallel  development,  although  differing  so  essentially 
from  one  another  in  the  structure  of  their  limbs  and  teeth.  In  both,  for  instance, 
the  cheek-teeth  have  acquired  tall  crowns,  with  complicated  foldings  of  the  enamel, 
and  the  front  teeth  are  separated  by  a  long  gap  from  those  of  the  cheek  series. 
Then  again,  both  have  the  feet  supported  by  a  long  canon  bone,  although  in  the 
Ruminants  this  is  formed  by  the  fusion  of  two  distinct  elements,  and  in  the  horses 
of  but  one  original  constituent.  Moreover,  both  groups  have  the  two  bones  of  the 
lower  segment  in  the  fore  and  hind-limbs  fused  together,  and  in  both  the  process 
by  which  the  second  vertebra  of  the  neck  articulates  with  the  first  has  assumed  a 
spout-like  form. 


io;6 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


The  whole  of  the  existing  representatives  of  the  horses  are  included 
in  the  genus  Equus,  of  which  the  following  are  distinctive  character- 
istics. In  the  upper  cheek-teeth  the  portion  called  the  anterior  pillar  (marked  p  in 
the  middle  figure  on  p.  1075)  is  connected  by  a  narrow  neck  of  enamel  and  ivory 
with  the  adjacent  crescent  in  the  middle  of  the  same  side  of  the  tooth;  and  each  foot 

has  but  a  single  toe. 
The  total  number  of 
teeth  in  the  males  of 
all  the  living  species 
is     forty-two;      these 
comprising  f  incisors, 
\  canines,  and  £  cheek- 
teeth.    The  first  up- 
per tooth  of  the  cheek 
series,  that  is  to  say, 
the  first  premolar,  is, 
however,    very    small 
in    all   the    living 
species,    and    is    fre- 
quently wanting,  thus 
reducing  the  number 
of  teeth  to  forty.     It 
is,  however,  larger  in 
many    fossil    species, 
and   a    few  of    these 
also  have  a  small  first  premolar  in  the  lower  jaw,  thus  bringing  up  the  number  to 
the  typical  forty-four.     The  canines  of  the  males  are  rather  small  and  pointed,  and 
in  the  females  are  either  rudimentary  or  wanting.     When  present,  they  are  placed 
near  the  incisors,  but  are  separated  by  a  long  gap  from  the  teeth  of  the  cheek  series. 
The  horses  are  such  well-known  and  familiar  animals,  that  it  would 
be  superfluous  to  describe  their  form  and  appearance  in  detail.    It  may 
be  observed,  however,  that  the  ears  are  long,  and  that  the  tail  is  likewise  elongated, 
but  may  be  either  clothed  with  long  hair  throughout  its  length,  or  merely  tufted 
at  the  extremity.     The  neck  carries  a  mane,  which  may  be  either  erect  or  pendent, 
and  the  fore-limb  has  a  hard,  naked  callosity  above  the  wrist  joint.     In  most  wild 
species  some  portions,  or  the  whole,  of  the  body  and  limbs  are  marked  with  transverse, 
dark  stripes,  but  these  disappear  more  or  less  completely  in  the  domesticated  breeds. 
With  the  exception  of  those  that  have  been  introduced  by  man  into 
other  regions,  horses  are  now  confined  to  the  Old  World,  and  are 
especially  characteristic  of  Africa.     They  may  be  divided  into  true  horses,  zebras, 
and  asses. 

Before,  however,  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  these  groups,  it 
Nomenclature 

of  Limbs    may  mention  that  the  terms  commonly  applied  to  the  vari- 

ous segments  of  the  limbs  of  the  members  of  the  Horse  family  are  not 
the  same  as  those  used  by  the  zoologist  and  anatomist.     For  instance,  what  is  com- 


SIDE  AND  PALATAL  VIEWS  OF  SKULL  OF  EXTINCT 

THREE-TOED    HORSE. 

(After   Zittel.) 


Form 


Distribution 


THE  HORSE    TRIBE 


1077 


monly  designated  the  knee  of  the  horse  is  really  its  wrist,  while  the  so-called  hock 
in  the  hind  limb  is  the  ankle  joint.  The  true  knee  is,  of  course,  in  the  hind-limb, 
and  is  commonly  known  as  the  stifle  joint,  while  in  the  fore-limb  the  elbow  joint  is 
situated,  as  in  other  animals,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus.  The  fore  and  hind 
canon  bones  respectively  correspond  to  the  human  middle  metacarpal  and  metatar- 
sal  bones,  and  the  so-called  pastern  and  coronet  bones  to  the  three  joints  of  the 
middle  finger  and  toe;  the  fetlock  being  the  joint  at  the  lower  end  of  the  canon 
bone. 

It  will  thus  be  evident  that  the  horse  is  an  animal  which  is  supported  exclu- 
sively by  a  bone  in  each  fore-foot  corresponding  to  the  terminal  joint  of  the  human 
middle  finger,  and  in  the  hind-foot  by  the  representative  of  the  same  joint  of  the 


SHIRE    STALLION    ("MARS    VICTOR"). 

middle  toe.  In  this  respect  the  members  of  this  family  differ  from  all  other  Mam- 
mals. Indeed,  as  is  well  remarked  by  Sir  W.  H.  Flower,  had  we  not  become  so 
thoroughly  accustomed  to  the  horse,  we  should  regard  it  as  a  very  strange  and  won- 
derful animal,  as  in  truth  it  is. 

In  this  place  it  will  be  convenient  to  refer  briefly  to  the  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  incisor  teeth  of  the  horse,  with  age.  As  already 
mentioned,  the  summits  of  these  incisors  are  characterized  by  an 
infolding  of  the  enamel,  deeper  in  those  of  the  upper  than  in  those  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  common  to  both  the  milk  and  the  permanent  series.  When  the  teeth  are 
first  protruded,  as  in  A  of  the  figure  on  the  next  page,  the  whole  of  the  fold  is  covered 
with  enamel,  but  when  the  teeth  are  worn  (as  in  C)  the  edges  are  cut  through,  and 


Indications 
of  Age 


io;8 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


the  centre  of  the  crown  is  occupied  by  a  pit  surrounded  with  a  ring  of  enamel,  this 
being  technically  known  as  the  "mark."  In  the  figures,  A  shows  the  jaw  of  a  very 
young  colt,  with  only  the  first  and  second  milk-incisors  protruded,  both  being  un- 
worn; the  third  milk-incisor  would  appear  later.  In  B,  which  indicates  a  horse 
about  three  years  old,  the  first  permanent  incisor  has  just  appeared,  after  pushing 
out  the  corresponding  milk-tooth.  Between  three  and  one-half  and  four  years,  the  sec- 
ond permanent  incisor  would  have  likewise  appeared,  and  about  half  a  year  later 
the  tusk  protrudes  from  the  gum.  At  five  years,  the  third  incisor  would  have  dis- 
placed its  predecessor,  and  the  dentition  would  then  be  complete.  This  state  is 
shown  at  C,  which  represents  the  jaw  of  a  six-year-old  horse,  in  which  the  third  in- 
cisor is  partly  worn,  although  still  retaining  a  large  mark.  Up  to  five  years,  the  age 
of  a  horse  can  consequently  be  determined  with  accuracy,  and  also  approximately 


THE  UPPER    INCISOR   AND    CANINE   TEETH    OF    THE    HORSE   AT    VARIOUS    AGES. 
(A.  at  30  days;  B.  at  3  years;   C.  at  6  years;    D.  at  8  years;    E.  at  15  years;  F.  at  30  years.) 

for  some  years  longer.  As  a  rule,  the  mark  disappears  in  the  first  incisor  of  the 
lower  jaw  at  six  years,  in  the  second  at  seven,  and  in  the  third  at  eight,  while  in 
the  corresponding  upper  teeth  it  persists  about  two  years  longer.  D  shows  the  up- 
per jaw  of  a  horse  about  eight  years  of  age,  when  the  mark  has  nearly  disappeared 
in  the  first  incisor.  After  the  mark  has  been  lost  in  all  the  incisors  no  indications 
of  age  are  afforded.  In  old  horses,  as  in  E,  a  kind  of  spurious  mark  is,  however, 
produced,  owing  to  the  tooth  having  become  so  much  worn  down  that  the  pulp 
cavity  of  its  basal  portion  is  exposed.  Such  spurious  marks  have,  however,  no  ring 
of  enamel,  and  cannot  be  made  to  counterfeit  the  true  mark,  although  attempts  to 
make  them  pass  for  this  were,  and  perhaps  still  are,  made  by  unscrupulous  dealers. 
When  the  spurious  mark  makes  its  appearance,  the  section  of  each  incisor  forms  a 
Wide  triangle,  the  broad  and  flattened  crown  having  been  completely  worn  away; 


THE  HORSE 


1079 


and  in  extreme  old  age,  when  the  teeth  are  ground  down  to  their  very  roots,  as  at 
F,  they  become  very  narrow. 

THE    HORSE    (Equus  caballus) 

The  horse  differs  from  the  other  members  of  the  genus  in  having  the  tail  thickly 
covered  with  long  hair  from  the  root  to  the  extremity,  and  also  by  the  mane  being 
longer  and  more  flowing.  It  has  also  a  bare  callosity  on  the  inner  side  of  the  hind- 
limb  a  little  below  the  heel  joint,  or  hock,  so  that  such  callosities  are  present  on  all 
the  four  limbs.  Moreover,  the  head  is  smaller,  the  ears  are  shorter,  the  limbs  pro- 
portionately more  elongated ,  and  the  hoofs  broader  than  in  any  of  the  other  species. 
In  color,  domesticated  horses  vary  greatly,  but  they  seldom  show  any  definite  markings 
beyond  a  more  or  less  distinct  dappling.  The  wild  horses  of  the  Asiatic  steppes  are, 
however,  of  a  dun  color;  and  since  domesticated  dun-colored  individuals  —  especially 
in  India  and  Argentine  —  frequently  show  a  dark  streak  down  the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  sometimes  two  or  even  three  transverse  shoulder  stripes,  and  likewise 
dark  bands  on  the  limbs,  it  has  been  inferred  that  originally  the  horse  was  a  dun- 
colored  animal,  more  or  less  marked  with  dark  stripes.  The  height  among  the 
domesticated  breeds  is  no  less  varied  than  the  coloration.  Thus,  while  cart  horses 
frequently  attain  the  height  of  seventeen  or  eighteen  hands  (five  feet  eight  inches  or 
six  feet)  at  the  withers,  the  Shetland  pony  seldom  exceeds  eleven  hands  (three  feet 
eight  inches),  and  is  occasionally  as  low  as  eight  and  one-half  hands  (two  feet  ten 
inches).  The  Asistic  wild  horses  are  of  medium  stature. 

From  what  is  known  of  the  present  wild  or  half-wild  races,  it  is  probable  that 
the  horse  was  originally  an  inhabitant  of  open  steppes,  where  it  dwelt  in  large 
droves  headed  by  an  old  stallion.  And  from  the  habit  displayed  by  domestic  horses 
of  clearing  away  the  snow  from  their  pasture  in  winter,  by  scraping  with  the  front 
hoof,  Darwin  was  of  opinion  that  the  original  habitat  of  the  species  was  in  regions 
where  the  ground  is  covered  during  a  portion  of  the  year  with  snow. 
_.  ..  .  So  far  as  we  know  at  present,  the  true  horse  in  its  original  wild 

state  was  mainly  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia,  although  it  extended 
eastward  from  the  latter  continent  into  Alaska.  In  has,  indeed,  been  stated  that 
certain  wild  horses  found  in  the  Argentine  in  1530  could  not  have  been  introduced, 
and  must  accordingly  have  been  idigenous.  Even,  however,  if  this  be  so  (and  the 
story  is  denied  by  Dr.  Trouessart),  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  horses  in 
question  were  identical  with  E.  cabaihis,  of  which  fossil  remains  appear  to  be  un- 
known in  the  New  World  south  of  Alaska. 

Fossilized  remains  of  horses  are  extremely  common  in  the  brick  earths,  cavern 
deposits,  etc.,  of  England  and  the  Continent,  and  since  these  are  indistinguishable 
from  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the  existing  species,  it  may  be  pretty  confidently  con- 
sidered they  indicate  the  former  existence  of  that  animal  in  a  wild  state.  And  it 
may  be  observed  that  the  researches  of  Dr.  Nehring  have  afforded  reason  to  believe 
that  during  part  of  the  Pleistocene  period  there  existed  in  Western  Europe  a  condi- 
tion very  similar  to  that  now  obtaining  in  the  Russian  steppes,  where  wild  horses  now 
live.  Further  evidence  of  the  identity  of  these  Pleistocene  horses  with  the  living 


io8o 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


species  is  afforded  by  certain  rude  drawings  incised  on  fragments  of  slate,  bone,  or 
antler,  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Europe  during 
the  later  Stone  Implement  period.  These  drawings  show  that  the  Pleistocene  horse 
was  a  rather  small,  heavily-built  animal,  with  a  large  head,  and  a  rough  mane  and 
tail,  in  all  of  which  respects  it  agreed  with  the  under-mentioned  tarpan  or  wild  horse 
of  the  steppes. 

Dr.  Nehring  is  of  opinion  that  the  wild  horse  of  Western  Europe  was  domesti- 
cated and  tamed  by  the  men  of  the  later  Stone  Implement  period  at  a  time  when  steppe- 
like  conditions  still  prevailed  in  those  regions;  and  there  can  be  but  little,  if  any, 
doubt  that  the  horses  used  by  the  ancient  Britons  and  Germans  in  the  time  of  Caesar 


ENGLISH  RACE  HORSE  ("DONCASTER"). 

were  derived  from  the  same  native  stock.  It  is,  however,  probable  that  the  existing 
domesticated  horses  of  Europe  have  a  twofold  origin,  and  that,  while  the  so-called 
thoroughbred  and  half-bred  races  have  an  Asiatic  or,  perhaps,  partially  North- 
African  descent,  the  breeds  denominated  by  the  Germans  ' '  cold-blooded  ' '  are  de- 
rived from  the  primitive  European  stock. 

To  how  late  a  date  the  original  wild  horses  of  Western  Europe  existed  as  such, 
cannot  now  be  definitely  ascertained.  It  is  true  that  Strabo  relates  that  wild  horses 
existed  in  his  time  in  Spain  and  the  Alps,  and  Pliny  speaks  of  their  existence 
throughout  a  great  part  of  the  north  of  Europe.  The  occurrence  of  these  animals, 
in  the  Ardennes  is  alluded  to  by  Venantius  Fortunatus,  and  in  Italy  a  reference  to 
them  is  made  by  Pope  Gregory  III.  in  the  year  732.  There  is  also  evidence  that 


THE  HORSE  1081 

about  the  year  1000  the  monks  of  St.  Gall  were  in  the  habit  of  using  the  flesh  of 
wild  horses  as  an  article  of  diet,  while  so  late  as  1316  a  document  alludes  to  their 
existence  in  Westphalia.  Moreover,  Rosslin,  in  the  year  1593,  states  that  wild 
horses,  which  were  more  shy  and  difficult  to  approach  than  stags,  were  found  in  the 
Vosges,  and  \vere  captured  and  tamed  by  the  inhabitants  of  those  districts.  In  all 
these  cases  it  is,  however,  quite  probable  that  these  horses  were  feral  rather  than  truly 
wild;  that  is  to  say,  that  they  were  derived  from  tamed  races  which  had  again  taken 
to  a  wild  life.  This  view  is  rendered  the  more  probable  from  the  circumstance 
that,  during  the  historic  period  the  greater  part  of  Western  Europe  had  become  a 
forest-clad  region  quite  different  from  the  open  steppes  which  we  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve were  the  original  home  of  the  horse;  but  it  is  not  impossible  that  a  certain 
number  of  troops  of  wild  horses  might  have  adapted  themselves  to  the  changed  con- 
ditions of  their  surroundings,  and  have  lived  on  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

Although  at  present  the  tarpan,  or  wild  horse  of  the  steppes,  is 
confined  to  Central  Asia,  there  is  evidence  that  in  the  time  of  Pallas 
{circa  1760)  its  range  extended  westward  to  the  region  of  the  Urals  and  Volga. 
This  explorer  states  that  at  that  period  the  tarpan  abounded  in  the  steppes  of  Tar- 
tary  and  Mongolia,  from  the  Dnieper  to  the  Altai,  and  thence  throughout  Central 
Asia,  in  small  droves  seldom  exceeding  fifty  head.  The  majority  are  of  a  reddish- 
gray  (dun)  or  pale  gray  color;  but  from  intermixture  with  individuals  which  have 
escaped  from  captivity,  these  colors  are  not  invariable.  In  the  pure-bred  race,  the 
mane,  a  streak  along  the  back,  and  the  tail,  are  reddish  brown,  while  the  nose  is 
whitish,  and  the  rest  of  the  muzzle  nearly  black.  They  are  smaller  than  the  aver- 
age domestic  horse,  and  have  thinner  limbs,  larger  heads,  with  a  convex  profile, 
and  longer  ears  which  at  their  summits  are  bent  backward  in  a  sickle-like  manner. 
The  hoofs  are  small  and  cylindrical;  and  the  mane,  which  extends  far  on  to  the 
forehead  and  backward  on  to  the  shoulders,  is  comparatively  short,  thick,  and  half 
erect.  In  winter  the  coat  is  long,  rough,  and  shaggy,  and  the  bushy  tail  rather 
short.  Young  colts  are  easily  tamed,  but  the  adults  are  utterly  intractable.  Tarpan 
exhibit  wonderful  speed,  and  strenously  avoid  the  neighborhood  of  man.  They 
frequent  the  open  steppes,  and  are  never  found  in  forests  and  mountainous 
districts. 

Since  the  time  of  Pallas  the  tarpan  has  been  steadily  driven  back  to  the  more 
remote  parts  of  Central  Asia,  where  it  was  met  with  by  Colonel  Prejevalski.  The 
troops  there  are  under  the  leadership  of  an  old  stallion,  and  they  always  move 
against  the  wind,  with  their  ears  and  nostrils  alert  to  detect  the  least  trace  of 
danger.  During  the  \vinter  the  tarpan  scrapes  away  the  snow  with  its  front  hoofs 
in  order  to  reach  the  scanty  herbage  beneath;,  and  its  coat  at  this  season  becomes  so 
thick  as  to  form  a  kind  of  thin  fur. 

It  has  been  frequently  stated  that  tarpan  are  feral  rather  than  truly  wild  horses. 
This  opinion  is,  however,  vehemently  opposed  by  Dr.  Nehring,  who  believes  that 
in  these  animals  we  have  the  last  survivors  of  the  ancient  prehistoric  wild  horses 
of  Europe,  which  have  been  more  or  less  modified  by  an  infusion  of  domesticated 
blood  through  the  intermixture  of  individuals  escaped  from  captivity.  If  Darwin  be 
right  in  concluding  that  the  primitive  horse  was  more  or  less  striped,  it  is  possible 


1082 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


that  this  infusion  of  domesticated  blood  has  led  to  the  nearly-uniform  coloration  of 
the  tarpan. 

p    .      .  ..,          It  may  be  mentioned  in  this  place  that  a  wild  horse  from   Central 

Horse         Asia,  described  as  E.  prejevalskii,  has  been   regarded  as  indicating  a 

distinct  species.     It  is  of  dun  color,   becoming  darker  on  the  back, 

where,  however,  there  is  no  distinct  stripe,  and  nearly  white  on  the  under  parts. 

Although  agreeing  in  most  respects  with  the  horse,  it  differs  by  the  mane  being  erect 


THE  TARPAN. 
(One-twenty-fifth  natural  size.) 

and  without  a  forelock  on  the  forehead,  and  by  the  hair  on  the  tail  being  confined 
to  the  lower  half.  Sir  W.  H.  Flower  suggests  that  this  animal  may  prove  to  be  a 
hybrid  between  the  tarpan  and  the  kiang. 

Domestication      We  have  seen  that  in  Europe  the  horse  was  probably  domesticated 
during  the  prehistoric  period,  and  we  turn  now  to  the  evidence  afforded 
by  the  Egyptian  monuments  as  to  the  date  of  its  first  use  in  that  ancient  country 
tt  appears  that  no  pictorial  representations  of  the  animal  occur  in  the  frescoes  of  the 


THE  HORSE  ^  1083 

so-called  old  kingdom;  and  that  such  were  seen  for  the  first  time  at  about  the  eight- 
eenth dynasty  (1800  or  1900  B.  C.),  when  the  reign  of  the  Asiatic  Hyksos,  or 
shepherd  kings,  who  had  for  so  long  a  period  ruled  over  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
came  to  an  end.  At  this  period  the  horse  seems  to  have  only  been  used  in  war, 
and  it  is  possible  that  it  may  have  been  introduced  by  the  kings  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty  from  Syria.  Both  in  Egypt  and  in  Europe  it  was  only  at  a  comparatively- 
late  period  that  the  horse  replaced  the  ox  as  a  beast  of  draught. 

In  regard  to  Western  Asia,  it  appears  that  the  horse  is  of  comparatively-recent 
introduction  into  Arabia,  the  earliest  accounts  of  the  Nomads  of  the  Arabian  deserts 
referring  only  to  their  possessing  camels  and  asses;  while  the  Arabs  in  the  army  of 
Xerxes  are  stated  to  have  been  mounted  on  camels.  The  sculptures  of  Nineveh 
show,  however,  that  the  war  horse  was  known  at  a  very  early  date  in  Assyria;  and 
it  is  hence  probable  that  it  was  from  Mesopotamia  that  the  horse  was  introduced  at 
first  to  the  Syrians  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  them  to  the  Egyptians  in  the 
valley  of  the  Nile.  It  is  a  somewhat  curious  circumstance  that  in  all  the  Assyrian 
sculptures  in  which  mounted  warriors  armed  with  the  bow  are  depicted,  the  horse  is  in- 
variably led  by  a  second  horseman,  thus  suggesting  that  at  this  date  the  Assyrians 
were  by  no  means  such  good  riders  as  the  Persians  and  Parthians  subsequently  be- 
came. The  Greeks  may  have  derived  their  war  horses  from  the  same  Asiatic  stock; 
and  from  Greece  and  Italy  these  Asiatic  horses  probably  became  intermingled  with 
the  native  breed  originally  domesticated  in  Western  Europe.  From  Mesopotamia 
the  horse  probably  spread  westward  as  a  domesticated  animal  into  Persia  and  India, 
in  neither  of  which  countries  is  there  any  evidence  of  the  existence  of  an  original 
wild  breed. 

.        .  Apart  from  the  question  whether  an  indigenous  species  may  have 

still  lingered  in  Argentine,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  horses 
were  unknown  in  at  least  the  greater  part  of  America.  When  introduced  from 
Europe  they  soon  multiplied,  and  reverted  to  a  semi  wild  condition,  and  spread  over 
large  areas  of  the  country,  where  they  now  exist  in  vast  numbers  in  the  open  plains. 
Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson  states,  however,  that  in  certain  parts  of  Patagonia,  wild  horses 
are  unable  to  exist  owing  to  the  number  of  pumas,  and  he  suggests  that  it  may  have 
been  these  animals  which  led  to  the  practical  if  not  total  extinction  of  the  indigenous 
horses  of  the  New  World.  In  the  Falkland  islands  the  horses  introduced  by  the 
French  in  1764  have  become  thoroughly  wild,  and  have  multiplied  to  a  considerable 
extent  although  not  so  much  as  might  have  been  expected.  At  the  time  of  Dar- 
win's visit,  these  wild  horses  were,  for  some  unknown  reason,  restricted  to  the  east- 
ern corner  of  the  island;  and  their  comparatively-slow  rate  of  increase  is  attributed 
to  the  wandering  habits  of  the  stallions,  which  compel  the  mares  to  accompany  them, 
whether  or  no  the  foals  are  able  to  follow.  These  Falkland  horses  have  roan  and 
gray  for  their  predominating  colors,  and  in  one  part  of  the  island  are  small  and 
pony-like.  The  late  Professor  Moseley  was,  however,  informed  that  their  small  stat- 
ure in  this  locality  was  due  to  the  inferior  size  of  the  stock  from  which  they  are 
-descended.  In  the  peninsula  of  Lafonia,  where  the  wild  horses  of  the  Falklands  are 
of  larger  size,  Professor  Moseley  writes  that  "the  strong  and  active  horses  each  guard 
their  own  herd  of  mares.  They  keep  the  closest  watch  over  them,  and,  if  one  stray  at 


1084 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


ENGLISH    RACE    HORSE    ("BEND-OR"    BY    "  DONCASTER "). 


all,  drive  her  back  into  the  herd  by  kicking  her.     The  younger  horses  live  in  herds 

apart,  but  the  more 
vigorous  ones  are 
always  on  the 
lookout  to  pick  up 
a  mare  from  the 
herds  of  the  older 
ones,  and  drive  her 
off  with  them,  and 
they  sometimes 
gather  a  few  mares 
for  a  short  time 
and  hold  them,  till 
they  are  recap- 
tured. When  they 
think  they  are 
strong  enough, 
they  try  the 
strength  of  the  old 
horses  in  battle, 
and  eventually 

each  old  horse  is  beaten  by  some  rival  and  displaced.  The  fighting  is  done  mainly 
with  the  tusks,  and  front  to  front,  not  with  the  heels.  Thus  the  most  active  and 
strongest  males  are  constantly  selected  naturally  for  the  continuation  of  the  herds. ' ' 
As  in  the  continent  of  South  America,  these  wild  horses  are  captured  either  by  the 
lasso  or  the  bolas.  When  caught,  Moseley  states  that  "  they  are  often  broken  in  by 
tying  them  with  a  rawhide  halter  to  a  post,  and  leaving  them  for  several  days  with- 
out food  or  water.  After  long  ineffectual  struggles  to  break  loose,  the  animals  be- 
come convinced  of  the  absolute  power  over  them  of  the  halter,  and  in  future  become 
cowed  and  docile  directly  a  halter  or  lasso  is  over  their  heads.  The  wild  horses, 
when  broken  in,  are  very  tame  and  quiet  to  ride." 

The  habits  of  the  wild  horses  of  continental  South  America  appear  to  be  very 
similar  to  the  above.  There  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  cimarrones,  and  are 
captured  and  tamed  by  the  Gauchos,  who  generally  mount  them  at  once  and  ride 
them  till  they  are  tired  out.  The  Gaucho  rides  with  a  loose  rein,  and  his  horse's 
head  almost  at  liberty;  and  so  well  are  the  animals  broken,  that  merely  pressing  the 
part  of  the  reins  next  to  the  hand  against  that  side  of  the  neck  from  which  the  horse 
is  required  to  turn  is  sufficient,  without  making  him  feel  the  bit  at  all. 

Feral  horses  are  as  abundant  in  Australia,  where  they  are  known  as 
brumbies,  as  in  South  America.  Indeed,  so  numerous  are  they  in 
certain  districts  as  to  become  a  positive  nuisance  to  the  settlers,  by  whom  they  are 
sometimes  shot  down  in  large  numbers. 

Proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  some  of  the  leading  breeds  of  domesticated 
horses,  we  may  commence  with  those  known  as  Barbs  and  Arabs,  which  have  had 
such  an  important  share  in  the  production  of  the  modern  race  horse.  With  regard 


Australia 


THE  HORSE  ^  1085 

to  the  Barbs,  which  take  their  name  from  their  native  region,  Barbary,  it  may  be 
premised  that  the  generality  of  African  horses  are  distinguished  from  those  of  Asia 

by  their  long  limbs  and  small  girth  at  the  loins,  thus  resembling  the 
Barbs  and  r  , 

Arabs  other  breeds.     They  display  great  powers  of  enduring  hun- 

ger and  thirst,  and  are  fleet,  with  a  high  and  graceful  action.  The 
Barb  comes  nearest  to  this  general  African  type,  but  displays  some  variation  owing 
to  a  crossing  with  other  breeds.  L,ow  says  that  ' '  these  horses  are  about  fourteen 
and  one-half  hands  high.  They  are  sufficiently  deep  at  the  girth,  but  tucked  up 
in  the  belly,  giving  that  peculiar  greyhound  aspect  which  is  characteristic  of  this 
race.  Their  necks  are  long  and  well  formed,  their  heads  moderately  fine,  the  chaf- 
ron  tending  to  the  convex;  their  shoulders  are  oblique,  and  the  withers  thin  and 
well  raised.  Their  limbs,  though  thin  and  delicate,  are  sinewy;  their  pasterns  are 
oblique,  and  the  feet  well  formed.  They  are  gentle  and  full  of  spirit;  they  are  some- 
what careless  in  their  paces,  but  distinguished  by  their  graceful  action.  As  com- 
pared with  the  Arabians,  they  are  more  swift,  but  less  enduring." 

The  Arab  horse  is  strictly  a  product  of  the  country  from  which  it 
takes  its  name;  and  the  breed  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  horses 
introduced  into  Arabia  from  the  Caucasus  or  Asia  Minor  somewhere  about  the 
Christian  era.  They  resemble  in  many  respects  the  horses  of  these  regions,  "but," 
writes  L,ow,  "inhabiting  a  very  dry  and  arid  region,  their  characteristics  have  be- 
come adapted  to  these  conditions  of  climate  and  food.  They  are  more  compact  than 
the  horses  of  Barbary,  having  a  rounder  body,  shorter  limbs,  with  more  of  sinew, 
or  what  is  termed  bone.  Yet  they  are  of  the  smaller  class  of  horses,  very  little  ex- 
ceeding, on  a  medium,  fourteen  hands,  or  fifty-six  inches  in  height.  As  compared 
with  the  horses  of  countries  abounding  in  the  grasses,  their  aspect  is  lean,  their 
form  slender,  and  their  chest  narrow.  But  the  slimness  of  figure  of  these  horses  is 
not  inconsistent  with  muscular  force;  and  their  movements  are  agile,  their  natural 
paces  swift,  and  their  spirit  is  unmatched.  The  power  of  their  delicate  limbs  is 
indicated  by  the  well-marked  muscles  of  the  fore-arm,  and  the  starting  sinews  of  the 
leg.*  The  shoulder  is  sufficiently  oblique;  the  withers  are  elevated;  the  back  is  mod- 
erately short;  and  the  quarters  are  good.  The  head  is  well  formed;  the  forehead  is 
broad;  the  ears  are  somewhat  long,  but  alert;  the  eyes  full  and  clear;  the  veins 
prominent  —  the  whole  rather  indicating  a  happy  union  of  gentleness  and  spirit, 
than  the  fiery  temper  which  is  commonly  associated  with  the  desert  horse." 
Although  not  remarkable  for  great  speed,  the  Arab  is  pre-eminent  for  its  endurance, 
hardy  constitution,  and  the  scanty  fare  on  which  it  can  exist.  On  a  cold  morning 
in  Northern  India,  when  the  horses  have  been  picketed  round  the  camp  during  the 
night,  the  Arabs  will  be  found  with  their  coats  as  sleek  as  if  they  had  just  come 
from  a  warm  stable,  while  those  of  other  breeds  will  be  all  awry.  In  their  native 
home  Arab  horses  will  subsist  on  the  scanty  herbage  found  here  and  there  in  the 
desert,  and,  in  the  absence  of  these,  on  a  little  barley,  chopped  straw,  dates,  and,  in 
extreme  cases,  camel's  milk.  They  drink  only  at  long  intervals,  and  then  but 
scantily;  while  their  powrer  of  making  long  marches  under  a  scorching  sun  is  un- 
rivaled. The  affection  with  which  the  Arab  treats  his  horse  is  too  well  known  to 
need  comment. 


io86 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


The  horses  of  the  Levant  and  Persia  are  more  or  less  closely  related 

to  the  Arab,  but  are  often  of  larger  size.     Indeed,  in   Southern  Persia 
Persian 
Horses         the  horses  are  very  similar  to  Arabs,  though  less  delicately  formed;  but 

in  the  northern  districts  they  are  all  larger.     The  Turkoman  horse 
which  often  stand  sixteen  hands  in  height,  are  allied  to  those  of  Northern  Persia. 

The  English  race  horse,  of  which  examples  are  represented  in  the 
P    n    *s       figures  on  pp.  1080,  1084,  has  been  produced  by  a  gradual  improvement 
of  the  original  native  breed,  which  had  been  going  on   for  several  cen- 
turies, and  subsequently  by  a  large  infusion  of  Eastern  and  African  blood.     The 
present  breed  is  mainly  the  product  of  three  foreign  horses;  of  which  the  first  was 


GERMAN    HAI.F-BRED    HORSE. 

(One-twenty-fifth  natural  size.) 

from  the  Levant,  belonging  to  Captain  Byerly  in  1689,  and  hence  called  the  "Byerly 
Turk."  From  him  was  descended  "  Herod,"  which,  as  being  the  most  celebrated 
of  this  stock,  has  given  the  name  of  the  Herod-line  to  all  his  descendants.  In  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne  the  "  Barley  Arabian  "  (so  called  from  the  name  of  its  owner) 
likewise  exerted  great  influence  upon  the  breed.  From  him  were  directly  descended 
Flying  Childers  "  and  "  Bartlett's  Childers";  while  from  the  latter  was  derived 
"  Eclipse,"  one  of  the  fastest  horses  which  has  ever  run  on  the  turf.  The  horses 
descended  from  the  latter  are  designated  the  Eclipse-line.  The  third  horse  was  the 
"Godolphin  Barb,"  born  about  1724,  from  whose  grandson,  "  Matchem,"  is 
derived  the  name  of  the  third  great  line  of  English  race  horses.  It  should  be  remem- 


THE   HORSE  ^  1087 

bered  that  "  Herod,"  "  Eclipse,"  and  "  Matchem  "  were  closely  related  to  one  an- 
other; and  it  is  only  the  descendants  of  the  breed  thus  produced  to  which  the  term 
"  thoroughbred  "  applies.  The  form  of  the  race  horse  is  designed  solely  for  speed, 
and  cannot  be  taken  as  a  model  of  equine  beauty;  the  frequent  presence  of  a  "  ewe 
neck"  detracting  from  perfect  symmetry.  Neither  are  such  horses  safe  to  ride. 
They  have  the  broad  forehead,  brilliant  eyes,  delicate  muzzle,  expanded  nostrils, 
and  wide  throat  of  the  Arab  and  the  Barb;  while  the  body  is  long  and  light,  with  the 
last  rib  widely  separated  from  the  pelvis.  The  chest  is  deep  but  narrow,  thus  af- 
fording due  space  for  the  lungs  without  making  the  fore-limbs  too  wide  apart.  The 
obliquity  of  the  shoulder  gives  full  play  to  the  upper  part  of  the  leg;  while  the  extreme 
length  of  the  haunches,  and  the  elongated  hind-limbs,  with  their  long,  sloping  pasterns, 
are  essentially  adapted  for  the  maximum  development  of  speed.  The  most  common 
color  is  bright  bay  or  brown,  with  black  legs,  mane,  and  tail;  but  chestnut  is  not  un- 
frequent.  Black  and  gray  are  rarer;  while  dun,  roan,  or  a  piebald  but  seldom  occur. 

The  English  hunter  has  been  produced  by  infusing  the  blood  of  the 
Hunters,  etc.  ,  ...    ^1^-1  , 

race  horse  with  the  native  races  to  a  larger  or  smaller  degree;  but  it 

does  not  form  an  exclusive  breed  like  the  racer.  Indeed,  any  good  riding  horse  may 
be  a  hunter.  The  requisite  qualities  of  the  hunter  are  strength,  good  action,  and 
the  power  of  enduring  fatigue,  coupled  with  a  speed  second  only  to  that  of  the  race 
horse.  The  neck  must  be  muscular,  and  the  chest  of  sufficient  breadth  to  indicate 
strength  without  being  heavy.  The  long  stride  of  the  racer  not  being  needed,  the 
body  should  be  comparatively  short  and  well  "  ribbed  home,"  that  is  to  say,  the  last 
rib  should  be  close  to  the  pelvis.  The  legs  should  also  be  relatively  shorter  and 
stouter.  In  fact,  the  English  hunter  may  be  described  as  the  perfect  development 
of  the  horse.  In  Germany  the  half-bred  or  three-quarter-bred  horse  in  use  as  a 
hunter  is  commonly  known  as  the  Trakehner,  and  is  represented  in  our  illustration. 
From  half-bred  horses  of  the  hunter  type  there  is  a  complete  transition  to  the  ordi- 
nary saddle  and  carriage  horses,  which,  although  formerly  with  but  little  or  no  for- 
eign blood  in  them,  now  generally  exhibit  more  or  less  breeding.  The  Cleveland 
bay  is  the  most  highly-esteemed  English  carriage  breed,  and  has  been  produced  by 
mingling  thoroughbred  blood  with  a  native  horse  of  stouter  build  than  the  one  se- 
lected as  the  stock  for  the  hunter. 

With  regard  to  the  length  a  horse  can  leap,  "  Chandler's  "  big  jump 

at  Warwick  in  1847  is  still  the  subject  of  occasional  discussion.     The 
Powers 

distance  was  variously  measured,   and   for   a   number  of  years  was 

thought  to  have  been  thirty-nine  feet,  but  the  editor  of  the  sporting  paper  in  which 
the  record  was  first  published  afterward  explained  that  this  was  a  printer's  error, 
and  that  the  distance  was  in  reality  thirty-seven  feet.  This  in  itself  is  big  enough; 
so  big,  in  fact,  that  there  are  many  horsemen  who  will  regard  it  as  exaggerated. 
The  portion  of  the  race  in  which  the  jump  occurred,  is  reported  as  follows  in  a 
description  of  the  race  in  Bell's  Life  of  March  28,  1847: 

"This  left  the  lead  with  '  King  of  the  Valley,'  but  he  refused  at  the  top  of  the 
hill,  and  soon  after  'Regalia'  caught  up  with  him.  They  raced  together  to  the 
brook,  with  'Chandler'  following  them.  'Chandler's'  rider  pulled  back  as  they 


io88 

approached  it,  expecting  that  '  Regalia '  would  bring  grief  to  somebody,  and  when 
they  arrived  at  it  sent  the  spurs  into  his  horse  and  followed  them  with  all  steam  on. 
Both  went  into  the  brook,  and  while  they  were  there  'Chandler,'  who  was  not 
able  to  stop,  whatever  inclination  he  may  have  had  to  do  so,  made  an  extraordinary 
jump  and  cleared  the  brook,  horses  and  riders  together.  The  account  goes  to  say 
that  '  Chandler  '  won  the  race  with  ease.  The  length  of  the  leap  was  immediately 
measured,  but  there  was  some  doubt  as  to  where  the  animal  had  landed,  as  the 
ground  was  soft  and  a  number  of  hoof  prints  had  been  made.  Captain  Broadley,  the 
rider,  said  that  the  distance  was  thirty-seven  feet.  This  beats  the  record,  so  far  as 
known,  the  best  previous  record  being  that  of  'Lottery,'  who  cleared  between 
thirty-three  and  thirty-four  feet.  One  of  the  witnesses  of  the  jump  was  Wil- 
liam Archer,  who  stated  that  the  distance  was  thirty-nine  feet.  The  Hon.  F.  Saw- 
ley,  a  well-known  sporting  writer  in  England,  was  also  present,  and  declared  that 
the  tape  measured  but  thirty-four  feet.  This  is  the  minimum  estimate.  Summing 
up,  it  may  be  said  that  while  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  exact  number  of  feet 
cleared,  'Chandler's'  performance  was  an  unusual  and  important  one.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  a  horse  called  'Proceed,'  who  is  said  to  have  cleared  thirty-seven 
feet  while  running  in  a  steeplechase  about  the  time  of  the  above  event.  A  horse 
called  '  Culverthan '  is  reported  to  have  jumped  thirty-three  feet  on  one  occasion, 
and  '  Lather,'  a  hunter  owned  by  Lord  Ingestre,  is  said  to  have  jumped  thirty-seven 
feet  and  five  inches  over  a  pit.  None  of  these  measurements  are  absolutely  authen- 
tic. With  regard  to  speed  it  may  be  noted  that  '  Flying  Childers '  ran  a  distance 
of  four  miles  one  furlong  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  yards  in  seven  and  one- 
half  minutes;  but  this  pace  was  considerably  exceeded  by  '  Eclipse.' ' 

The  American  trotter  is  an  excellent  instance  of  the  results  obtained 
Tr  tter       ^Y  breeding  for  a  particular  end;  in  this  case,  extreme  speed  in  trot- 
ting.    The  breed  appears  to  have  been  produced  by  the  infusion  of 
both  Barb  and  Arab  blood  on  an  English  stock;  and  the  breeders  of  the  United 
States  strongly  controvert  the  common  opinion  that  the  trot  is  not  a  natural  pace  of 
the  horse.    The  maximum  recorded  pace  of  the  American  trotter  up  to  the  year  1889 
was  one  mile  in  two  minutes  three  and  three-fourths  seconds. 

The  Shetland  islands  have  long  been  famed  for  the  hardihood  and 
Other         docility  of  their  indigenous  ponies,  the  small  size  of  which  has  already 
Ponies        keen   mentioned.      These   ponies   are   allowed   to  run    almost   wild, 
with  no  shelter,  and  but  little  food  beyond  what  they  can  procure 
for  themselves.      Their  coats  are  very  long  and  thick,  and  in  winter  become  matted 
upon  their  bodies,  in  a  manner  calculated  to  afford  them  most  efficient  protection  from 
the  inclemency  of  the  climate.     They  are  generally  bay  or  brown  in  color,  but  some- 
times blackish,  and  at  others  more  or  less  mixed  with  white.     From  their  agility 
and  cleverness,  these  ponies  are  in  great  request  for  equestrian  exhibitions.     The 
ponies  of  Scandinavia  and  Iceland  are  very  similar  to  those  of  Shetland;  but  those  of 
the  Orkneys  are  larger  and  coarser,  and  of  less  pure  breed.     In  the  Hebrides  there  are 
two  races  of  ponies,  the  one  small  and  long  haired,  and  the  other  taller;  and  there 
are  likewise  indigenous  breeds  in  the  hilly  and  forest  districts  of  several  parts  of  the 


THE  HORSE 


r''' 


1089 


British  mainland.  Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the  hardy  and  sure-footed, 
but  coarse  and  ugly  Dartmoor  breed;  and  the  smaller  long-haired  race  of  Exmoor, 
which  are  extremely  active,  and  run  nearly  wild.  The  New-Forest  ponies,  again, 
form  a  race  which  although  ugly,  large  headed,  and  short  necked,  are  hardy,  sure 
footed,  and  capable  of  bearing  the  roughest  treatment. 


Cart  Horses 


PERCHERON  CART  HORSE. 
( One-twentieth   natural   size. ) 

Under  the  title  of  cart  horses  may  be  included  all  the  heavily-built 
European  breeds  which  originally  contained  no  admixture  of  foreign 
blood,  and  are  specially  adapted  for  heavy  draught.  In  England  there  are  four 
chief  races,  known  as  the  English  black  or  Shire  horse,  the  breeds  of  the  north- 
eastern counties,  the  Clydesdale,  and  the  Suffolk  punch. 

The  old  English  black  or  Shire  horse  was  characteristic  of  the  fen  districts  and 
some  of  the  other  midland  counties  from  whence  it  has  extended  north  and  south, 
69 


1 090 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


and  it  also  occurs  in  the  so-called  Low  Countries  and  other  parts  of  the  Continent. 
Typically  the  black  horse,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  1077,  has  a  round  and 
massive  body,  a  broad  chest,  a  powerful,  muscular  neck,  and  short,  stout,  and  long- 
haired limbs;  its  physical  strength  being  great,  but  its  speed  slight.  The  size  varies 
considerably;  the  larger  and  most  powerful  races  being  produced  in  the  fens.  The 
more  modern  breed  generally  has  a  white  star  on  the  forehead,  and  more  or  less  of 
the  same  color  on  the  feet  and  legs,  and  often  on  the  muzzle.  Low  says  that  ' '  the 
main  defects  of  his  conformation  and  temperament  are  his  too  great  bulk  of  body, 
and  want  of  action  and  mettle.  For  a  pull  with  a  heavy  weight  he  is  admirable; 
but  "he  steps  out  short,  and  is  slow  in  all  his  motions."  Of  recent  years  the  aim  of 
breeders  has  been  to  remove  these  defects. 


CLYDESDALE     MARE    ("WOODBINE"). 

To  the  north  of  the  Humber  the  native  breeds  of  cart  horses  are  of  smaller  bulk, 
and  generally  brown,  or  still  lighter  in  color;  while  they  are  altogether  more  active 
than  the  black  horse.  This  lighter  build  appears  to  be  largely  due  to  an  infusion  of 
the  blood  of  the  higher  races  among  the  horses  of  these  districts,  which  is  not  want- 
ing even  among  those  employed  solely  for  heavy  draught. 

The  Clydesdale  breed  takes  its  name  from  the  valley  of  the  Clyde  in 
Lanarkshire,  and  is  supposed  to  have  originated  by  crossing  the  black 
horse  of  the  Low  Countries  with  the  native  breeds.  Clydesdales  may  be  either  black, 
brown,  bay,  or  gray  in  color,  and  usually  stand  about  sixteen  hands,  which  is  consider- 
ably less  than  the  height  of  the  black  horse.  They  are  also  longer  in  the  body  and  less 
weighty,  with  a  compact  and  muscular  build,  and  a  characteristic  free  and  long  stride. 


Clydesdale 


THE  ZEBRAS 


1091 


«-.  «  ,,    r,  Lastly,  we  have  the  well-known   Suffolk  punch  of   East  Angha, 

Suffolk  Punch  ,          ,   -  ,.  .  , 

famed  for  its  steadiness  of  draught,  and  the  pertinacity  with  which  it 

will  exert  itself  against  a  dead  pull.  The  original  breed  derived  its  name  from  the 
stout  and  "  punchy  "  form,  and  was  further  distinguished  by  the  color  being  light 
dun  or  sorrel,  sometimes  darkening  to  chestnut,  with  lighter  mane  and  tail.  The 
height  was  medium,  the  pace  rather  slow,  but  the  power  of  endurance  very  great, 
and  the  constitution  hardy.  The  form  was,  however,  somewhat  ugly,  the  head  be- 
ing large,  with  a  coarse  muzzle,  the  neck  short,  and  the  shoulder  low  and  heavy. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  limbs  were  short,  and  the  back  straight,  with  wide  loins 
and  well-developed  haunches.  The  breed,  which  has  of  late  years  been  much  modi- 
fied by  mixture,  is  believed  to  have  been  introduced  from  Normandy;  and  Low  is  of 
opinion  that  its  dun  or  sorrel  color  indicates  a  near  affinity  with  the  wild  tarpan  of 
the  Asiatic  steppes. 

Among  well-known  Continental  breeds,  the  percheron,  represented 
son  p.  1089,  while  somewhat  deficient  in  bulk  and  strength,  is  remarka- 
ble for  its  energy  and  pluck.  Belgium  possesses  two  distinct  original  breeds  known 
as  the  Ardennes  breed,  from  the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  and  the  Frisian,  from  the  sea- 
coast.  By  crossing  there  has  been  produced  the  Brabancon  horse,  which  although 
inferior  in  bulk  and  strength  to  the  Clydesdale,  has  more  breed  and  energy.  Har- 
nessed to  heavy  country  carts,  weighing  about  three  thousand  pounds,  they  will  drag 
a  load  of  from  six  thousand  to  ten  thousand  pounds  on  the  level;  and  thus  vastly 
exceed  in  power  the  original  light  Ardennes  horse,  which  is  fast  disappearing. 


THE  ZEBRAS  (Eqtius  zebfa,  etc.) 

The  three  species  of  zebra,  together  with  the  quagga,  form  a  group  agreeing  in 
essential  character  with  the  asses,  but  distinguished  by  their  more  or  less  completely 
striped  heads  and  bodies.  In  both  these  groups  the  mane  is  erect,  and  the  upper  part 
of  the  tail  is  free  from  long  hair;  while  there  are  naked  callosities  on  the  fore- 
limbs  only,  and  the  ears  are  longer,  the  head  relatively  larger,  and  the  hoofs  nar- 
rower than  in  the  horse. 

The  true  or  mountain  zebra  (E.  zebra}  is  the  typical  representative 
of  the  striped  group,  and  is  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  hilly  districts. 
It  is  the  smallest  of  the  three  species,  standing  from  four  feet  to  four  feet  two 
inches  (twelve  to  twelve  and  one-half  hands)  at  the  withers,  and  has  relatively-long 
ears  and  a  comparatively-short  mane,  with  the  tail  but  scantily  haired.  The  general 
ground  color  of  the  hair  is  white,  while  the  stripes  are  black,  and  the  lower  part  of 
the  face  is  bright  brown.  With  the  exception  of  the  under  parts  of  the  body  and 
the  inner  sides  of  the  thighs,  the  whole  of  the  head,  body,  and  limbs,  as  well  as  the 
upper  part  of  the  tail,  are  striped.  On  the  hind-quarters,  the  dark  longitudinal 
stripe  running  down  the  middle  of  the  back  is  connected  with  the  uppermost  of  the 
oblique  longitudinal  stripes  by  a  series  of  transverse  bars,  which  are  wanting  in  the 
next  species;  and  there  may  be  a  longitudinal  stripe  running  up  the  middle  of  the 
chest.  This  species  was  originally  common  in  the  mountains  of  the  Cape  Colony, 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

but  has  now  been  exterminated  except  in  some  of  the  districts  on  the  east  side. 
Here  a  few  herds  remain  on  the  summits  of  the  Zwart-Berg,  Sneuwberg,  and  Wra- 
terhoek  ranges,  where  they  are  strictly  protected  by  special  laws. 

Burchell's  zebra  (E.  burchelli},  commonly  known  by  the  Boers  as 
the  quagga,  is  a  rather  stouter  and  taller  animal  than  the  last,  stand- 
ing from  four  feet  four  inches  to  four  feet  six  inches  (thirteen  to  thir- 
teen and  one-half  hands)  at  the  shoulder.  It  is  further  distinguished  by  its  shorter 
ears,  longer  and  more  fully-developed  mane,  and  more  thickly-haired  tail,  as  well  as 


Burchell's 
Zebra 


BURCHELL'S  ZEBRA. 
(One-sixteenth  natural  size.) 

by  the  absence  of  'the  transverse  bars  connecting  the  stripe  on  the  middle  of  the 
back  with  the  uppermost  of  those  on  the  haunches,  and  likewise  by  the  union  of 
every  alternate  body-stripe  with  its  fellow  on  the  middle  of  the  under  surface  of  the 
body.  In  the  typical  form  (as  represented  in  our  illustration)  the  tail  and  legs  are 
quite  devoid  of  stripes,  but  in  the  so-called  Chapman's  zebra,  which  is  only  a  variety 
of  this  species,  both  may  be  striped,  although  the  stripes  never  extend  on  to  the 
pasterns.  The  general  ground  color  of  the  hair  varies  from  white  to  yellowish 
brown,  and  the  stripes  may  be  dark  brown  or  black.  The  hoofs  are  said  to  be  much 
more  like  those  of  a  pony  than  are  those  of  the  preceding  species. 


CD 
bJ 
N 


THE  ZEBRAS  1093 

BurcheH's  zebra  is  a  plain-dwelling  animal,  which  never  appears  to 

dH  b't  have    ranSe(l   southward   of  the    Orange    river.     It   now   appears   to 

be  practically  exterminated  in  the  Transvaal,  but  is  still  to  be  met 

with  in  numbers  in  the  districts  to  the  south  of  the  Botletli   river,  to  the  north  of 

the  Kalahari,  while  in  wet  seasons  a  few  range  further  south  into  the  latter  district; 

and  it  is  common  on  the  plains  of  the  Chobe  and  Zambezi,  as  well  as  in  East  Africa. 

How  far  northward  it  extends  does  not  appear  to  be  ascertained. 

Messrs.  Nicolls  and  Eglington  state  that  ' '  zebras  of  this  species  may  sometimes 
be  found  in  herds  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred,  but  more  often  numbering  from  ten 
to  fifteen,  and  they  are  commonly  found  associating  with  ostriches,  blue  wilde- 
beests, and  hartbeests.  On  being  hunted,  and  if  not  urged  too  much  at  the  start, 
they  keep  generally  in  single  file,  the  stallions  being  in  front;  but  when  hard  pur- 
sued they  run  more  in  a  lump,  and  at  such  times  it  requires  a  really  good  horse  to 
overtake  them.  When  one  is  wounded,  it  will  invariably  separate  from  the  re- 
mainder of  the  troop.  The  neigh  of  this  species  resembles  in  sound  the  subdued 
whining  bark  of  a  dog.  The  flesh,  although  unpalatable  to  Europeans,  is  much  rel- 
ished by  the  natives,  on  account  of  its  containing  a  quantity  of  yellow  fat.  A  large 
number  of  these  zebras  are  also  slaughtered  for  the  sake  of  their  hides,  while  others 
fall  a  prey  to  lions,  who  seem  to  have  a  great  partiality  for  horseflesh. "  It  is  this 
species  of  zebra  which  is  the  one  commonly  met  with  in  menageries.  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  break  it  to  harness;  and,  in  the  Transvaal,  teams  com- 
posed partly  of  mules  and  partly  of  zebras  have  of  late  years  been  worked  more  or 
less  successfully.  Zebras  were  known  to  the  ancients  under  the  name  of  hippotigris, 
and  were  exhibited  from  time  to  time  in  the  Roman  circus;  such  individuals  not 
improbably  belonging  to  the  next  species. 

All  who  have  seen  zebras  in  their  native  haunts,  speak  of  the  beautiful  appear- 
ance presented  by  a  drove,  as  they  stand  for  a  moment  to  gaze  at  the  hunter,  and 
then  wheel  round  to  seek  safety  in  flight;  and  as  they  afford  but  unsatisfactory  tro- 
phies, it  seems  a  pity  that  so  many  are  killed  for  the  mere  sake  of  sport.  It  has  been 
stated  that,  when  standing  on  sandy  ground  in  full  moonlight,  a  zebra  harmonizes 
so  exactly  with  the  color  of  its  surroundings  as  to  be  quite  invisible  at  a  short 
distance. 

The  third  representative  of  the  group  is  GreVy's  zebra  (E.  grevyi}, 
a  from  the  mountains  northward  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  thence 
onward  to  the  highlands  of  Shoa  and  Somaliland,  which  has  only  been  made  known 
to  science  within  the  last  few  years.  This  species  is  a  taller  and  slimmer  animal 
than  the  true  zebra,  with  which,  however,  it  agrees  in  having  the  limbs  striped 
right  down  to  the  hoofs,  in  the  absence  of  stripes  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body, 
and  the  long  ears.  On  the  other  hand,  it  resembles  Burchell's  zebra  in  the  long 
mane  and  abundantly-haired  tail.  It  is  distinguished  from  both  by  the  much  greater 
number  of  the  stripes,  which  are  very  narrow,  deep  black  in  color,  and  separated 
by  equally  narrow  white  streaks.  The  arrangement  of  the  stripes  is,  moreover, 
quite  different,  those  which  run  transversely  across  the  sides  occupying  a  mnch 
greater  extent  of  the  body,  and  the  obliquely-longitudinal  ones  on  the  haunches 
being  proportionately  shortened. 


1094  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Colonel  J.  A.   Grant,   who  in  company  with   his   fellow-explorer, 
Habits  speke,  first  met  with  these  zebras  in  the  mountains  north  of  the  Vic- 

toria Nyanza,  writes  that  they  are  found  in  herds  comprising  from  two  to  nine  indi- 
viduals. "  One  of  their  number,  probably  the  largest  male,  takes  general  charge  of 
the  herd;  and  it  was  noticed  that  a  large  antelope  kept  watch  and  gave  the  alarm 
on  our  appearance.  They  are  rarely  found  outside  the  forest,  preferring  it  to  the 
open  plain,  which  is  generally  bare  of  grass;  or  they  frequent  a  country  with  clumps 
of  dense  brushwood,  or  with  outcrops  of  granite,  around  which  they  get  abundant 
food,  and  they  were  never  seen  far  from  running  water  and  hills.  Their  breeding 
season  was  determined  by  foals  following  their  mothers  in  the  month  of  January, 


CREW'S    ZEBRA. 
(From  Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  i882.) 

and  by  the  shrill  calls  we  heard,  which  came  I  presume,  from  the  foals.  The  first 
time  I  heard  their  call,  I  mistook  it  for  that  of  a  bird,  and  could  scarely  be  per- 
suaded till  I  heard  the  decided  donkey  notes  following  the  shriller  sounds.  They 
showed  much  sympathy  when  a  comrade  was  wounded,  lingering  with  the  wounded 
at  the  risk  of  their  lives;  they  mingled  with  our  laden  donkeys  one  day  on  the 
marsh. ' '  These  zebras  are  found  at  elevations  varying  from  two  hundred  up  to  two 
or  three  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  quagga  or  couagga  (£.  quagga},  so  far  as  color  is  concerned, 
forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  zebras  and  the  asses;  but  in  its 
short  ears,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  tail  is  haired,  approximates  to  the  horse. 
In  height  it  stands  about  the  same  as  the  true  zebra;  in  color  the  upper  parts  are  of 


Quagga 


THE  ZEBRAS 


1095 


a  light  reddish  brown,  with  the  head,  neck,  and  front  half  of  the  body  marked  with 
irregular,  chocolate-brown  stripes,  gradually  becoming  fainter,  until  they  are  quite 
lost  on  the  hind-quarters.  There  is  a  dark  stripe  running  down  the  back  on  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  tail;  but  the  rest  of  the  tail,  together  with  the  under  parts,  the 
inner  sides  of  the  thighs,  and  the  legs,  are  white. 

When  Sir  C.  Harris  visited  the  Cape  Colony  in  the  year  1839,  he 
described  the  quagga  as  existing  in  immense  herds,  but  it  is  now, 
owing  to  incessant  persecution  for  the  sake  of  its  hide,  either  completely  or  very 
nearly  exterminated.  According  to  Mr.  H.  A.  Bryden,  the  quagga  always  had  a 
very  restricted  distribution,  and,  although  "formerly  so  abundant  upon  the  far- 


Distribution 


THE  QUAGGA. 

spreading  '  karroos '  of  the  Cape  Colony  and  the  plains  of  the  Orange  Free  State, 
appears  never  to  have  been  met  with  north  of  the  Vaal  river.  Its  actual  habitat 
may  be  precisely  defined  as  within  Cape  Colony,  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  Griqua- 
land  West.  I  do  not  find  that  it  ever  extended  to  Namaqualand  and  the  Kalahari 
desert  to  the  west,  or  beyond  the  Key  river,  the  ancient  eastern  limit  of  the  Cape 
Colony  to  the  east. ' ' 

The  name  couagga  is  derived  from  the  shrill  bark-like  neigh  of  the 
animal.  In  habits  this  species  appears  to  have  been  very  similar  to 
the  other  members  of  this  group,  and  it  was  formerly  much  sought  after  by  the 
Boers  in  order  to  supply  their  native  servants  with  food.  It  may  be  added  that  all 


Habits 


1096 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


the  zebras,  with  the  exception  of  E.  grevyi,  which  has  not  hitherto  been  exhibited 
in  this  country,  will  interbreed  with  either  the  horse  or  the  ass.  Indeed,  the  skele- 
tons of  all  the  living  Equidtz  are  so  alike  that,  except  from  size,  it  appears  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  the  teeth  or  limb  bones  of  the  various  species  from  one  another. 


THE    TIBETAN   WILD    ASS,    OR    KIANG. 
(One-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

THE   ASSES  (Equus  hemionus  and  asinus) 

The  true  asses  differ  from  the  zebras  in  having  their  bodies  without  a  series  of 
stripes,  although  there  is  always  a  dark  streak  down  the  back,  and  sometimes 
another  across  the  shoulders,  and  likewise  irregular  transverse  bars  on  the  limbs. 

Wild  asses  are  widely  distributed  over  the  more  arid  regions  of  Asia,  ranging 

3m  Syria  to  Persia  and  Western  India/  and  northward  over  a  large  extent  of  Cen- 

t  was  long  considered  that  there  were  three  distinct  species  of  these 


THE  ASSES  ^  1097 

animals,  but  although  there  are  at  least  two  well-marked  varieties,  Mr.  Blanford  is  of 
opinion  that  the  whole  of  these  form  but  a  single  species  (E.  hemionus).     These 

asses  have  moderate-sized  ears  and  rather  long  tails,  and  stand  from 
Asiatic  Wild 

Ass  three  feet  eight  inches  to  four  feet  (eleven  to  twelve  hands)  at  the 

withers.  They  have  a  dark  brown  stripe,  sometimes  bordered  with 
white,  running  from  the  back  of  the  head  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  tail,  the  fore 
part  of  this  stripe  being  formed  only  by  the  mane;  the  color  of  the  rest  of  the  upper 
parts  varying  from  reddish  gray  to  fawn  or  pale  chestnut,  while  the  under  parts  are 
creamy  white.  In  some  cases  there  is  a  dark  shoulder  stripe,  while  in  others  the 
legs  are  faintly  barred  with  rufous,  and  the  end  of  the  tail  is  dark.* 

There  are  three  varieties  of  Asiatic  wild  asses,  of  which  the  first  is 
Distribution  t^ie  kiang  or  koulan,  of  Tibet  and  Mongolia,  characterized  by  its  large 

size,  dark-reddish  color,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  stripe  down  the 
back.  The  ghorkhar,  or  onager,  from  Western  India  and  Baluchistan,  is  a  smaller 
and  paler-colored  variety,  with  a  broader,  dorsal  stripe,  its  general  color  being  some- 
times silvery  white.  Lastly,  there  is  a  third  variety  from  Syria  and  Persia,  which 
apparently  differs  very  slightly  from  these.  In  Western  Tibet  the  kiang  lives  at 
elevations  of  fourteen  thousand  feet  and  over,  while  in  Cach  the  ghorkhar  is  found 
at  the  sea  level. 

The  Asiatic  wild  ass  is  remarkable  for  its  fleetness  and  its  capacity 

for  getting  over  rough  and  stony  ground  at  a  great  pace.  As  a  rule, 
these  animals  inhabit  desert  plains  or  open  rolling  table-lands,  and  are  generally 
found  in  small  parties  of  from  two  to  four  or  five  individuals,  or  in  herds  varying  in 
number  from  twenty  to  thirty  or  forty.  In  Northwestern  Afghanistan  a  herd  esti- 
mated to  contain  upward  of  one  thousand  head  has,  however,  been  seen  in  the  month 
of  April,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  larger  herds  are  composed  solely  of  mares  and 
foals.  In  the  districts  to  the  west  of  the  Indus  the  foals  are  born  during  the  sum- 
mer from  June  to  August;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  period  of  gestation  is  about 
eleven  months,  as  with  the  other  members  of  the  genus. 

The  food  of  these  wild  asses  consists  in  the  lowlands  of  different  kinds  of 
grasses,  which  are  frequently  dry;  but  in  Tibet  it  is  chiefly  composed  of  various 
woody  plants,  which  form  the  main  vegetation  of  those  arid  regions.  In  the  hills 
to  the  west  of  the  Indus  these  animals  are  to  be  found  wandering  pretty  well 
throughout  the  year;  but  in  the  early  summer,  when  the  grass  and  the  water  in  the 
pools  have  dried  up  from  the  hot  winds,  the  greater  number,  if  not  all,  of  the  ghork- 
hars  migrate  to  the  hills  for  grass  and  water.  It  is  stated  that  in  Western  India  and 
Persia  the  wild  asses  are  very  shy  and  difficult  to  approach.  This  is,  however,  by 
no  means  the  case  with  the  kiang  of  Western  Tibet,  which  is  one  of  the  most  curi- 
ous and  inquisitive  of  all  animals,  frequently  approaching  within  fifty  yards  or  less 
of  any  strange  object.  Indeed,  these  asses  are  often  a  positive  nuisance  to  the 
sportsman,  as  they  will  come  up  to  him  as  he  is  engaged  in  a  stalk,  and  thus  alarm 
and  drive  away  his  quarry.  In  L,adakh  I  have  frequently  ridden  among  a  herd  of 
kiang,  who  would  gallop  close  round  my  pony  in  circles;  and  on  one  occasion  a 
kiang,  apparently  actuated  by  extreme  curiosity,  walked  straight  into  the  middle  of 
my  camp,  where  the  cooking  was  going  on,  much  to  the  alarm  of  the  Indian  ser\rants. 


1098 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


The  speed  of  the  ghorkhar  is  so  great  that  it  appears  to  be  impossible  for  a  sin- 
gle horseman  to  ride  down  an  adult  in  good  condition.  It  is  stated,  indeed,  that 
this  has  been  done  in  Cach,  but  Mr.  Blanford  is  of  opinion  that  in  such  cases  mares 
in  foal  were  the  objects  of  pursuit.  In  the  Bikaner  desert  the  foals  are  captured  dur- 
ing the  summer  by  mounted  parties  of  Baluchis,  who,  by  relieving  one  another, 
hunt  them  till  they  fall  from  sheer  exhaustion,  when  they  are  taken  and  bound. 
Such  of  these  foals  as  can  be  reared  are  taken  into  India  and  sold  to  the  native 


A    TROOP   OF  PERSIAN   WII<D    ASSES. 

princes,  by  whom  high  prices  are  given  for  these  animals.  Whether  ghorkhars  thus 

taken  are  capable  of  being  tamed  and  broken  to  harness  or  the  saddle,  I  am  not 

aware;  but  a  kiang  which  I  once  saw  in  captivity  in  Leh  was  a  most  vicious  and  in- 

.ctable  brute,  with  which  nothing  could  be  done.      The  late  Sir  O   B   St   John 

states  that  it  was  told  him  by  the  Persians  that  if  the  sportsman  can  manage  to  con- 

cea,  himself  and  his  horse  in  the  vicinity  of  a  spring,  and  wait  till  the  wild  asses 

iave  quenched  their  thirst,  they  can  readily  be  come  up  with,  when  full  of  water  by 


THE   ASSES 


1099 


a  short  spurt  on  a  fast  horse.  At  other  times  they  are  caught  by  relays  of  horse- 
men and  greyhounds.  It  is  further  stated  by  the  same  writer  that  the  flesh  of  the 
ghorkhar  is  only  eaten  by  the  Persians  when  other  food  is  scarce. 

There  has  been  some  amount  of  discussion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  voice  of  the 
tiang,  some  observers  comparing  it  to  that  of  the  common  ass,  while  others  think  it 


«"A    S/<s&&vr  >  '^ '  'Wj 


THE    AFRICAN    WILD    ASS. 

(One-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

has  more  resemblance  to  the  neigh  of  the  horse.     The  general  opinion  is,  however, 
that  it  is  decidedly  ass  like,  and  it  has  been  described  as  a  shrieking  bray. 

The  African  wild  ass  (E.  asinus)  is  a  very  distinct  animal  from  its 

"wid  A      Asiatic  cousin,  having  much  longer  ears,  a  shorter  mane,  and  the  tail 

more  scantily  haired.     The  general  color  of  the  hair  is  a  creamy  or 

bluish  gray,  without  any  decided  rufous  tinge,  and  there  is  usually  a  well-defined 

dark  shoulder  stripe,  as  well  as  dark  bars  on  the  limbs.     The  muzzle,  a  patch  under 


i ioo  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  throat,  and  the  under  parts  are  white,  and  there  is  frequently  a  large  amount  of 
white  on  the  limbs.  There  is  some  amount  of  individual  variation  in  regard  to  the 
relative  length  of  the  ears,  mane,  tail,  and  limbs;  and  the  degree  of  development  of 
the  shoulder  and  leg  stripes,  is  also  variable,  the  former  being  sometimes  very 
narrow  and  faintly  marked,  while  in  other  cases  the  latter  markings  may  be 
absent.  The  height  may  reach  four  feet  eight  inches  (fourteen  hands)  at  the 
withers. 

The  African  wild  ass  is  widely  distributed  in  the  desert  regions  of 
Distribution  Northeastern  Africa,  occurring  in  Abyssinia,  Somaliland,  the  Sudan, 
and  other  districts  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Red  Sea.  Sir  Samuel 
Baker  says  that  on  the  margin  of  the  Atbara  desert  ' '  the  tracks  of  wild  asses  had 
been  frequent,  but  hitherto  I  had  not  seen  the  animals,  as  their  drinking  hour  was 
at  night,  after  which  they  traveled  far  into  the  desert.  However,  on  the  morning 
of  the  twenty-ninth  of  June,  shortly  after  the  start  at  about  6A.M.,  we  preceived 
three  of  these  beautiful  creatures  on  our  left  —  an  ass,  a  female,  and  a  foal.  They 
were  about  half  a  mile  distant  when  first  observed,  and  upon  our  approach  to 
within  half  that  distance  they  halted  and  faced  about.  They  were  evidently  on 
their  return  to  the  desert  from  the  river.  Those  who  have  seen  donkeys  in  their 
civilized  state  have  no  conception  of  the  beauty  of  the  wild  and  original  animal. 
Far  from  the  passive  and  subdued  appearance  of  the  English  ass,  the  animal  in  its 
native  desert  is  the  perfection  of  activity  and  courage;  there  is  a  high-bred  tone  in 
the  deportment,  a  high-actioned  step  when  it  trots  freely  over  the  rocks  and  sand, 
with  the  speed  of  a  horse.  When  it  gallops  freely  over  the  boundless  desert,  no 
animal  is  more  difficult  to  approach,  and,  although  they  are  frequently  captured  by 
the  Arabs,  those  taken  are  invariably  the  foals,  which  are  ridden  down  by  fast 
dromedaries,  while  the  mothers  escape."  The  author  then  proceeds  to  notice  how 
admirably  the  coloration  of  these  animals  harmonizes  with  that  of  their  desert 
surroundings.  Their  food  consists  of  the  wiry  herbage  found  in  such  regions,  but, 
in  spite  of  such  apparently  poor  diet,  these  animals  are  always  found  in  fine  con- 
dition. The  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  Arabs.  It  appears  that  these  asses  are  found 
either  in  parties  of  two  or  three  or  in  small  herds,  but  th#t  they  do  not  assemble  in 
large  troops.  Their  bray  is  practically  indistinguishable  from  that  of  the  domestic 
race. 

_          .    .  The  domestic  ass  is  evidently  the  tamed  African  ass,  in  most  cases 

deteriorated  by  bad  food  and  hard  usage.  Any  description  of  such  a 
well-known  animal  would  be  superfluous;  but  it  may  be  observed  that,  while  gray 
is  the  ordinary  color,  the  tint  may  vary  in  one  direction  until  it  passes  into  white, 
while  in  the  other  it  gradually  darkens  into  a  deep  brown  or  even  black.  The  dark 
stripe  running  down  the  back  is  usually  distinct  in  the  lighter-colored  varieties,  but 
the  shoulder  stripe  is  less  constant,  being  frequently  absent,  although  in  some  in- 
stances duplicated.  The  bars  on  the  legs  are  generally  wanting  in  the  adult, 
although  they  are  frequently  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  in  the  foal. 

The  ass  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  long  before  the  horse,  and  was, 
indeed,  probably  first  domesticated  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  whence  it  has  spread 
over  almost  the  whole  of  the  habitable  regions  of  the  globe.  We  are  not  aware, 


THE  ASSES 


IIOI 


liowever,  of  any  instances  where  these  animals  have  reverted  to  a  semiwild  condi- 
tion. In  Europe,  the  largest  and  finest  breeds  are  produced  in  the  more  southern 
countries,  such  as  Spain,  Italy,  and  Malta;  but  there  are  others  of  still  finer  propor- 
tions in  the  United  States,  where  they  reach  a  height  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  hands. 
These  larger  races  are  mainly  kept  for  the  purposes  of  mule  breeding,  and  show  that 
the  small  size  of  the  ordinary  form  is  due  in  great  part  to  the  rough  treatment  and 


DOMESTIC   ASS. 


bad  food  which  is  usually  its  share.  In  England  the  ass  was  known  in  the  reign  of 
Ethelred,  when  it  fetched  the  then  high  price  of  three  dollars;  but  it  has  been  con- 
sidered that  it  subsequently  became  extinct,  and  was  reintroduced  about  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth;  and  it  is  certain  that  it  did  not  become  common  till  after  the 
reign  of  the  latter. 

The  ass  is  valued  not  only  as  a  beast  of  burden  and  draught,  but  likewise  on 
account  of  its  milk,  and  it  is  stated  that  in  one  district  of  Equatorial  Africa  large 


IIO2 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


droves  of  these  animals  are  kept  solely  for  the  sake  of  their  milk.  A  peculiarity  in 
the  disposition  of  the  ass,  is  its  reluctance  to  cross  even  the  smallest  stream  of  water; 
this  aversion  being  doubtless  a  direct  inheritance  from  its  desert-haunting  wild 

ancestors. 

The  term  mule  is  strictly  applicable  only  to  the  hybrid  between  the 
Mule  male  ass  and  the  mare;  the  product  of  the  union  of  the  opposite  sexes 

of  these  two  species  being  known  as  the  hinny.  Mules,  although  they  frequently 
display  the  stubbornness  and  obstinacy  of  the  ass  in  an  intensified  degree,  are  for 
some  purposes  more  valuable  than  either  of  their  parents,  being  very  sure  footed 
and  with  great  powers  of  endurance.  Some  of  the  finest  mules  are  bred  in  Spain, 
the  United  States,  and  Northwestern  India,  where  they  frequently  attain  the  height 
of  sixteen  hands.  In  Spain  they  are  generally  employed  to  carry  burdens,  and 
march  in  long  droves,  following  in  single  file  a  leader  distinguished  by  a  bell. 
Among  the  dun-colored  mules  of  the  Punjab,  dark  stripes  on  the  legs  are  very  com- 
mon. 

There  appear  to  be  no  authenticated  instances  of  mules  breeding  among  them- 
selves, although  the  female  mule  will  occasionally  produce  offspring  with  the  male 
horse  or  ass.  And  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
hybrids  between  any  other  members  of  the  Equine  family  are  mutually  fertile. 


FOSSIL   HORSES 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  remains,  undistinguishable  from  the  exist- 
ing horses,  occur  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  Europe  and  Arctic  America;  but  that 
those  found  in  the  corresponding  formations  of  the  United  States  and  South  America 
appear  to  belong  to  extinct  species,  of  the  genus  Equus.  In  the  upper  molar  teeth 
of  all  these  species  the  front  inner  pillar  marked^  in  figure  B  on  p.  1075  is  much 
elongated  from  front  to  back.  In  the  figured  tooth  which  belongs  to  an  extinct  species 
(E.  sivalensis}  from  the  Siwalik  hills  of  India,  that  pillar  is,  however,  shorter;  and 
in  Steno's  horse  (E.  stenonis],  from  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Europe,  it  is  so  much 
shortened  as  to  be  almost  cylindrical.  The  same  is  the  case  with  certain  extinct 
species  from  the  later  deposits  of  the  United  States  and  Argentine,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  length  of  the  slit  for  the  nose  in  the  skull,  are  separated  as  a  dis- 
tinct genus,  under  the  name  of  Hippidium.  All  the  foregoing  have  but  a  single  toe 
to  each  foot,  but  we  now  come  to  certain  other  species  in  which  there  were  three 
distinct  hoofs.  One  of  these  is  the  Protohippiis  of  the  lower  Pliocene  strata  of  the 
United  States,  in  which  the  upper  molar  teeth  approximate  to  the  one  represented  in 
figure  B  on  p.  1075,  but  have  shorter  crowns.  The  other  is  the  European  and  Asiatic 
hipparion,  or  three-toed  horse,  of  which  an  upper  molar  tooth  is  represented  in  figure 
C  of  the  page  quoted.  From  that  figure  it  will  be  seen  that  the  front  inner  pillar  p- 
is  completely  separated  from  the  portion  pi.  That  the  Protohippus  was  the  ancestor 
of  the  true  extinct  horses  of  America,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt;  but,  from  the 
separation  of  the  inner  pillar  of  the  molars,  it  is  not  so  certain  that  the  hipparion 
gave  rise  to  the  existing  European  members  of  the  family. 


OTHER  EXTINCT  ODD-TOED   UNGULATES  1103 

r"' 

OTHER   EXTINCT  ODD-TOED   UNGULATES 


Ancestry  of  the  ^e  foreg°ing  observations  indicate  that  there  is  a  complete  transi- 
Horse  ^on  from  the  modern  single-toed  horse  to  species  with  three  distinct 
toes  to  each  foot,  and  with  rather  shorter-crowned  and  simpler  molar 
teeth.  From  these  three-toed  horses  there  is  a  further  gradation  to  other  extinct 
Ungulates,  which  cannot  be  included  in  the  Equine  family,  but  some  of  which  were 
doubtless  the  direct  progenitors  thereof.  One  of  these  was  the  Miocene  anchithere, 
common  to  both  Europe  and  the  United  States.  From  the  figures  given  on  p.  1075, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  upper  molar  teeth  of  these  animals,  although  formed  on  the 
general  plan  of  those  of  the  horse,  have  very  low  crowns,  with  a  simpler  arrang- 
ment  of  the  pillars  and  ridges,  and  the  intervening  valleys  perfectly  open,  owing  to 
the  absence  of  cement;  and  it  may  be  added  that  other  species  show  a  complete 
transition  from  the  molars  of  the  anchithere  to  those  of  the  earlier  horses.  Farther, 
the  lateral  toes  of  the  anchithere,  as  shown  in  the  figures  on  p.  743,  were  relatively 
larger  than  in  the  three-toed  horses.  Moreover,  in  the  anchithere,  the  radius  and 
ulna  in  the  fore,  and  the  tibia  and  fibula  in  the  hind-limb,  were  perfectly  distinct  and 
fully-developed  bones.  The  largest  anchithere  approached  an  ordinary  pony  in  size, 
while  the  smallest  was  not  larger  than  a  sheep,  and  in  all  these  animals  there  was 
the  full  typical  number  of  forty-four  teeth,  while  the  "  mark"  characteristic  of  the 
incisors  of  the  horse  was  but  faintly  indicated  in  one  species  alone.  Passing  down- 
ward in  the  geological  scale,  by  a  complete  transition  from  the  anchithere,  we  arrive 
in  the  lower  Eocene  London  Clay  at  a  small  animal  known  as  the  hyracothere, 
which  was  not  larger  than  a  fox,  and  had  four  toes  to  the  front,  and  three  to  the 
hind-feet;  while  the  forty-  four  low-crowned  teeth  were  of  still  simpler  structure 
than  in  the  anchithere,  although  formed  on  the  same  general  plan.  The  last  lower 
molar  tooth  of  the  hyracothere  differs  however  from  that  of  all  existing  Odd-Toed 
Ungulates  in  having  three  complete  lobes,  and  thus  approximates  to  the  corresponding 
tooth  of  the  Even-Toed  group;  and  it  may  be  added  that  the  essential  correspondence  in 
the  structure  of  the  upper  molars  of  the  two  groups  will  be  apparent  by  a  compari- 
son of  the  figure  of  the  molar  of  the  anoplothere  on  p.  1008,  with  that  of  the  anchi- 
there on  p.  1075. 

A  step  from  the  hyracothere  brings  us  to  the  still  earlier  phenacodus,  in  which 
each  foot  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  8  in  the  first  volume,  had  five  complete  toes; 
while  the  molar  teeth  had  their  crowns  with  small  isolated  tubercles  instead  of  ridges. 
This  small  primitive  animal,  with  a  most  generalized  type  of  structure,  appears  then  to 
be  the  undoubted  ancestral  stock  from  which  the  modern  horse  has  been  slowly  pro- 
duced by  some  process  of  evolution,  which  was  going  on  throughout  the  long  ages 
of  the  whole  Tertiary  period,  and  it  is  at  least  noteworthy  that  the  true  horse  only 
made  its  appearance  on  the  globe  at  or  about  the  same  time  as  his  master,  man. 

In  addition  to  the  animals  referred  to  above,  as  forming  the  direct 

Palaeotheres      ancestrai  ijne  of  the  modern  horse,  there  were  a  number  of  other  more 
and  Lophi- 
odons          or  ^ess  closely-allied  types  belonging  to  the  Odd-Toed  group.     Among 

these  some  of  the  best  and  longest  known  are  the  palaeotheres,  from  the 
upper  Eocene  strata  of  Europe,  of  which,  as  far  back  as  the  early  "portion  of  the 


1 104 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


THE    LEFT    UPPER    CHEEK-TEETH    OF    THE    GREAT 
(One-half   natural   size.) 
(After  Gaudry.) 


present  century,  nearly  complete  skeletons  discovered  in  the  gypsum  quarries,  near 
Paris,  were  described  by  Cuvier.     These  palseotheres  were  tapir-Like  animals,  with 

three  toes  to  each  foot, 
and  molar  teeth  ap- 
proximating to  those  of 
anchithere  in  structure, 
but  having  a  somewhat 
elongated  neck.  While 
some  of  the  species  were 
not  taller  than  a  sheep, 
others  must  have  fully 
equalled  the  largest 
tapirs  in  size.  They  probably  resembled  the  tapirs  in  having  a  short  proboscis  to 
the  snout,  and  likewise  in  their  general  mode  of  life.  The  lophiodons  are  some- 
what older  animals,  being  mainly  characteristic  of  the  middle  Eocene  strata  of 
Europe.  Some  of  them  were  as  large  as  a  rhinoceros;  and  their  upper  molar  teeth 
approximate  to  those  of  the  tapirs  having  their  outer  columns  conical,  instead  of 
assuming  the  flattened  form  characteristic  of  the  palaeotheres.  The  lower  molars, 
moreover,  differ  from  those  of  the  palaeotheres  in  having  their  transverse  ridges 
nearly  straight  instead  of  crescent-like;  and  the  total  number  of  teeth  is  only  forty, 
owing  to  the  loss  of  the  first  premolar  in  each  jaw.  So  far  as  known,  the  number 
of  toes  to  the  feet  was  the  same  as  in  the  tapirs;  and  while  the  true  lophiodons 
apparently  indicate  a  group  which  died  out  without  leaving  any  descendants,  cer- 
tain allied  forms  probably  indicate  the  ancestral  stocks  of  both  the  tapirs  and  the 
rhinoceroses. 

In  the  Miocene  period  there  existed  in  North  America  and  the  Bal- 
and  Chali-  ^ans  certain  gigantic  rhinoceros-like  Ungulates,  which,  while  belonging 
cotheres  to  the  Odd-Toed  group,  were  quite  unlike  any  other  forms,  and  ap- 
proximated in  bulk  to  the  elephants.  These  titanotheres,  as  they  are 
called,  had  skulls  somewhat  like  those  of  rhinoceroses,  but  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
bony  processes  placed  transversely  in  the 
region  of  the  nose,  which  were  doubtless 
furnished  with  horny  sheaths  during  life. 
The  limbs  were  massive,  and  furnished 
with  four  toes  in  front,  and  three  behind, 
one  of  the  fore-feet  being  figured  on  p. 
742.  Some  of  the  species  had  the  full 
number  of  forty-four  teeth,  placed  in  close 
apposition  to  one  another;  but  in  others 
the  whole  of  the  lower  and  one  pair  of  the 
upper  incisors  were  wanting.  The  molar 
teeth  are  of  the  type  of  those  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  and  differ  very 
markedly  from  those  of  other  Odd-Toed  Ungulates;  they  consist  of  four  columns, 
of  which  the  outer  ones  are  flattened,  and  those  on  the  inner  side  more  or  less 
conical.  The  teeth  are  further  remarkable  for  the  extreme  lowness  of  their  crowns. 


yil 


TWO   RIGHT    UPPER    MOLAR    TEETH    OF 
PAL^OSYOPS. 
(From  Earle.) 


OTHER  EXTINCT  ODD-TOED  UNGULATES  1105 

r"' 

North  America  also  yields  remains  of  smaller  but  allied  Ungulates,  such  as  Palcz- 
vsyops,  which  extend  downward  to  the  highest  beds  of  the  Eocene,  and  have  no 
bony  processes  on  the  skull. 

The  most  extraordinary  modification  of  the  Odd-Toed  Ungulate  type  is,  how- 
ever, presented  by  the  chalicothere,  which  is  common  to  the  Pliocene  and  Miocene 
deposits  of  Southern  Asia,  Europe,  and  the  United  States.  In  these  animals  the 
molar  teeth  were  of  the  type  of  the  titanothere;  but  the  limbs  terminated  in  long, 
curved  claws,  very  similar  to  those  of  the  pangolins  or  scaly  ant-eaters,  described  in 
the  next  volume.  Indeed,  so  like  are  the  limbs  of  the  chalicothere  to  those  of  the 
last-named  animals,  that  they  were  originally  regarded  as  indicating  a  member  of 
the  same  group.  Apparently,  however,  the  chalicotheres  must  be  regarded  as 
specially-modified  Ungulates,  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  Odd-Toed  group,  and 
adapted  for  a  fossorial,  or  possibly  arboreal  mode  of  life. 

70 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE  UNGULATES — concluded 


HYRACES,  ELEPHANTS,  ETC. 

WITH  the  exception  of  the  extinct  phenacodus,  noticed  among  the  ancestors  of 
the  horse,  the  whole  of  the  Ungulates  described  in  the  seven  preceding  chapters  are 
characterized  by  certain  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the  wrist  joint.  On 
referring  to  the  figure  of  the  fore-foot  of  the  titanothere  on  p.  742,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  bones  of  the  two  rows  of  the  wrist  are  arranged  alternately  to  one  another, 
that  is  to  say,  the  bone  marked  /  is  placed  immediately  over  the  line  of  division  be- 
tween the  bones  u  and  in.  Moreover,  none  of  these  animals  have  more  than  four 
toes  to  any  one  foot,  while  in  no  case  do  they  walk  on  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot 
after  the  so-called  plantigrade  fashion.  Then,  again,  the  huckle  bone,  or  astragalus, 
in  the  ankle  joint,  is  always  deeply  grooved,  as  shown  in  the  hind-foot  of  a  deer 
represented  on  p.  744,  and  in  that  of  a  rhinoceros  on  p.  1042. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  most  of  the  Ungulates  remaining  for  consideration  the 

component  bones  of  the  two  rows  of  the  wrist  joint, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  of  the  fore-foot 
of  an  elephant,  are  placed  directly  one  over  the  other, 
so  that  the  line  of  division  between  the  bones  /  and  c 
is  continuous  with  that  between  m  and  u,  instead  of 
being  placed  immediately  above  m.  And  it  will  be 
obvious  that  this  type  of  structure  is  inferior  from 
a  mechanical  point  of  view  to  that  distinguishing 
the  wrist  joint  of  the  typical  Ungulates.  The  existing 
and  many  of  the  extinct  Ungulates  described  in  this 
THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEFT  FORE-  chapter  frequently  have  five  toes  on  each  foot,  and 

FOOT    OF    AN     ELEPHANT.  .    i  .-,  r  r          ,.          ,  ...  ,. 

(One-eighth  natural  size.)          DOt  leSS  thatl  f°Ur   functlonal    ones>  wlth  a   rudiment 

(After  osbom.)  °^  a  ^^tn  on  tne  fore-foot.     They  may  likewise  walk 

partly  or  entirely  in  the  plantigrade  manner;  while 

in  the  ankle  joint  the  upper  surface  of  the  huckle  bone  in  generally  flat.  In  all  re- 
spects, therefore,  so  far  as  foot  structure  is  concerned,  these  animals  are  less-highly 
organized  than  the  Ungulates  of  which  we  have  hitherto  treated.  The  sole  living 
representatives  of  Ungulates  with  this  generalized  type  of  foot  structure  are  the 
small  hyraces,  of  which  there  are  numerous  kinds,  and  the  two  species  of  elephants. 
The  latter  are,  however,  the  last  survivors  from  a  number  of  kindred  animals,  and 
there  formerly  existed  several  other  groups  of  more  or  less  nearly-allied  Ungulates 

which  are  now  totally  extinct.     Beyond  the  generalized  structure  of  their  feet  there 
(1106) 


THE   HYRACES  ^  1107 

is  but  little  in  common  between  the  hyraces  and  the  elephants,  which  respectively 
form  the  representatives  of  two  groups  as  distinct  from  one  another  as  is  the  Odd- 
Toed  from  the  Even-Toed  group  of  the  typical  Ungulates.  The  elephants  have  been 
enabled  to  survive  to  the  present  day  by  the  development  of  a  highly-specialized 
dentition,  and,  perhaps,  also  owing  to  their  huge  bodily  size;  while  the  small  hyraces 
are  sufficiently  protected  by  their  habits. 


THE  HYRACES 

SUBORDER   Hyracoidea 
Family  PR  OCA 


The  small  animals  now  generally  known  as  hyraces  (from  one  of  their  scientific 
names)  are  so  like  Rodents  in  external  appearance  and  habits,  that  in  our  transla- 


SKEI.ETON    OF   THE    CAPE    HYRAX. 

tion  of  the  Bible  they  are  designated  by  the  term  coney,  which  belongs  properly  to 
the  rabbit. 

The  Rodent-like  appearance  is  largely  due  to  the  circumstance  that  (as  shown 
in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton)  their  jaws  are  armed  in  front  with  long,  curved  teeth, 
adapted  for  gnawing,  and  separated  by  a  long  gap  from  the  teeth  of  the  cheek 
series.  Their  front  teeth  are,  however,  in  reality  very  different,  both  in  form  and 
number,  from  those  of  the  Rodent  Mammals.  In  the  upper  jaw  there  are  a  pair  of 
incisor  teeth,  of  semicircular  form,  and  growing  throughout  life  in  the  Rodent  man- 
ner. Instead,  however,  of  being  chisel-like,  they  are  triangular  in  section,  and 
terminate  in  sharp  points,  their  outer  and  inner  front  surfaces  being  covered  with 
enamel,  which  is  wanting  on  the  hinder  surface.  In  the  lower  jaw,  there  are  two 
pairs  of  front  teeth,  of  which  the  outermost  are  nearly  straight,  with  long,  conical 
crowns  divided  into  three  lobes;  both  pairs  of  these  teeth  are,  however,  rooted,  and 
therefore  quite  unlike  the  continually-growing,  single  pair  of  the  Rodents.  The 


no8  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

cheek-teeth  are  seven  in  number  on  each  side  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and 
in  structure  approximate  to  those  of  either  the  rhinoceros  or  the  palseothere,  there 
being  some  amount  of  variation  in  the  form  and  height  of  the  crowns  of  these  teeth 
in  the  different  species. 

Like  other  Ungulates,  hyraces  have  no  collar  bones  (clavicles)  ,  and  the  tail  is 
reduced  to  a  mere  stump.  In  the  fore-foot  there  are  four  functional  toes,  of  which 
the  outermost  is  smaller  than  the  others;  the  first  digit  being  represented  by  a  mere 
rudiment.  The  hind-foot  has  only  three  toes,  of  which  the  innermost  is  furnished 
with  a  long,  curved  claw,  while  the  other  two,  like  all  those  in  the  fore-foot,  carry 
broad  and  short  nails,  somewhat  like  those  of  a  rhinoceros.  All  the  bones  of  the 
limbs  are  fully  developed  and  separate  from  one  another;  and  the 
thigh  bone,  or  femur,  lacks  the  distinct  third  trochanter  charac- 
terizing the  Odd-Toed  Ungulates.  In  many  species  the  socket  of 
the  eye  is  completely  surrounded  by  bone,  but  in  others  it  is 
partially  open  behind. 

The  hyraces  have  sharply-pointed  muzzles  and  small,  rounded 
ears,  and  their  bodies    are  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  nearly 
uniformly  -colored  hair,   which  varies  in  length  in   the  different 
species.    Near  the  middle  of  the  back  there  is  a  gland,  surrounded 
THE  BONES  OF    and        tl     COVered  by  a  patch  of  hair,  differing  in  color  from 

THE        UPPER 

PART    OP    THE    those  on  the  rest  of  the  body.    Frequently,  the  central  part  of  this 


FORE-    gland  is  naked,  —  in  one  species  for  a  length  of  fully  two  inches, 
FOOT     OF    THE    —  but  it  is  generally  concealed  by  the  convergence  of  the  surround- 

T(F?oti  oltetf  )        inS  hair-      In  most  sPecies  the  female  has  three  pairs  of  mam- 

mae, one  of  which  is  placed  near  the  fore-limbs,  while  the  other  two 

are  situated  posteriorly;  but  in  three  species  of  tree  hyrax  there  is  but  a  single  pair. 

The  various  species  of  hyrax,  about  fourteen  in  number,  are  con- 

Distribution      fined  to  Africaj   Arabia,   and  Syria.     In  Africa  they  are  found  in  the 

extreme  south  at  the  Cape,  and  thence  range  along   the  East   and  West  Coasts 

about  as  far  north  as  the  twentieth  parallel  of  north  latitude;  while  they  also  occur 

in  the  central  equatorial  regions.     They  are  usually  found  in  rocky  districts,  at  ele- 

vations varying  from  near  the  sea  level  to  upward  of  eleven  thousand  feet. 

The  whole  of  the  species  of  hyrax  are  now  included  by  Mr.   O. 

yH  Thomas  in  the  single  genus  Procavia,  and,  as  it  will  be  unnecessary 

to  notice  all  of  them,  we  shall  confine  our  remarks  to  some  of  the  best 

known.     Of  these  the  Abyssinian  hyrax  (P.  abyssinica]  agrees  with  the  majority  in 

the  light  color  of  the  patch  of  hair  surrounding  the  gland  on  the  back.     It  is  of 

medium  size,  the  total  length  along  the  curves  of  a  female  specimen  measured  by 

Mr.  Blanford  being  twenty  inches,  and  the  height  at  the  shoulder  eight  inches.     Its 

fur  is  coarse  and  harsh,  and  in  specimens  from  high  elevations  somewhat  elongated, 

but  short  in  those  from  the  lowlands.     The  light  spot  round  the  gland  is  very  small 

and  inconspicuous. 

.  Mr.  Blanford  says  that  '  '  these  hyraces  live  in  rocky  or  stony  places, 

in    communities,    like    rabbits,    haunting    holes    beneath   the   rocks. 

A  large  pile  of  loose  rocks,  especially  if  there  are  precipices  around,  is  sure  to  be 


THE  HYRACES 


1109 


inhabited  by  them.  They  are  frequently  found,  too,  in  rocky  water  courses.  They 
appear  to  feed  at  night  and  very  early  in  the  morning,  their  principal  food  being 
the  leaves  and  young  shoots  of  trees  and  bushes.  During  the  day  they  lie  out  upon 
rocks  in  the  shade,  or  retire,  especially  toward  midday,  beneath  the  rocks.  They 
are  timid  and  wary,  rushing  into  their  holes  at  the  smallest  intimation  of  danger. 
The  only  sound  I  heard  made  by  them  was  a  shrill  squeak  when  suddenly  alarmed. 
They  can  climb  over  smooth  surfaces  of  rock  in  a  wonderful  manner,  their  large 
feet  aiding  them  in  obtaining  a  hold."  The  typical  race  of  this  species  occurs  in 
the  highlands  of  Abyssinia,  the  lowland  form  being  of  considerably  smaller  size.  Its 
habits  may  be  taken  as  characteristic  of  all  the  species,  with  the  exception  of  those 
frequenting  trees.  Two  other  species  inhabit  Southern  Abyssinia,  viz.,  the  Shoan 
hyrax  (P.  shoana],  and  Bruce 's  hyrax  (P.  brucei).  The  former  of  these  inhabits 


SYRIAN    HYRAX. 

Southern  Abyssinia  and  Shoa,  and  is  nearly  or  quite  the  largest  of  the  group;  it  dif- 
fers from  all  others,  except  the  Cape  hyrax,  in  having  the  spot  on  the  back  entirely 
black,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  the  great  length  of  its  soft  and  silky 
hair.  Bruce's  hyrax,  which  ranges  from  Southern  Abyssinia  to  Somaliland  and 
Mozambique,  is  a  small  and  rare  species,  with  the  spot  on  the  back  long  and  narrow, 
and  yellowish  or  whitish  in  color.  It  has  been  found  at  elevations  of  from  seven 
thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet. 

The  Cape  hyrax  (P.  capensis)  is  confined  to  the  Cape  Colony  and 
Natal,  where  it  is  known  to  the  Dutch  colonists  as  the  klip-das,  or 
rock-badger.  It  is  characterized  by  the  hair  being  soft  and  fine,  and  of 
medium  length,  with  the  spot  on  the  back  of  an  irregular  oval  form,  and  black  in 
color,  the  general  hue  of  the  fur  being  dark  sepia  brown,  speckled  with  pale  yellow 
or  white.  The  late  Professor  Moseley  writes  that  these  animals  ' '  come  out  to  feed 


IIIO 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


in  the  morning  and  evening,  but  also  bask  sometimes  in  the  hot  sun  at  midday. 
They  are  very  inquisitive,  and  sit  up  on  a  rock,  and  look  at  one,  and  then  suddenly 
dash  into  their  hiding  place.  After  a  time,  if  one  remains  quiet,  they  come  out  for 
another  look,  and  afford  a  good  chance  for  a  shot.  Their  cry  of  alarm  is  a  short, 
hissing  noise.  They  had  young  at  the  time  of  our  visit  [November],  and  I  met 
with  two  litters,  each  of  three  young,  which  were  about  the  size  of  very  large  rats, 
with  soft  chocolate-brown  downy  hair.  The  young  play  about  on  the  rocks  together 
like  kittens,  chasing  one  another  and  darting  in  and  out  among  the  clefts." 

The  Syrian  hyrax  (P.  syriacd]  is  the  coney  of  Scripture,  and  the 
Syrian  yrax  Q^  Species  found  out  of  Africa,  its  range  including  Syria,  Palestine, 
the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  and  the  whole  of  Arabia.  It  is  a  small  or  medium-sized 
and  rather  variable  species,  with  somewhat  soft  and  shaggy  hair  of  a  dull  orange- 
yellow  or  fawn  color;  and  the  spot  on  the  back  rather  small,  oval,  and  its  com- 
ponent hairs  yellow  throughout  their  length.  Canon  Tristram  states  that  these 

hyraces  produce 
from  three  to  six 
young  at  a  birth, 
but  that  four  ap- 
pears to  be  the 
ordinary  number. 
He  observes  that 
' '  they  are  far  too 
wary  to  be  taken  in 
traps,  and  the  only 
chance  of  securing 
one  is  patiently  to 
lie  concealed,  about 
sunset  or  before 
sunrise,  on  some 
overhanging  cliff, 
taking  care  not  to 
let  the  shadow  be 

cast  below,  and  thus  to  wait  till  the  little  creatures  cautiously  peep  forth  from  their 

holes.     .     .     .     They  make  a  nest  of  dried  grass  and  fur,  in  which  the  young  are 

buried  like  those  of  a  mouse.     The  flesh  is  much  prized  by  the  Arabs.     We  found 

it  good,  but  rather  dry  and  insipid,  as  dark  in  color  as  that  of  the  hare." 

Tree  Hyraces       Three  sPecies  of  the  genus,  of  which  one  is  from  Western  and  one 

from  Eastern  Africa,  and  not  improbably   a  third   from    the  central 

equatorial  region,  differ  from  the  rest  in  their  arboreal  habits.     These  three  species 

agree  in  that  the  females  have  but  a  single  pair  of  teats,  and  are  respectively  known 

as  P  valida  from  Mount  Kilima-Njaro,  readily  distinguished  from  all  the  others  by 

the  bright  fulvous  hue  of  the  under  parts,  P.  arborea  from  Eastern  and  Southeastern 

ca,  and  P.  dorsalis  ranging  on  the  West  Coast  from  Liberia  to  the  Cameroons  and 

The  latter  species  is  of  large  size,   and  characterized  by  its  long, 

laggy  fur,  black  at  the  base  and  white  at  the  tips  of  the  hair,  and  the  relatively- 


TREE  HYRAX. 

(After  Thomas.) 


THE  ELEPHANTS  mi 

large  size  of  the  head  compared  to  the  body.  The  Kilima-Njaro  species  is  found  at 
•elevations  of  from  seven  thousand  to  eleven  thousand  feet  in  the  dense  forests  cloth- 
ing the  mountain.  They  live  entirely  in  the  trees,  making  their  lairs  and  breeding 
places  in  holes  in  the  boughs  and  trunks,  and  they  are  stated  to  make  a  great  noise 
.at  night.  A  female  captured  by  Mr.  H.  H.  Johnston  gave  birth  to  three  young. 
Mr.  H.  C.  V.  Hunter  states  that  many  of  them  are  captured  alive  by  the  natives  for 
the  sake  of  their  skins,  of  which  several  are  sewed  together  to  make  cloaks. 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  at  present  no  extinct  animals  have  been  dis- 
covered which  appear  allied  to  the  hyraces. 

ELEPHANTS 

SUBORDER  Proboscidea 
Family  ELEPHANTIDJE 

From  their  peculiar  bodily  conformation,  their  huge  size,  which  exceeds  that 
•of  all  other  terrestrial  Mammals,  and  the  high  degree  of  intelligence  which  they 
have  been  supposed  to  display,  elephants  have  always  excited  an  amount  of  popular 
interest  far  surpassing  that  accorded  to  most  other  animals.  And  in  truth  this  deep 
and  widespread  interest  is  by  no  means  misplaced,  since  elephants  really  are  among 
the  most  extraordinary  and  remarkable  forms  with  which  the  zoologist  is  ac- 
quainted. Through  long  experience  we  are  now  thoroughly  familiarized  with  their 
appearance,  but  if  we  were  to  see  one  for  the  first  time  we  should  probably  regard  it 
as  the  strangest  Mammal  that  ever  existed,  and,  indeed,  we  should  not  be  far  wrong 
in  doing  so.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that,  so  far  as  regards  the  structure  of 
their  feet,  elephants  are  some  of  the  most  generalized  of  all  living  Mammals,  and  a 
similar  remark  will  apply  with  equal  truth  to  the  structure  of  the  rest  of  their  limbs. 
When,  however,  we  take  into  consideration  the  peculiar  nature  of  their  dentition, 
and  their  marvelously-constructed  proboscis,  we  find  them  possessing  characteristics 
of  the  highest  specialization,  and  it  is  this  combination  of  generalized  and  specialized 
features  which  render  elephants  so  peculiarly  interesting  to  the  zoologist. 

At  the  present  day  these  animals  are  represented  only  by  the  Indian  and  Afri- 
can species,  but  in  past  epochs  there  were  a  number  of  extinct  forms,  some  of  which 
serve  to  connect  the  living  ones,  to  a  certain  limited  extent,  with  other  Ungulates; 
and  since  it  is  only  by  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  characteristics  presented  by 
the  dentition  of  these  extinct  elephants  that  the  structure  of  the  teeth  of  their  living 
representatives  can  be  understood,  it  will  be  necessary  in  our  account  of  the  group 
to  devote  almost  as  much  attention  to  the  fossil  as  to  the  existing  species.  It  is 
worthy,  however,  of  note  that  although  some  of  the  extinct  elephants  do,  as  already 
stated,  depart  less  widely  from  ordinary  Ungulates  than  is  the  case  with  the  living 
Indian  and  African  species,  yet  such  approximation  to  the  normal  type  is  only  one 
of  degree,  and  we  are  at  present  totally  unacquainted  with  any  animals  which  are 
absolutely  intermediate  between  elephants  and  other  Ungulates.  The  origin  of  the 
group  is,  therefore,  still  totally  unknown,  although  their  nearest  relations  may 
prove  to  be  certain  extinct  groups. 


1 1 12  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  most  striking  external  peculiarity  of  elephants,  and  the  one 
Characteristics  frQm  which  their  tkle  of  proboscidians  is  derived,  is  the  long,  flexible 
proboscis,  into  which  the  nose  is  produced;  this  proboscis  having  the  nostrils  at  its 
extremity,  and  being  used  as  an  organ  of  prehension,  and  for  the  purpose  of  convey- 
ing water  to  the  mouth.  Their  build  is  extremely  massive  and  bulky,  the  head 
being  of  great,  proportionate  size,  the  ears  large  and  flapping,  the  neck  very  short 
and  thick,  and  the  limbs  long  and  stout.  A  peculiarity  of  the  limbs,  as  shown  in 
the  figure  of  the  skeleton,  is  that  the  humerus  in  the  fore,  and  the  femur  in  the 
hind-leg,  are  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  lower  segments;  the  feet  themselves  be- 


SKELETON    OF   THE    INDIAN    ELEPHANT. 

ing  very  short  indeed.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  bones  of  the  limbs  are  set 
nearly  vertically  one  above  another;  and  from  this  cause,  together  with  the  great 
relative  length  of  their  upper  segments,  the  knee  and  elbow  joints  are  not  partially 
inclosed  within  the  skin  covering  the  body,  as  is  the  case  in  most  Ungulates.  Con- 
sequently, the  knee  of  the  elephant  is  more  readily  identified  with  that  of  man  than 
is  the  case  with  that  of  a  horse.  It  is  further  owing  to  this  peculiarity  in  the  struc- 
ture of  its  limbs  that  an  elephant  kneels  down,  with  its  fore-feet  stretched  out  in 
front  and  the  hinder  ones  behind.  The  short  feet  are  extremely  broad,  and  have 
five  toes  each,  of  which  the  middle  one  (as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  1106)  is  the 
largest;  and  from  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  feet  the  ankle  bone  is  placed  close  to> 


THE   ELEPHANTS  1113 

the  ground,  instead  of  being  raised  half  way  up  the  leg  as  in  the  horse.  The  whole 
of  the  toes  are  inclosed  in  a  common  skin,  with  a  flat  cushion-like  sole;  the  position 
of  the  toes  being  indicated  by  the  broad,  flat  nails,  of  which  there  maybe  either 
three  or  four  in  the  hind-foot.  The  fore-foot  is  broader  than  the  hinder  one,  and 
generally  has  five  nails. 

In  most  cases  the  males,  and  sometimes  the  females  also,  have  a  pair  of  tusks 
in  the  upper  jaw;  these  tusks  corresponding  to  one  of  the  pairs  of  incisors  of  other 
Mammals,  and  not  to  the  tusks  of  the  wild  boar  and  hippopotamus,  which  are 
canines.  There  are  no  other  front  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  none  at  all  in  the  lower 
jaw  of  the  living  species.  The  eyes  are  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  head; 
the  tail  is  nearly  cylindrical,  and  of  considerable  length,  with  a  tuft  of  bristly  hairs 
at  the  end;  but  the  skin  is  nearly  naked  in  the  two  existing  species.  The  female 
has  a  single  pair  of  teats  placed  between  the  fore-legs. 

In  addition  to  the  proportions  and  position  of  the  bones  of  the  limbs  already 
referred  to,  it  may  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  skeleton  that  the  two  bones 
of  the  lower  segment  of  each  leg  are  perfectly  distinct  from  one  another,  and  that 
in  the  ankle  the  huckle  bone,  or  astragalus,  is  nearly  flat  both  above  and  below,  and 
is  of  slight  vertical  thickness,  but  of  great  horizontal  extent.  The  vertebrae  of  the 
back  have  very  tall  spines  for  the  attachment  of  the  powerful  ligaments  necessary  to 
support  the  enormous  weight  of  the  head,  and  the  ribs  are  of  great  length,  and  thus 
afford  ample  space  for  the  viscera.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton 
that  the  blade  bone,  or  scapula,  has  a  backwardly-recurved  process  projecting  from 
its  space;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  a  nearly  similar  condition  of  this  acromial 
process  is  found  in  the  Rodents. 

From   the   enormous  size  of  the  skull  -it  might  be  inferred  that 

elephants  have  very  large  brains.  This,  however,  is  far  from  the  case, 
the  brain  not  only  being  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  but  like- 
wise of  a  low  degree  of  organization.  The  brain  of  an  elephant  occupies,  indeed, 
only  a  comparatively-small  portion  of  the  space  lying  between  the  socket  of  the  eye 
and  the  region  where  the  vertebras  of  the  neck  articulate  with  the  skull.  The  whole 
of  the  elevated  upper  portion  of  the  skull  is  occupied  by  a  mass  of  bone,  honey- 
combed into  cells,  and  thus  affords  space  for  the  attachment  of  the  huge  muscles  of 
the  jaws,  and  forms  an  adequate  support  for  the  trunk  without  unduly  adding  to  the 
weight;  the  great  size  of  this  region  being  also  essential  in  order  to  harmonize  with 
the  immense  development  of  the  lower  part  of  the 'skull,  which  has  to  accommodate 
the  enormous  tusks  and  molar  teeth.  Similar  cells  also  enter  into  the  structure  of 
the  hinder  and  basal  regions  of  the  skull.  There  are  many  other  peculiarities  in  the 
conformation  of  the  elephant's  skull,  but  it  must  suffice  to  mention  here  that  the 
nasal  aperture  is  situated  high  up  in  the  front  of  the  face,  and  that  the  nasal 
bones  are  reduced  to  mere  triangular  nodules,  instead  of  having  the  elongated  form 
characteristic  of  most  Mammals. 

Of  the  teeth  a  more  detailed  notice  is  necessary,  since  these  afford 

some  of  the  most  essential  characteristics  of  the  group.  As  already 
mentioned,  elephants  have  no  canine  teeth  in  either  jaw;  while  in  the  living  species 
the  tusks  are  developed  only  in  the  upper  jaw.  In  the  young  elephant  there  is  a 


1 1 14  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

minute  pair  of  milk-tusks,  which  are  shed  at  a  very  early  age.  The  permanent 
tusks,  which  are  nearly  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  taper  to  their  extremities,  con- 
tinue to  grow  throughout  the  life  of  their  owners,  and  thus  remain  permanently 
open  at  their  bases,  which  are  inclosed  in  sheaths  of  the  premaxillary  bones  extend- 
ing as  high  up  in  the  skull  as  the  aperture  of  the  nasal  cavity.  In  the  young  state 
the  tusks  of  the  living  species  of  elephants  are  tipped  with  enamel;  but  this  is  soon 
rubbed  off  by  use,  and  they  then  consist  of  ivory  alone.  This  ivory  differs  from 
that  of  other  Mammals  in  its  structure,  which  renders  its  easy  to  distinguish 
elephant  ivory  from  all  other;  and  if  a  transverse  section  of  a  tusk  be  examined,  it 
will  be  found  to  present  a  pattern  like  the  engine  turning  on  the  back  of  a  watch 
case;  this  peculiar  pattern  being  absolutely  distinctive  of  true  ivory. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  molar  or  cheek-teeth  of  the  elephants, 
which  in  their  structure  and  mode  of  succession  are  unlike  those  of  all  other  Mam- 
mals. In  the  first  place,  an  elephant  has  six  cheek-teeth  on  each  side  of  both  the 
tipper  and  lower  jaws;  but  instead  of  all  these  being  in  use  at  once,  in  the  existing 

species  only  two  are  ever 
above  the  gums  at  any  one 
time,  and  one  of  these  is 
but  partly  protruded;  while 
in  old  animals  there  is  but 
a  single  tooth  remaining. 
The  molar  teeth  are  elon- 
gated from  front  to  back, and 
are  composed  of  a  number 
of  transverse  ridges  closely 
packed  together.  The  an- 
terior teeth,  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  figure, 
are  small,  and  include 
but  few  ridges;  but  each 
succeeding  tooth  is  larger, 
and  comprises  a  greater 

number  of  ridges,  reaching  in  the  last  molar  of  the  Indian  species  to  as  many  as 
twenty-four.     The  individual  teeth  succeed  one  another  from  before  backward  in  an 
arc  of  a  circle;  and  as  the  tooth  fn  front  is  worn  away,  its  place  is  gradually  taken 
by  the  one  rising  from  behind,  till  at  length  the  sixth  and  last  tooth  alone  remains. 
Although  this  mode  of  succession  appears  strange  and  peculiar,  it  is  in  reality  only 
an  ultradevelopment  of  what  takes  place  among  the  pigs,  and  more  especially  in  the 
African  wart  hogs.     In  all  the  pigs  the  last  molar  does  not  come  into  use  till  the 
ith  in  front  of  it  are  considerably  worn;  and  in  the  wart  hogs,  as  we  have  already 
:en,  the  last  molar  is  of  unusually  large  size,  and  may  be  the  only  cheek-tooth  re- 
naming m  the  adult  condition,  owing  to  those  in  front  being  shed.     It  should  be 
that  while  the  last  three  cheek-teeth  of  the  elephants  correspond  to  the  true 
ars  of  an  ordinary   Mammal,  the  three  anterior  ones  represent   the  last  three 
-molars  of  such  an  animal  as  the  pig,  and  not,  as  would  at  first  sight  appear  to 


THE    FIRST    AND    SECOND    RIGHT    UPPER    MOLAR 
TEETH    OF    THE    MAMMOTH. 

(Natural  size. ) 
(After  Sir  R.  Owen.) 


"be  the  case,  the  premolars.  That  the  three  teeth  in  question  are  really  milk-molars  is 
proved  by  the  circumstance  that  in  some  of  the  extinct  species  they  were  vertically 
succeeded  by  teeth  of  simpler  structure  corresponding  to  the  premolars  of  the  pig. 

In  order  to  understand  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  elephants,  it  will 
be  advisable  to  take  those  of  one  of  certain  extinct  species  which,  like  Cliffs  ele- 
phant, exhibit  a  simpler  conformation  than  those  of  the  existing  species.  Such  a 
tooth  is  represented  in  the  accompanying  cut,  and  will  be  seen  to  be  composed 
of  a  number  of  low  roof-like  transverse  ridges  (in  this  case  six),  separated  by  open 
valleys.  When  unworn,  as  on  the  right  side  of  the  figure,  such  ridges  are  crowned 
by  a  number  of  small  tubercles;  but  the  effect  of  wear,  as  shown  in  the  three  ridges 
on  the  left  side  of  the  figure,  is  to  perforate  the  enamel  of  which  the  ridges  are  ex- 
ternally composed,  and  thus  to  reveal  an  elliptical  surface  of  ivory  surrounded  by  a 
narrow  border  of  enamel.  In  the  figured  tooth  the  valleys  between  the  ridges  are 
completely  open  and  devoid  of  cement,  but  in  the  teeth  of  other  species  of  nearly 
similar  type  they  contain  a  certain  amount  of  this  constituent.  Now  it  only  re- 
quires that  the  ridges  in  a  tooth  like  that  of  Cliffs  elephant  should  be  greatly 
increased  in  height,  with  a  concomitant  diminution  of  their  basal  width,  which  would 
admit  of  a  greater  number  being 
born  in  the  same  length  of  space, 
and  by  the  intervening  valleys 
being  completely  filled  with 
cement,  to  produce  a  tooth  like 
that  of  the  Indian  elephant.  In 
such  a  tooth,  as  shown  in  the 
figures  on  pp.  1 1 14  and  1117,  the 
ridges  have  become  so  tall  as  to 
assume  the  appearance  of  thin 
and  nearly  parallel  plates,  with 
their  investing  enamel  thrown 
into  a  series  of  fine  plications, 


A  LEFT  UPPER   MOLAR  TOOTH  OF  CLIFT'S  ELEPHANT. 
(One-half  natural  size.) 


•or  puckers;  and  the  intervening 
valleys  have  become  so  deep- 
ened and  narrowed,  that  their 
'contained  cement  is  also  in  the  form  of  exceedingly  thin  plates.  When  worn,  as  in 
the  figure  on  p.  1117,  such  a  tooth  presents  on  its  surface  a  series  of  very  narrow 
ellipses  of  yellow  ivory,  surrounded  by  an  elevated  rim  of  the  harder  white  enamel, 
marked  by  its  characteristic  puckers;  while  between  the  ellipses  of  enamel-bordered 
ivory  come  the  layers  of  cement.  The  succession  of  layers  in  such  a  tooth  is  there- 
fore arranged  in  the  following  order,  viz.,  cement,  enamel,  ivory,  and  so  on.  The 
worn  crown  forms  a  slightly  convex  or  concave  surface,  marked  by  transverse 
ridges  of  different  degrees  of  hardness  and  height,  and  thus  yields  a  masticating 
instrument  of  the  greatest  power  and  efficiency. 

In  their  food,  elephants  are  strictly  herbivorous,  subsisting  chiefly 
upon   roots,  twigs,  leaves,  and   young  shoots  or  trees,   or  grass  and 
other  herbage;  such  food  being  conveyed  to  the  mouth  by  the  aid  of  the  flexible 


Habits 


iii6  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

trunk,  which  is  admirably  adapted  for  such  a  purpose,  as  it  is  for  drawing  up  water. 
There  is,  however,  much  popular  misapprehension  as  to  the  other  uses  of  the  elephant's- 
trunk,  in  regard  to  which  a  few  words  are  expedient.  In  addition  to  its  use  as  a 
purveyor  of  food  and  water  to  the  mouth,  the  trunk  is  the  organ  of  touch  and  smell, 
and  is  altogether  extremely  delicate  and  sensitive.  When  any  danger  is  impending, 
elephants,  except  in  some  cases  when  charging  an  enemy,  invariably  curl  up  the 
trunk  out  of  harm's  way.  In  regard  to  the  alleged  employment  of  the  trunk  of  the 
Indian  elephant  for  all  manner  of  purposes,  Sanderson  observes  that  ' '  the  idea  that 
he  can  use  it  for  any  purpose,  from  picking  up  a  needle  to  dragging  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance from  a  bog,  is,  like  many  others,  founded  entirely  on  imagination.  An  ele- 
phant might  manage  the  former  feat,  though  I  doubt  it;  the  latter  he  would  not  at- 
tempt. Elephants  engaged  in  such  work  as  dragging  timber,  invariably  take  the 
rope  between  their  teeth;  they  never  attempt  to  pull  a  heavy  weight  with  the  trunk. 
In  carrying  a  light  log,  they  hold  it  in  the  mouth  as  a  dog  does  a  stick,  receiving 
some  little  assistance  in  balancing  it  from  the  trunk.  Tuskers  generally  use  their 
tusks  for  this  and  similar  purposes,  and  are  more  valuable  than  females  for  work. 
An  elephant  is  powerful  enough  to  extricate  a  cannon  from  a  difficult  situation,  but 
he  does  it  by  pushing  with  his  head  or  feet,  or  in  harness  —  never  by  lifting  or 
drawing  with  his  trunk. ' ' 

An  equal  degree  of  misapprehension  is  prevalent  as  to  the  intelli- 
gence of  elephants,  at  least  so  far  as  the  Indian  species  is  concerned;, 
and  all  competent  observers  who  have  had  much  practical  experience  with  these  ani- 
mals are  of  opinion  that  their  intellectual  faculties  have  been  greatly  overrated  in 
popular  estimation.  It  is  true,  that  when  in  captivity  the  Indian  elephant  exhibits 
a  marvelous  docility  and  obedience,  and  is  also  capable  of  learning  to  perform  certain 
kinds  of  labor,  such  as  stacking  logs  of  timber,  which  at  first  sight  appears  to  de- 
mand a  considerable  amount  of  intellectual  power.  There  is  here,  however,  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  confusion,  as  Mr.  Blanford  remarks,  between  high  intelligence 
and  mere  docility  and  capacity  for  receiving  instruction;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  usefulness  of  the  elephant  is  due  to  the  latter  rather  than  to  the  former 
trait.  Indeed,  the  size  and  structure  of  the  brain  is  quite  sufficient  to  prove  that 
the  intellectual  capacity  of  elephants  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  dogs,  and  is  probably 
below  that  of  most  other  Ungulates. 

This  view  of  their  intelligence  is  strongly  confirmed  by  the  circumstance  that 
elephants,  in  spite  of  many  statements  to  the  contrary,  are  wanting  in  originality, 
and  do  not  rise  to  the  occasion  when  confronted  by  any  sudden  emergency  or  event 
beyond  the  range  of  their  ordinary  daily  experience.  As  Sir  Samuel  Baker  perti- 
nently observes,  an  elephant  "can  be  educated  to  perform  certain  acts,  but  he  would 
never  volunteer  his  services.  There  is  no  elephant  that  I  ever  saw  who  would  spon- 
taneously interfere  to  save  his  master  from  drowning  or  from  attack.  An  enemy 
might  assassinate  you  at  the  feet  of  your  favorite  elephant,  but  he  would  never  at- 
tempt to  interfere  in  your  defense;  he  would  probably  run  away,  or  remain  impas- 
sive, unless  guided  and  instructed  by  his  mahout.  This  is  incontestable;  the 
elephant  will  do  nothing  useful  unless  he  is  specially  ordered  to  perform  a  certain 
work  or  movement."  At  the  same  time,  in  addition  to  its  capacity  for  receiving 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT 


1117 


instruction,  an  elephant  undoubtedly  appears  to  have  a  very  retentive  memory,  both 
for  acts  of  kindness  and  of  cruelty;  and  this  has  doubtless  partly  contributed  to  its 
•character  for  general  intelligence. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  observed  that  the  Indian  species,  at  any  rate,  differs 
from  all  other  Mammals  in  the  readiness  with  which  it  may  be  tamed  and  domesti- 
cated when  fully  adult;  nearly  all  of  those  which  are  captured  in  India  being  fully 
mature. 

A  curious  circumstance  in  connection  with  these  animals  is,  that  the 
bones  of  those  which  have  died  a  natural  death  are  scarcely  ever  found 
in  the  forests  of  India,  and  we  believe  that  the  same  is  true  with  re- 
gard to  Africa.  It  has  accordingly  been  suggested  that  elephants  are  in  the  habit 
of  resorting  to  particular  spots  when  about  to  die,  as  is  known  to  be  the  case  with  the 
guanaco  in  South  America  (see  p.  1002),  but  as  no  such  mortuaries  have  ever  been 
•discovered  in  India,  this  seems  scarcely  tenable,  and  the  subject  accordingly  still  re- 
mains a  complete  mystery. 


Uever  Found 
Dead 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT  (Elephas  indicus) 

The  Indian,  or,  as  it  might  be  better  termed,  the  Asiatic  elephant,  is  the  more 
specialized  of  the  two  living  species,  and  at  the  same  time  the  one  most  familiarly 


A    RIGHT    UPPER    MOI.AR    TOOTH    O*1   AN    ELEPHANT. 

Allied  to  the  existing  Indian  species. 

(Three-fourths   natural   size.) 

Icnown.  It  is  characterized  by  its  comparatively-flat  forehead,  and  relatively-small 
•ears;  as  well  as  by  the  nearly  naked  skin  being  smooth,  and  the  tail  having  a  row 
of  long,  bristly  hairs  at  the  tip,  and  a  few  inches  upward,  before  and  behind  only. 
The  fore-feet  have  each,  as  a  rule,  five  nails,  and  the  hinder  ones  four.  Generally 
the  males  only  have  large  tusks,  those  of  the  females  being  small  and  scarcely  pro- 
truding beyond  the  jaws.  In  some  males  —  known  in  India  as  mackua,  the  tusks 
are,  however,  not  longer  than  those  of  females.  The  back  of  the  Indian  ele- 
phant is  regularly  convex,  its  middle  point  being  higher  than  tho  withers. 


ui8  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Perhaps,  however,  the  most  important  characteristic  of  this  species  is  to  be 
found  in  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth,  which  are  of  the  same  type  as  the  example 
represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  1117.  In  these  teeth  the  plates  of  enamel- 
bordered  ivory  are  very  thin  and  closely  approximated,  and  may  reach  as  many  as 
twenty-four  in  the  last  of  the  series.  The  enamel  is  thrown  into  a  number  of  fine 
puckerings,  and  each  enamel-bordered  area  forms  a  greatly-elongated  and  irregular 
ellipse.  In  the  first  tooth  (as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  1114),  the  number  of  the 
ridges  is  usually  four,  in  the  second  eight,  in  the  third  and  fourth  about  twelve,  in  the 
fifth  sixteen,  while  in  the  last  it  may,  as  already  mentioned,  be  as  many  as  twenty-four. 
The  general  color  of  the  skin  is  blackish  gray,  but  there  are  fre- 
quently flesh-colored  mottlings  on  the  forehead,  the  root  of  the  trunk, 
and  the  ears.  Occasionally  so-called  white  elephants  are  met  with,  which  are  really 
albinos;  the  dark  pigment  being  absent  from  a  larger  or  smaller  area  of  the  skin;  in 
Burma  and  Siam  such  albinos  being  highly  valued,  and  considered  as  sacred  or  royal 
animals.  Although,  as  already  mentioned,  the  skin  is  nearly  naked,  it  has  a  few 
sparsely-scattered  hairs;  and  it  has  been  quite  recently  discovered  that  there  are 
faint  remnants  of  a  woolly  fur,  similar  to  that  so  fully  developed  in  the  extinct  mam- 
moth. This  discovery  is  very  important,  since,  taken  in  connection  with  the  Indian 
elephant's  well-known  intolerance  of  heat,  it  indicates  that  the  animal  is  descended 
from  one  inhabiting  temperate  or  cold  climates. 

As  in  the  case  of  most  large  animals,  the  height  of  the  Indian  ele- 
phant has  been  greatly  exaggerated;  but  the  tendency  of  recent 
observers  has  been  rather  to  depreciate  the  maximum  size  which  it  may  occasionally 
attain.  On  the  average,  the  height  of  the  adult  male  does  not  exceed  nine  feet,  and 
that  of  the  female  eight  feet;  but  these  dimensions  are  occasionally  considerably 
exceeded.  Sanderson  measured  a  male  standing  nine  feet  seven  inches  at  the 
shoulder,  and  measuring  twenty-six  feet  two  and  one-half  inches  from  the  tip  of  the 
trunk  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail;  and  he  records  others  respectively  reaching  nine 
feet  eight  inches  and  nine  feet  ten  inches  at  the  shoulder.  An  elephant  shot  by 
General  Kinloch  stood  upward  of  ten  feet  one  inch;  and  another  measured  by  San- 
derson ten  feet  seven  and  one-half  inches.  These  dimensions  are,  however,  exceeded 
by  a  specimen  killed  by  the  late  Sir  Victor  Brooke,  which  is  reported  to  have 
reached  a  height  of  eleven  feet;  and  there  is  a  rumor  of  a  Ceylon  elephant  of  twelve 
feet.  That  such  giants  may  occasionally  exist  is  indicated  by  a  skeleton  in  the 
Museum  at  Calcutta,  which  is  believed  to  have  belonged  to  an  individual  living  be- 
tween 1856  and  1860  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Rajamahal  hills,  in  Bengal.  As. 
now  mounted  this  enormous  skeleton  stands  eleven  feet  three  inches  at  the  shoulders, 
but  Mr.  O.  S.  Fraser,  in  a  letter  to  the  Asian  newspaper,  states  that  it  is  made  ta 
stand  too  low,  and  that  its  true  height  was  several  inches  more.  If  this  be  so,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  when  alive,  this  elephant  must  have  stood  fully  twelve  feet. 
It  may  be  added  that  the  height  of  an  Indian  elephant  is  almost  precisely  twice  the 
circumference  of  its  fore-foot. 

With  regard  to  the  maximum  weight  of  this  species,  we  have  no  information. 
An  immature  male  of  eight  feet  in  height  weighed,  however,  5,800  pounds;  while  a 
second,  of  seven  and  one-half  feet  in  height,  turned  the  scale  at  5,200  pounds. 


INDIAN   ELEPHANT. 


(1119) 


1 120  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  tusks  of  the  male  vary  greatly  in  length  and  weight.  A  pair  obtained  by 
Mr.  Sanderson  measured  five  feet  along  the  curve,  with  a  girth  of  sixteen  inches  at 
the  point  of  emergence  from  the  jaw,  their  weight  being  seventy- four  and  one-half 
pounds.  The  single  perfect  tusk  of  the  elephant  referred  to  above  as  having  been 
killed  by  Sir  V.  Brooke  measured  eight  feet  in  length,  and  nearly  seventeen  inches 
in  circumference,  and  weighed  ninety  pounds.  This  weight  is,  however,  exceeded  by 
a  shorter  tusk  of  about  six  feet  in  length,  which  reached  one  hundred  pounds;  and 
specimens  obtained  from  the  Garo  hills  are  reported  to  have  respectively  weighed 
one  hundred  and  fifty-five  and  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  pounds. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  obtain  any  accurate  data  as  to  the  age 

which  the  Indian  elephant  may  attain  in  its  wild  state,  and  we  can 
only,  therefore,  suggest  an  approximation  to  what  this  may  be  from  captive  speci- 
mens. Although  full  grown  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  an  elephant,  as  determined 
by  the  condition  of  its  teeth,  is  not  then  mature.  A  female  captured  in  Coorg  in 
1805,  when  about  three  years  of  age,  did  not  appear  to  be  particularly  old-looking 
in  1878,  although  she  had  then  passed  her  prime.  Other  individuals  have  been 
known  to  live  in  captivity  for  over  a  century;  and  since  it  is  obvious  that  the  arti- 
ficial mode  of  life  which  prevails  in  this  state  cannot  be  one  tending  to  promote 
longevity,  it  is  probable  that  the  estimate  of  a  century  and  a  half  as  the  duration  of 
life  in  the  wild  state  is  not  excessive. 

At  the  present  day  the  Indian  elephant  inhabits  the  forest  regions 

of  India,  Ceylon,  Assam,  Burma,  Siam,  Cochin-China,  Sumatra,  and 
Borneo;  although  Mr.  Blanford  is  of  opinion  that  its  occurrence  in  the  island  last 
named  may  be  due  to  human  agency.  According  to  the  same  writer,  in  India  ele- 
phants ' '  are  still  found  wild  along  the  base  of  the  Himalayas  as  far  west  as  Dehra 
Dun;  also  in  places  in  the  great  forest  country  between  the  Ganges  and  Kistna  as 
far  west  as  Bilaspur  and  Mundlah,  in  the  Western  Ghats  as  far  north  as  17°  or  18°, 
and  in  some  of  the  forest-clad  ranges  of  Nagpoor  and  farther  south.  They  do  not 
appear  to  ascend  the  Himalayas  to  any  elevation,  but  are  sometimes  found  at  con- 
siderable elevations  above  the  sea  in  Southern  India,  and  in  Ceylon  they  range  near 
Newera  Ellia,  over  seven  thousand  feet."  In  former  times  their  distributional  area 
in  India  was  still  more  extensive. 

For  full  accounts  of  the  habits  of  the  Indian  elephant,  both  in  the 
Habits  .,,        ,   , 

wild  and  domestic  state,  we  are  largely  indebted  to  the  writings  of  Sir 

Emerson  Tennent,  Mr.  G.  P.  Sanderson,  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker.  The  accounts  of 
the  former  were,  however,  largely  drawn  from  native  sources,  and  are,  therefore,  in 
some  respects,  less  reliable  than  those  of  the  other  two.  It  is,  accordingly,  mainly 
from  the  latter  that  the  following  summary  is  compiled. 

Elephants  chiefly  frequent  districts  covered  with  tall  forests,  where  the  ground 
is  undulating  or  hilly,  and  where  bamboos  grow  in  profusion.  During  the  hot 
months,  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  they  keep  chiefly  to  the  densest  portions  of 
the  forest,  in  the  neighborhood  of  water;  but  with  the  commencement  of  the  rains 
they  venture  out  into  the  open  glades  to  feed  upon  the  young  succulent  grass,  and 
in  the  late  summer  in  the  Madras  districts  descend  at  times  to  the  lower  jungles. 
Contrary  to  general  opinion,  the  Indian  elephant  is  exceedingly  intolerant  of  the 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT 


1121 


burning  rays  of  the  sun,  to  which  it  never  voluntarily  exposes  itself.  As  Sir  S. 
Baker  observes,  ' '  its  dark  color  and  immense  surface  attract  an  amount  of  heat 
which  becomes  almost  intolerable  to  the  unfortunate  creature  when  forced  to  carry 
a  heavy  load  in  the  hot  season  in  India.  Even  without  a  greater  weight  than  its 
rider,  the  elephant  exhibits  signs  of  distress  when  marching  after  9  A.  M.  "  In 


INDIAN     ELEPHANT     DRINKING. 

cloudy  and  showery  weather  elephants  move  about  a  good  deal  during  the  time  that 
they  are  in  the  open  country;  and  when  traveling  from  one  forest  to  another  they 
almost  invariably  march  in  single  file. 

Herds  of  elephants  usually  consist  of  from  about  thirty  to  fifty  individuals,  all 
of  which  belong,  as  a  rule,  to  a  single  family;  although  females  and  young  males 
are  said  occasionally  to  migrate  from  their  own  proper  herd  to  another.  In  some 


1 122  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

cases  a  herd  may  include  as  many  as  a  hundred  head;  but  when  fodder  is  scarce  all 
the  larger  herds  break  up  into  smaller  parties  of  from  ten  to  twenty  individuals,  these 
smaller  parties  keeping  within  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles  of  one  another,  and 
reuniting  when  conditions  are  more  favorable.  A  female  seems  to  be  invariably  the 
leader  of  the  herd,  although  in  it  may  be  included  males  of  all  ages,  and  on  the  march 
the  females  with  their  calves  occupy  the  van,  while  the  tusked  males  bring  up  the 
rear.  The  old  bulls  are  frequently  solitary  for  a  time,  but  generally  each  belongs  to 
a  particular  herd,  which  it  visits  occasionally.  Solitary  male  elephants  are  known 
as  "rogues,"  and  are  generally  characterized  by  their  fierce  and  quarrelsome  dispo- 
sition; according  to  Mr.  Sanderson,  elephants  that  are  permanently  solitary  are, 
however,  comparatively  rare,  the  majority  of  the  so-called  rogues  really  belonging  to 
herds.  These  leave  their  companions,  as  a  rule,  merely  for  a  time,  in  order  to  visit 
the  cultivated  lands,  where  the  less  venturesome  females  hesitate  to  follow,  and 
where  they  inflict  enormous  damage  on  the  growing  crops. 

The  food  of  the  Indian  elephant  is  mainly  composed  of  grass,  leaves,  and  young 
shoots  of  the  bamboo;  stems,  leaves,  and  fruits  of  the  wild  plantain,  and  the  leaves, 
twigs,,  and  bark  of  certain  trees,  more  especially  figs.  The  generally  succulent 
nature  of  its  food  is  in  harmony  with  the  structure  of  the  molar  teeth,  which  present 
a  relation  to  those  of  the  African  species  almost  exactly  analogous  to  that  which 
exists  between  the  molars  of  Burchell's,  and  the  common  African  rhinoceros.  In 
plucking  tussocks  of  grass  or  branches  of  trees,  the  elephant  coils  the  end  of  its 
trunk  around  them  and  then  tears  them  off,  and  the  same  method  is  employed  in 
stripping  leaves  from  a  bough,  or  bark  from  a  stem.  Small  objects  such  as  fruit 
are,  however,  picked  up  by  the  small  finger-like  process  forming  the  termination  of 
the  trunk  above  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils.  When  drinking,  elephants  immerse  the 
end  of  the  trunk  in  water,  which  is  sucked  up  to  a  distance  estimated  at  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  in  its  tubes,  and  then  emptied  into  the  mouth.  As  a  rule,  the 
times  of  drinking  are  soon  after  sunset  and  shortly  before  sunrise.  Grain  is  drawn 
up  into  the  trunk,  and  then  blown  out  into  the  mouth. 

Wild  elephants  are  in  the  habit  of  roaming  about  and  feeding  both  during  the 
day  and  night,  although  they  usually  rest  from  nine  or  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning 
till  three  in  the  afternoon,  and  again  from  eleven  at  night  till  three  in  the  morning. 
When  sleeping,  they  lie  down  in  the  usual  manner,  and  although  the  members  of  a 
herd  at  once  scatter  in  all  directions  on  any  sudden  alarm  while  feeding,  they  quickly 
reassemble. 

When  the  season  of  the  year  is  not  too  cold,  elephants  are  fond  of  bathing,  or 
rolling  themselves  in  wet  mud,  but  unless  the  weather  be  unusually  warm  they 
seldom  indulge  in  such  pastimes  after  sundown.  When  heated  they  squirt  water 
over  their  backs  from  their  trunks,  and  when  unable  to  obtain  water  externally, 
they  have  the  power  of  drawing  fluid  from  their  mouths  or  throats  by  the  aid  of  the 
trunk.  At  times,  when  exposed  to  a  scorching  sun,  they  protect  themselves  by 
throwing  dust,  leaves,  or  straw  on  their  backs. 

_    .      .  In  common  with  its  African  cousin,  the  Indian  elephant  is  an  excel- 

Swimming         , 

lent  swimmer,  and  is  perhaps  more  thoroughly  at  home  in  the  water 

than  any  Mammal  whose  habits  are  not  essentially  amphibious  or  aquatic.     Mr. 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT 


1123 


Sanderson  states  that  a  herd  of  seventy-nine  elephants  under  his  charge' once  had  a 
swim  of  six  hours'  duration,  and  after  a  short  rest  on  a  sand  bank  accomplished  their 
journey  by  water  in  three  hours  more.  An  elephant  swims  very  deep  in  the  water, 
sometimes  only  showing  the  end  of  its  trunk,  but  at  others  allowing  the  greater  part 
of  its  head  to  appear  above  the  surface.  In  the  case  of  tame  individuals  the  mahout, 
or  driver,  generally  stands  on  the  neck  of  his  animal.  The  pace  that  an  elephant 


INDIAN    ELEPHANTS     ENJOYING    THEMSELVES. 

swims  is  estimated  at  about  a  mile  an  hour;  but  this,  of  course,  depends  largely  on 
whether  the  animal  is  swimming  with  or  against  the  stream.     Unlike  that  of  a  hip- 
popotamus, the  body  of  a  freshly-killed  elephant  floats  in  water. 
Paces  In  regard  to  movement  on  land,  Mr.  Sanderson  says  that  "  the.only 

pace  of  the  elephant  is  the  walk,  capable  of  being  increased  to  a  fast 
shuffle  of  about  fifteen  miles  an  hour  for  very  short  distances.     It  can  neither  trot, 


1 124  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

canter,  nor  gallop.  It  does  not  move  with  the  legs  on  the  same  side  together,  but 
nearly  so.  A  very  good  runner  might  keep  out  of  an  elephant's  way  on  a  smooth 
piece  of  turf,  but  on  the  ground  in  which  they  are  generally  met  with,  any  attempt 
to  escape  by  flight,  unless  supplemented  by  concealment,  would  be  unavailing."  An 
elephant  is  totally  unable  to  leap  in  either  the  horizontal  or  the  vertical  direction, 
and  since  its  maximum  length  of  stride  is  about  six  and  one-half  feet,  a  seven-foot 
ditch  forms  an  effectual  barrier  to  its  progress.  Elephants,  are,  however,  capable  of 
ascending  or  descending  steep  and  difficult  places  with  great  facility,  sometimes 
sliding  down  on  their  bent  hind-limbs.  When  a  herd  of  them  descends  one  of  the 
steep  alluvial  banks  bordering  most  of  the  Indian  rivers,  it  is  surprising  how  rapidly 
the  soil  becomes  broken  down  under  their  weight  so  as  to  form  a  regular  sloping 
road. 

_  .  The  Indian  elephant,  under  different  circumstances,  gives  vent  to  a 

variety  of  sounds,  some  of  which  are  produced  in  the  trunk,  w^hile 
others  originate  in  the  throat.  Of  these  utterances,  the  first,  writes  Mr.  Blanford, 
is  "the  shrill  trumpet,  varying  in  tone,  and  expressive,  sometimes  of  fear,  sometimes 
of  anger.  Secondly,  a  roar  from  the  throat  caused  by  fear  or  pain.  A  peculiar  hoarse 
rumbling  in  the  throat  may  express  anger  or  want,  as  when  a  calf  is  calling  for  its 
mother.  Pleasure  is  indicated  by  a  continued  low  squeaking  through  the  trunk. 
Lastly,  there  is  a  peculiar  metallic  sound  made  by  rapping  the  end  of  the  trunk  on 
the  ground  and  blowing  through  it  at  the  same  time.  This  indicates  alarm  or  dis- 
like, and  is  the  well-known  indication  of  a  tiger's  presence." 

censes  The  intelligence  of  the  animal  having  been  already  sufficiently  dis- 

cussed, all   that  need  be  said  about  its  senses  is  that  while  smell  is 
strongly  developed,  both  sight  and  hearing  appear  to  be  by  no  means  acute. 
Disposition  ^  most  seasons  of  the  year  the  Indian  elephant  is  a  timid  animal, 

much  more  ready  to  flee  from  a  foe  than  to  make  an  attack.  Solitary 
"rogues"  are,  however,  frequently  an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  sometimes  make 
unprovoked  attacks  on  passers-by.  Indeed,  there  are  instances  on  record  where  a 
"  rogue  "  elephant  has  taken  up  a  position  near  a  road,  and  rendered  it  impassable 
to  travelers.  Females  with  calves  are  at  all  times  dangerous  to  approach.  Con- 
trary to  what  is  stated  to  be  the  case  with  the  African  species,  when  an  Indian  ele- 
phant makes  a  charge,  it  does  so  with  its  trunk  tightly  curled  up,  and  it  makes  its 
attack  by  trampling  its  victim  with  its  feet  or  knees,  or,  if  a  male,  by  pinning  it  to 
the  ground  with  its  tusks.  At  certain  periods  of  the  year  the  male  elephant  is  subject  to 
paroxysms  of  excitement,  generally  supposed  to  be  due  to  sexual  causes,  and  is  then 
highly  dangerous,  not  only  to  human  beings,  but  to  its  fellow-animals.  The  crea- 
ture is  then  said  to  be  mast,  or  mad,  and  the  approach  of  such  attacks  is  indicated 
by  the  copious  flow  of  a  dark  tar-like  liquid  from  two  small  orifices  in  the  forehead. 
At  the  first  indications  of  one  of  those  seizures,  domesticated  elephants  should  be 
promptly  secured. 

Breeding  Not  the  least  remarkable  fact  connected  with  elephants  in  captivity, 

is  the  circumstance  that  in  India  at  least  they  very  rarely  breed  when 

in  this  condition;  thus  showing  what  a  profound  effect  the  change  from  a  wild  to  a 

domesticated  mode  of  life  must  have  on  the  animal's  entire  organization.     It  is 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT  1125 

stated,  however,  that  in  some  parts  of  Burma  and  Siam,  young  are  produced  much 
more  freely  from  captive  females.  The  ordinary  period  of  gestation  is  about  nine- 
teen months,  but  it  appears  that  in  some  cases  it  may  be  a  month  less,  while  in 
others  its  duration  may  be  as  much  as  twenty-two  months.  As  a  rule,  the  young 
are  born  in  the  autumn,  from  September  to  November,  and  there  is  generally  but 
one  produced  at  a  birth,  although  in  rare  instances  twins  occur.  The  new-born  calf 
stands  about  a  yard  in  height,  and  weighs  about  two  hundred  pounds;  it  suckles  its 
parent  with  its  mouth,  and  not,  as  has  sometimes  been  supposed,  with  its  trunk. 

Elephant  shooting,  which  is  always  practiced  on  foot,  is  pronounced 
.  to  be  the  most  dangerous  of  all  sports  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  since, 
although  many  elephants  may  be  killed  without  any  danger  or  harm, 
it  is  almost  inevitable  that  the  charge  of  a  wounded  animal  will  have  to  be  encoun- 
tered sooner  or  later  by  the  sportsman.  In  shooting  the  Indian  elephant  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  position  of  the  brain  in  the  skull  is  essential,  as  the  three  chief 
head  shots  depend  entirely  on  this.  Of  these  three  shots  the  one  known  as  the 
front  shot  should  be  planted  in  the  forehead  about  three  inches  above  the  line  of  the 
eyes  when  the  elephant  is  standing  with  its  head  in  the  ordinary  position  and 
facing  the  sportsman.  When,  however,  the  elephant  is  charging  with  its  head 
thrown  up,  the  front  shot  to  prove  fatal  must  be  aimed  much  lower  down,  in  the 
tipper  part  of  the  trunk,  and  as  the  bullet  has  then  to  traverse  a  great  thickness  of 
flesh  and  bony  tissues  before  reaching  the  brain,  everything  depends  upon  its  pene- 
trating power.  Indeed,  although  elephants  have  frequently  been  killed  by  well- 
planted  bullets  from  small-bore  rifles,  all  who  have  had  much  experience  of  this 
sport  are  unanimous  as  to  the  importance  of  shooting  with  rifles  of  heavy  calibre. 
The  other  two  fatal  shots  in  the  head  are  the  side,  or  temple  shot,  and  the  rear  shot 
just  behind  the  ear.  The  shot  behind  the  shoulder  is  not  in  much  favor. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  generally  timid  and  pacific  nature  of  the 
wild  Indian  elephant;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  in  many  cases,  when  these 
animals  charge,  they  do  so  more  from  sudden  alarm  and  fright  than  from  any  innate 
viciousness. 

When  an  elephant  does  charge,  it  requires  all  the  coolness  and  presence  of  mind 
of  the  sportsman  to  avoid  a  catastrophe.  "A  grander  animated  object,"  writes  Mr. 
Sanderson,  "than  a  wild  elephant  in  full  charge  can  hardly  be  imagined.  The 
cocked  ears  and  broad  forehead  present  an  immense  frontage;  the  head  is  held  high, 
with  the  trunk  curled  between  the  tusks,  to  be  uncoiled  in  the  moment  of  attack; 
the  massive  fore-legs  come  down  with  the  force  and  regularity  of  ponderous  ma- 
chinery; and  the  whole  figure  is  rapidly  foreshortened,  and  appears  to  double  in  size 
with  each  advancing  stride.  The  trunk  being  curled  and  unable  to  emit  any  sound, 
the  attack  is  made  in  silence,  after  the  usual  premonitory  shriek,  which  adds  to  its 
impressiveness.  The  usual  pictorial  representations  of  the  Indian  elephant  charging 
with  upraised  trunk  are  accordingly  quite  incorrect." 

In  some  cases  the  sportsman  has  to  stalk  a  herd  of  elephants,  and  to  pick  out 
the  finest  tusker  from  among  the  males  in  the  rear;  while  at  other  times  he  has  to 
track  up  a  particular  solitary  male,  which  may  be  either  a  "  rogue  "  or  a  herd  tusker 
temporarily  separated  from  his  companions.  When  a  herd  discovers  the  presence  of 


1 1 26  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

a  foe,  the  individual  that  first  scents  him  usually  gives  vent  to  a  short,  shrill  trumpet, 
upon  which  the  rest  stand  perfectly  still  for  a  few  minutes  before  making  up 
their  minds  in  which  direction  to  flee.  But  at  other  times  the  whole  herd  may  make 
off  at  once,  without  a  sound  being  uttered.  Sometimes  the  herd  will  mistake  the 
direction  of  the  danger,  and  stampede  straight  for  the  sportsman,  whose  position  is 
then  one  of  considerable  danger;  his  best  plan  being  to  stand  alongside  a  tree  or 
clump  of  bamboos.  In  cases  where  they  are  unaccustomed  to  the  sound  of  firearms, 
Mr.  Sanderson  states  that  elephants  will  stand  huddled  together,  shrinking  at  the 
shots,  which  they  perhaps  mistake  for  thunder.  When  first  starting,  they  make  off 
at  a  rapid  space,  but  soon  settle  down  to  a  steady  walk. 

In  shooting  single  tuskers,  it  is  advisable  that  the  sportsman  should  be  at  his 
work  betimes,  as  in  the  case  of  bulls  belonging  to  a  herd  they  usually  rejoin  their 
companions  by  eight  or  nine  in  the  morning.  When  such  solitary  animals  are  feed- 
ing, the  noise  they  make  allows  of  a  close  approach  without  much  risk  of  discovery. 
Bulls  that  are  permanently  solitary  usually  rest  at  about  ten  o'clock,  and  after  that 
time  may  be  found  asleep,  either  lying  down,  or  resting  against  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 
When  first  disturbed,  one  of  these  solitary  tuskers  makes  off  with  a  tremendous 
rush,  but  soon  subsides  into  a  walk,  when  he  proceeds  so  quietly  that  he  may  disap- 
pear without  the  sportsman  being  in  the  least  aware  of  it. 

The  following  account  of  the  death  of  a  tusker,  by  Sanderson,  gives  some  idea 
of  the  danger  often  encountered  in  this  kind  of  sport.  The  narrator  writes,  that 
having  ascertained  that  the  herd  comprised  about  fifty  head,  "a  shrill  trumpeting 
and  crashing  of  bamboos  about  two  hundred  yards  to  our  left  broke  the  stillness, 
and  from  the  noise  we  knew  it  was  a  tusker  fight.  We  ran  toward  the  place  where 
the  sounds  of  combat  were  increasing  every  moment:  a  deep  ravine  at  last  only 
separated  us  from  the  combatants,  and  we  could  see  the  tops  of  the  bamboos  bowing 
as  the  monsters  bore  each  other  backward  and  forward  with  a  crashing  noise  in 
their  tremendous  .struggles.  As  we  ran  along  the  bank  of  the  nalla  to  find  a  cross- 
ing, one  elephant  uttered  a  deep  roar  of  pain,  and  crossed  the  nalla  some  forty  yards 
in  advance  of  us,  to  our  side.  Here  he  commenced  to  detroy  a  bamboo  clump  (the 
bamboos  in  these  hills  have  a  very  large  hollow,  and  are  weak  and  comparatively 
worthless)  in  sheer  fury,  grumbling  deeply  the  while  with  rage  and  pain.  Blood  was 
streaming  from  a  deep  stab  in  his  left  side,  high  up.  He  was  a  very  large  elephant, 
with  long  and  fairly  thick  tusks,  and  with  much  white  about  the  forehead;  the  left 
tusk  was  some  inches  shorter  than  the  right.  The  opponent  of  this  Goliath  must  have 
been  a  monster  indeed  to  have  worsted  him.  An  elephant  fight,  if  the  combatants 
are  well  matched,  frequently  lasts  for  a  day  or  more,  a  round  being  fought  every  now 
and  then.  The  beaten  elephant  retreats  temporarily,  followed  leisurely  by  the  other, 
until  by  mutual  consent  they  meet  again.  The  more  powerful  elephant  occasionally 
keeps  his  foe  in  view  till  he  perhaps  kills  him;  otherwise,  the  beaten  elephant  be- 
takes himself  off  for  good  on  finding  he  has  the  worst  of  it.  Tails  are  frequently 
bitten  off  in  these  encounters.  This  mutilation  is  common  among  rogue  elephants, 
and  among  the  females  in  a  herd;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  generally  the  result  of 
rivalry  among  themselves.  The  wounded  tusker  was  evidently  the  temporarily- 
beaten  combatant  of  the  occasion,  and  I  have  seldom  seen  such  a  picture  of  power  and 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT  1127 

rage  as  he  presented,  mowing  the  bamboos  down  with  trunk  and  tusks,  and  bearing 
the  thickest  part  over  with  his  fore-feet.  Suddenly  his  whole  demeanor  changed. 
He  backed  from  the  clump  and  stood  like  a  statue.  Not  a  sound  broke  the  sudden 
stillness  for  an  instant.  His  antagonist  was  silent,  wherever  he  was.  Now  the  tip 
•of  his  trunk  came  slowly  round  in  our  direction,  and  I  saw  that  we  were  discovered 
to  his  fine  sense  of  smell.  We  had  been  standing  silently  behind  a  thin  bamboo 
clump,  watching  him,  and  when  I  first  saw  that  he  had  winded  us,  I  imagined  he 
might  take  himself  off.  But  his  frenzy  quite  overcame  all  fear  for  the  moment;  for- 
ward went  his  ears  and  up  went  his  tail,  in  a  way  which  no  one  who  has  once  seen  the 
signal  in  a  wild  elephant  can  mistake  the  significance  of,  and  in  the  same  instant  he 
wheeled  round  with  astonishing  quickness,  getting  at  once  into  full  speed,  and  bore 
straight  down  upon  us.  The  bamboos  by  which  we  were  partly  hidden  were  useless 
as  cover,  and  would  have  prevented  a  clear  shot,  so  I  stepped  out  into  open  ground 
the  instant  the  elephant  commenced  his  charge.  I  gave  a  shout  in  the  hope  of  stop- 
ping him,  which  failed.  I  had  my  No.  4  double  smoothbore  loaded  with  ten 
drams  in  hand.  I  fired  when  the  elephant  was  about  nine  paces  distant,  aiming 
into  his  curled  trunk  about  one  foot  below  the  fatal  bump  between  the  eyes,  as  his 
head  was  held  very  high,  and  this  allowance  had  to  be  made  for  its  elevation.  I  felt 
confident  of  the  shot,  but  made  a  grand  mistake  in  not  giving  him  both  barrels;  it 
was  useless  to  reserve  the  left  as  I  did  at  such  close  quarters,  and  I  deserved  more 
than  what  followed  for  doing  so.  The  smoke  from  the  ten  drams  obscured  the  ele- 
phant, and  I  stooped  quickly  to  see  where  he  lay.  Good  heavens!  he  had  not  been 
even  checked,  and  was  upon  me!  There  was  no  time  to  step  right  or  left.  His 
tusks  came  through  the  smoke  (his  head  being  now  held  low)  like  the  cowcatchers 
of  a  locomotive,  and  I  had  just  time  to  fall  flat  to  avoid  being  hurled  along  in  front 
of  him.  I  fell  a  little  to  the  right;  the  next  instant  down  came  his  ponderous  fore- 
foot within  a  few  inches  of  my  left  thigh,  and  I  should  have  been  trodden  on  had  I 
not  been  quick  enough,  when  I  saw  the  fore-foot  coming,  to  draw  my  leg  from  the 
sprawling  position  in  which  I  fell.  As  the  elephant  rushed  over  me  he  shrieked 
shrilly,  which  showed  that  his  trunk  was  uncoiled;  and  his  head  also  being  held  low 
instead  of  in  charging  position,  I  inferred  rightly  that  he  was  in  full  flight.  Had 
he  stopped  I  should  have  been  caught,  but  the  heavy  bullet  had  taken  all  the  fighting 
out  of  him.  Jaffer  had  been  disposed  of  by  a  recoiling  bamboo,  and  was  now  lying 
almost  in  the  elephant's  line;  fortunately,  however,  the  brute  held  on.  I  was  covered 
with  blood  from  the  wound  inflicted  by  his  late  antagonist  in  his  left  side;  even  my 
hair  was  matted  together  when  the  blood  became  dry.  The  mahout  had  jumped 
into  the  deep  and  precipitous  nalla  to  our  left  at  the  commencement  of  hostilities." 
Since  the  elephant  in  India  will  not  breed  to  any  appreciable  extent 
in  captivity,  the  stock  has  to  be  continually  replenished  by  the  capture 
of  wild  individuals.  The  methods  in  vogue  are,  by  driving  into  keddas,  or  inclo- 
sures;  by  hunting  with  trained  females;  by  means  of  pitfalls;  and  by  noosing  from 
the  backs  of  specially-trained  tame  animals.  Of  these,  the  first  only  is  employed 
for  the  capture  of  whole  herds. 

A  kedda  party  in  Bengal  comprises  three  hundred  and  seventy  men,  who  go  out 
during  the  winter  prepared  for  a  sojourn  of  t\vo  or  three  months  in  the  jungle. 


1128 


THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


When  a  herd  is  discovered,  the  party  divide  and  go  off  in  opposite  directions  so  as 
to  surround  it,  leaving  two  of  their  number  at  distances  of  about  every  fifty  yards, 
or  rather  more.  When  complete,  the  circle  should  have  a  circumference  of  six  or 
eight  miles;  and  when  once  found,  it  must  be  the  fault  of  the  men  if  the  herd  is  not 
captured.  A  light  fence  of  split  bamboo  is  rapidly  formed  round  the  ring,  as  are 
likewise  shelters  for  the  men;  and  the  animals  are  kept  in  by  firing  shots  by  day  and 
by  lighting  bonfires  at  night.  After  the  first  two  days,  however,  if  the  ring  be  suffi- 
ciently large  and  contain  plenty  of  cover,  the  elephants  give  but  little  trouble.  In 
the  middle  of  the  circle  the  construction  of  the  kedda  is  then  pushed  on  apace. 
This  is  built  in  a  secluded  spot,  and  is  formed  of  massive  posts  of  about  twelve 
feet  high,  supported  by  props,  and  arranged  in  a  circle  of  from  twenty  to  fifty 


INDIAN    ELEPHANT    KNEEUNG. 

yards  in  diameter,  with  an  entrance  of  about  four  yards  in  width.  From  the 
entrance  proceed  two  diverging  lines  of  palisades,  which  at  their  terminations,  a 
hundred  yards  or  so  from  the  gate,  are  about  fifty  yards  asunder.  When  all  the 
arrangements  are  complete,  the  herd  is  driven  down  the  funnel-shaped  entrance, 
and  when  within  the  kedda  itself  imprisoned  by  dropping  a  kind  of  portcullis  at 
the  gate.  After  a  time  the  process  of  securing  the  various  members  of  the  herd 
commences;  for  which  purpose  tame  elephants,  each  carrying  a  mahout  on  its  neck 
and  a  rope-tier  behind  are  employed.  These  tame  elephants  separate  the  wild  ones 
rom  their  companions  one  by  one,  when  the  hind-legs  of  the  captives  are  tied  to- 
cher with  ropes.  Each  captive  then  has  a  rope  placed  round  its  neck,  and  another 
round  one  hind-leg;  after  which  it  is  led  out  and  secured  to  a  tree  in  the  neighboring 
forest,  where  it  remains  until  sufficiently  tamed  to  undergo  further  treatment 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT  1129 

As  the  finest  tuskers  are  seldom  caught  in  the  keddas,  another  plan  is  adopted 
for  their  capture.  A  party  of  four  or  five  trained  female  elephants,  with  their 
mahouts  (who  partially  conceal  themselves  under  blankets),  proceed  to  the  resorts  of 
a  solitary  wild  tusker;  and  gradually  approach  him  by  grazing  in  an  unconcerned 
manner,  unless  the  male  saves  them  this  trouble  by  coming  up  of  his  own  accord. 
Having  established  an  acquaintance,  the  females  remain  constantly  with  the  male 
until  he  is  thoroughly  tired  out  and  in  need  of  sleep,  which  may  not  take  place  for 
two  or  three  days;  during  which  time  the  mahouts  have  been  relieved  one  by  one 
by  relays.  When  the  wild  tusker  is  sound  asleep,  the  females  close  up  around  him, 
upon  which  two  of  the  mahouts  slip  off,  and  tie  his  hind-legs  securely  together. 
Sometimes  this  is  all  that  is  then  done,  but  in  other  cases  he  is  made  fast  to  a  tree. 
When  awakened,  the  male,  if  tied  to  a  tree,  makes  every  effort  to  escape,  but  in 
vain;  while,  when  his  legs  are  merely  hobbled,  he  makes  off  in  the  best  way  he  can. 
In  the  latter  case  he  is  followed  by  the  females  until  exhausted,  when  he  is  made 
fast  to  a  neighboring  tree.  The  efforts  made  by  elephants  thus  caught  to  escape 
from  their  trammels,  frequently  produce  such  injuries  as  to  result  in  the  death  of  a 
large  percentage  of  the  number. 

The  pitfall  mode  is  chiefly  or  entirely  employed  by  natives,  and  is  a 
barbarous  one,  owing  to  the  frequency  with  which  the  bones  of  the 
animals  are  broken  or  dislocated  in  the  fall.  To  obviate  this  a  bar  is  usually  fixed 
across  the  middle  of  the  pit,  which,  although  itself  broken,  somewhat  mitigates  the 
shock  of  the  fall.  The  pits  are  about  fifteen  feet  in  depth,  by  ten  and  one-half 
in  length,  and  seven  and  one-half  in  width;  this  relatively-small  area  being  in- 
tended to  hinder  the  animal  from  digging  his  way  out  with  his  tusks.  It  is 
remarkable  that  an  animal  which  displays  such  caution,  in  venturing  over  bridges 
and  other  artificial  structures  as  does  the  Indian  elephant,  should  so  readily  fall 
into  these  pits. 

The  fourth  method  of  capture  employed  in  India  is  by  far  the  most 
exciting,  and  is  in  fact  a  simple  chase.  Three  or  four  fast  tame  ele- 
phants, each  carrying  a  mahout  on  its  neck,  a  nooser  kneeling  on  a  small  pad  on  the 
back,  and  a  driver  near  the  tail,  are  fitted  with  a  girth  round  the  body,  attached  to 
which  is  a  rope  with  a  running  noose.  When  the  wild  elephants  are  approached, 
they  make  off  at  their  topmost  speed,  closely  followed  by  the  tame  ones.  Two  of 
the  tame  elephants  select  a  single  wild  animal,  and,  urged  to  their  utmost  speed  by 
the  blows  of  a  spiked  mallet  wielded  by  the  drivers  behind,  perhaps  eventually  come 
alongside  of  it.  When  this  takes  place,  the  nooses  are  thrown,  and  generally  en- 
circle the  victim  by  the  neck.  The  tame  elephants  are  then  checked,  but  if  this  is 
done  too  suddenly  the  captive  may  be  choked;  indeed,  the  whole  party  are  liable 
to  injury  from  being  dragged  down  ravines  or  other  precipitous  places;  and  the  work 
is  at  a\l  times  very  harassing  to  the  tame  animals  employed.  This  method,  which  is 
only  employed  in  Bengal  and  Nipal,  has  the  further  disadvantage  that  only  the 
less  fleet,  and  therefore  inferior,  animals  can  be  captured  by  its  means. 

In  Ceylon  wild  elephants  are  noosed  by  a  couple  of  hunters  on  foot, 
who  with  marvelous  skill  encircle  the  hind-legs  of  an  animal  running 
away  from  them,  and  make  fast  the  end  of  the  trailing  rope  to  a  tree. 


1 130 


THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


An  immature  female  elephant  is  worth  about  $725  (we  presume 
Value  counting  the  rupee  at  its  nominal  value  of  thirty-eight  cents),  while 

good  working  females  will  fetch  from  $900  to  $i  ,400.   Tuskers  are,  however,  far  more 
valuable,   ranging  from  $3,75O  to  $7,000  or  $7,500,    or  even   more 

"points"  be  perfect. 

The  domesticated  elephant  is  largely  employed   in  India 

Uses  of  transport  of  heavy  camp  equipage,  for  dragging  timber  to  the  rivers, 

S  and  in  lieu  of  horses  for  artillery;  and  is  of  especial  value  in  traversing 

districts  where  roads  are  either  wanting,  or  are  so  bad  as  to  be  impassable  for  other 


ELEPHANT    STACKING    TIMBER. 

animals  when  laden.  Elephants  may  be  employed  either  as  beasts  of  burden  or  of 
draught;  and  in  the  former  case  their  loads  should  not  exceed  half  a  ton  for  continuous 
marching,  while  in  hilly  districts  they  should  be  reduced  to  about  seven  hundred 
pounds.  In  dragging  timber  of  moderate  dimensions,  a  short  rope  is  attached  to 
one  end  of  each  log,  which  the  elephant  seizes  between  his  teeth,  and  thus  raising 
his  burden  from  the  ground,  half  carries  and  half  drags  it  away.  Tuskers  are  both 
stronger  and  more  useful  than  females,  since  their  tusks  often  aid  them  in  the  per- 
formance of  their  duties. 

The  majority  of  the  animals  employed  in  tasks  like  the  above,  belong  to  what 
the  natives  term  the  inferior  castes;  tuskers  of  the  finest  and  most  approved  form 


THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT  1131 

"being  far  too  expensive  to  be  put  to  such  uses.  The  majority  of  such  animals  are, 
indeed,  purchased  by  the  native  princes,  by  whom  they  are  used  in  state  pageants, 
and  the  taller  the  animal,  the  greater  his  value. 

By  the  sportsman  the  elephant,  as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  mention,  is 
extensively  employed  in  tiger  shooting;  and,  indeed,  in  many  districts  this  sport  can 
only  be  enjoyed  by  the  aid  of  these  animals.  For  sporting  purposes,  the  elephant 
carries  a  howdah,  which  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  combine  lightness  with 
strength,  and  to  allow  of  the  occupant  firing  from  it  with  equal  ease  in  any  direc- 
tion. One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  connected  with  the  taming  of  the  Indian 
elephant,  is  the  extent  to  which  its  natural  timidity  in  the  presence  of  its  dreaded 
enemy,  the  tiger,  may  be  overcome  by  means  of  careful  training.  To  enter  into  any 
particulars  with  regard  to  the  mode  of  employment  of  elephants  in  tiger  hunting, 
would,  however,  be  entirely  beyond  the  scope  of  a  work  on  Natural  History. 

As  being  extremely  closely  allied  to  the  living  Indian  species,  the 
:h  extinct  elephant  of  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  Europe  and  Northern 
Asia,  commonly  known  as  the  mammoth  (E.  primigenius) ,  may  be  conveniently 
noticed  in  this  place.  So  close,  indeed,  is  the  relationship  between  the  mammoth 
and  the  Indian  elephant,  that  it  may  be  a  great  question  whether  they  are  anything 
more  than  varieties  of  one  single  species,  specially  modified  for  the  climates  of  their 
respective  habitats.  It  is  true  that  the  tusks  of  the  mammoth  are  much  more  curved 
upward  than  are  those  of  the  Indian  elephant,  and  assume  a  spiral  curvature;  while 
the  plates  of  the  molar  teeth  are  narrower  and  more  numerous.  These,  however, 
are  differences  which  scarcely  constitute  more  than  a  well-marked  variety;  and  it  is 
noteworthy  that  when  we  reach  the  warmer  regions  of  Asia  Minor,  the  place  of  the 
mammoth  was  taken  during  the  Pleistocene  period  by  an  allied  species  known  as  the 
Armenian  elephant  (E.  armeniacus) ,  which  had  molar  teeth  intermediate  between 
those  of  the  former  and  those  of  the  living  Indian  elephant.  In  Siberia,  where  its 
carcasses  have  been  found  preserved  in  the  frozen  soil,  the  body  of  the  mammoth 
was  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  brownish,  woolly  fur,  among  which  were  a  number 
of  longer  bristly  black  hairs;  but  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  animal  was  thus 
protected  from  cold  in  the  more  southern  and  warmer  portions  of  its  habitat.  Apart, 
however,  from  this,  the  discovery  alluded  to  on  p.  1118,  that  the  Indian  elephant  re- 
tains traces  of  a  woolly  covering  similar  to  that  of  the  mammoth,  shows  that  in  this 
respect  there  is  no  essential  difference  between  the  twro  forms;  and  indicates  that  the 
development  or  loss  of  the  hairy  coat  was  entirely  due  to  climatic  conditions. 

The  mammoth  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  Siberia,  its  remains  becoming 
more  numerous  the  further  north  we  proceed.  In  Northern  Europe,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  district  to  the  east  of  the  White  Sea,  it  is,  however,  rare  or  unknown; 
none  of  its  remains  having  been  discovered  in  Norway,  and  but  few  in  Denmark  and 
Sweden.  Although  rare  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  mammoth  remains  are  extremely 
common  over  the  greater  part  of  England,  and  a  large  area  of  Central  Europe. 
They  abound  in  France  and  Germany,  and  in  Italy  extend  as  far  south  as  Rome, 
but  according  to  Sir  H.  H.  Howorth  are  unknown  southward  of  the  Pyrenees. 
Great  numbers  are  dredged  from  the  Dogger  Bank  in  the  North  Sea.  From  Eastern 
Asia  the  mammoth  traveled  across  what  is  now  Behring  Strait  into  Alaska;  but  in 


ii32  THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

the  United  States,  and  extending  as  far  south  as  Texas  and  Mexico,  the  place  of  the 
mammoth  was  taken  by  a  closely-allied  species  or  variety,  known  as  the  Columbian 
elephant  (E.  columbi}. 

That  the  mammoth  lived  in  Siberia  in  the  area  where  its  frozen  remains  are 
found,  may  be  considered  certain;  and  there  is  considerable  evidence  to  indicate  that 
the  climate  of  these  regions  was  far  less  inclement  than  it  is  at  present.  This,  how- 
ever, only  renders  it  the  more  difficult  to  account  for  the  manner  in  which  its  remains 
were — as  they  must  have  been — frozen  up  in  the  soil  immediately  after  death.  Sir 
H.  Howorth  calls  in  the  aid  of  a  sudden  cataclysmal  change  from  heat  to  extreme  cold; 
but  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  accept  such  a  theory.  However,  without  some  such 
explanation,  the  mode  of  entombment  remains  a  complete  puzzle.  In  Europe  the 
mammoth  seems  to  have  made  its  first  appearance  before  the  great  cold  of  the  glacial 
period;  a  fact,  which  so  far  as  it  goes,  is  in  favor  of  Sir  H.  Howorth's  view,  as  tend- 
ing to  show  that  the  creature  never  inhabited  a  very  cold  climate. 

Numerous  finds  of  frozen  carcasses  of  mammoths  in  the  soil  of  Siberia  have 
been  recorded;  but  it  may  be  pretty  safely  asserted,  that  these  form  only  a  small 
proportion  of  those  which  have  been  brought  to  light  by  the  action  of  the  weather 
during  the  historic  period.  Of  the  recorded  examples,  almost  the  earliest  is  one 
found  on  the  river  Alasea,  in  the  year  1787;  and  somewhere  about  the  same  time 
another  appears  to  have  been  discovered  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lena;  while  a  third 
occurred  in  1805,  on  the  shores  of  the  Polar  Sea.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  earlier 
finds  is,  however,  the  one  recorded  by  the  naturalist  Adams,  in  1806,  which  had 
been  disclosed  by  the  gradual  melting  of  the  ice  on  a  peninsula  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Lena.  The  first  indication  of  this  carcass  was  noticed  by  a  native  in  the  year  1799, 
who  observed  a  hummocky  mass  in  the  ice,  which  melted  in  the  summer  of  1801 
sufficiently  to  show  one  tusk  and  the  side  of  the  monster.  The  carcass  was  then 
entire,  showing  the  eyes  and  trunk  well  preserved,  and  the  thick  coat  of  wool  and 
hair  clothing  the  skin.  During  the  cold  -summer  of  1802  the  ice  melted  little,  but 
in  the  following  year  the  carcass  slid  down  onto  a  sand  bank;  and  in  1804  a  native 
hacked  out  and  carried  off  both  tusks.  It  was  not  till  two  years  later,  that  Adams 
arrived  on  the  scene;  by  which  time  the  dogs  of  the  Yakoots  had  consumed  nearly  all 
the  flesh,  while  one  limb  had  been  removed  bodily.  The  rest  of  the  skeleton, 
together  with  a  large  amount  of  hair,  were,  however,  taken  to  St.  Petersburg,  where 
they  are  now  preserved. 

Another  mammoth  mummy  was  discovered  in  1840,  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Yenisei,  and  its  skeleton  taken  to  the  Museum  at  Moscow.  Some  long,  stiff  hair,  of 
a  reddish  color,  found  with  this  specimen,  probably  belonged  to  the  mane;  the  ex- 
istence of  such  a  mane  having  been  proved  by  the  rough  sketches  made  by  the 
Yakoots  of  Adams's  specimen.  A  half-grown  mammoth,  with  part  of  the  skin 
remaining,  was  discovered  in  1843  near  the  river  Taimyr,  only  a  comparatively- 
short  distance  from  the  Polar  Sea.  Some  time  between  1840  and  1850,  a  well- 
preserved  carcass  was  discovered  in  the  circle  of  Yakutsk,  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Kolyma.  It  had  a  long  mane,  extending  from  the  head  to  the  tail;  and  fragments 
of  twigs,  on  which  the  animal  had  been  browsing  shortly  before  its  death,  were 
found  between  its  teeth. 


THE  AFRICAN  ELEPHANT 


H33 


Between  1860  and  1862,  the  Yakoots  discovered  another  frozen  carcass  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Lena;  and  an  expedition  from  St.  Petersburg,  which  unfortunately 
arrived  too  late,  was  dispatched  to  secure  the  prize.  The  summer  of  1867  revealed 
another  of  these  frozen  carcasses,  this  time  near  the  Polar  Sea  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  river  Alasea,  and  some  distance  beyond  the  northern  limit  of  trees.  About 
the  same  time  news  arrived  of  the  discovery  of  a  mammoth  on  the  river  Kolyma; 
while  a  third  was  discovered  in  1870,  near  the  Alasea. 

These  isolated  finds  of  frozen  carcasses  give  no  idea  of  the  number  of  mam- 
moths that  inhabited  Siberia  at  a  time  when  its  climate  must  apparently  have  been 
far  less  rigorous  than  at  present;  and  in  order  to  obtain  some  adequate  conception 
on  this  point,  we  must  turn  our  attention  to  the  trade  in  mammoth  ivory.  It  ap- 
pears that  in  1872  no  less  than  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  thirty  of  these  tusks, 
and  in  the  following  year  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  forty  were  exported  to 
England,  and  it  may  be  estimated  that  for  a  long  time  fully  one  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  pounds  weight  of  fossil  ivory  found  its  way  year  by  year  into  the 
market.  This  means  that  within  a  period  of  twenty  years,  over  twenty  thousand 
mammoths  must  have  been  discovered,  which  affords  ample  proof  that  Siberia 
was  as  thickly  inhabited  by  these  animals,  as  was  ever  Africa  by  the  elephant  of 
modern  times.  It  may  be  added  that  only  about  fourteen  per  cent,  of  the  tusks 
exported  afford  first-class  ivory,  in  addition  to  which  about  seventeen  per  cent,  are 
•capable  of  being  used  where  ivory  of  the  best  quality  is  not  required. 


THE    AFRICAN   ELEPHANT  (Elephas  africanus] 

The  African  elephant  differs  widely  from  its  Asiatic  congener,  not  only  in 
external  form,  but  likewise  as  regards  the  structure  of  its  molar  teeth;  the  males 
also  reaching  larger  dimensions  than  those  ordinarily  attained  by  the  latter. 
The  most  striking  external  characteristic  of  the  African  species  is  the  enormous 
size  of  the  ears,  which,  when  in  repose,  completely  cover  the  shoulders,  but  during 
periods  of  excitement  are  elevated  at  right  angles,  and  thus  communicate  a  most 
extraordinary  appearance  to  their 
owner.  The  head  is  also  much 
more  convex  in  the  region  of  the 
forehead,  the  eye  is  larger,  and 
the  extremity  of  the  trunk,  in- 
stead of  having  one  long  finger- 
like  process  on  its  front  edge, 
has  two  nearly  equal-sized  proc- 
esses, one  in  front  and  the  other 
behind.  The  color  of  the  skin  is 
also  somewhat  darker.  In  gen- 
eral form,  the  African  species  is  distinguished  by  the  middle  of  the  back  being 
hollowed,  and  the  shoulder  the  highest  point,  while  the  hind-foot  carries  three  in 
place  of  four  nails.  As  a  general  rule,  the  males  and  females  are  furnished  with 


A    RIGHT    UPPER    MOLAR    TOOTH    OF    THE    AFRICAN 

ELEPHANT. 

(One-third  natural  size.) 
(From  Sir  R.  Owen.) 


1 134  THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

well-developed  tusks,  which  attain  larger  dimensions  than  those  of  the  Indian 
elephant;  but  Mr.  Blanford  states  that  in  Eastern  and  Northern  Abyssinia  all  the 
elephants  appear  to  be  almost  tuskless,  or  to  have  very  small  and  short  tusks.  The 
molar  teeth  are  distinguished  by  the  smaller  number  and  greater  thickness  of  their 
plates;  each  of  these  plates  expanding  in  the  middle  in  an  angulated  form,  so  that 
when  worn  (as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  1133)  each  plate  presents  a  lozenge- 
shaped  area  of  ivory  bordered  with  enamel.  Moreover,  the  enamel  is  not  puckered  in 
the  manner  characterizing  the  molars  of  the  Indian  species.  The  number  of  plates 
in  the  first  molar  is  usually  three,  in  the  second  six,  in  the  third  and  fourth  seven, 
in  the  fifth  eight,  and  in  the  last  ten. 

That  the  African  elephant  frequently  attains  a  height  of  ten  feet 
Dimensions  ^^  Qver  a^  ^  g^^ers  is  well  ascertained,  but  we  have  no  records 
of  its  maximum  dimensions  in  the  wild  state.  A  male  killed  in  South  Africa  by 
H.  R.  H.  the  Duke  of  Coburg,  which  stood  ten  feet  at  the  withers,  had  a  length  of 
twenty-three  feet  five  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  trunk  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  with  a 
maximum  girth  of  sixteen  and  one-half  feet;  its  weight  being  eight  thousand  eight 
hundred  pounds.  In  one  killed  near  Lake  Nyassa  by  Sir  John  Kirk,  the  height  at 
the  withers  was  ten  feet  three  inches,  the  total  length  twenty-five  feet  two  inches, 
and  the  maximum  girth  eighteen  feet.  These  dimensions  are,  however,  largely  ex- 
ceeded by  those  of  the  well-known  "  Jumbo, "  formerly  in  the  London  Zoological 
Society's  Gardens,  whose  height  at  the  withers  was  eleven  feet,  and  his  weight 
thirteen  thousand  pounds.  As  this  animal  was  brought  up  in  captivity,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  but  that  wild  individuals  must  attain  considerably  larger 
dimensions,  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker  states  that  he  has  seen  very  much  larger  ani- 
mals than  "  Jumbo." 

In  regard  to  the  dimensions  of  the  tusks,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  gives  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  pounds  for  the  average  weight  of  a  pair  in  a  full-grown  male; 
but  owing  to  the  exclusive  use  of  one  tusk  for  digging,  the  two  would  not  be  of 
equal  weight.  The  same  writer  states  that  a  single  tusk  sold  in  London  in  1874 
weighed  one  hundred  and  eighty -eight  pounds;  and  one  in  the  possession  of  Sir  E.  G. 
Loder  weighs  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  pounds,  with  a  length  of  nine  feet  five 
inches,  and  a  girth  of  twenty-two  and  one-half  inches.  Another  mentioned  by  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  weighed  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  pounds;  while  one  recorded 
by  Sir  J.  Kirk  had  a  weight  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds,  a  length  of  nine 
feet  four  inches,  and  a  girth  of  twenty  and  one-half  inches.  A  fine  specimen  in  the 
collection  of  Mr.  Rowland  Ward  has  the  same  length  as  the  last,  but  its  weight  is 
one  hundred  and  ten  pounds,  and  its  girth  eighteen  inches.  The  longest  on  record 
appears,  however,  to  be  one  mentioned  by  Gordon  Gumming,  of  which  the  length  is 
given  as  twenty  feet  nine  inches,  and  the  weight  one  hundred  and  seventy-three 
pounds. 

Distribution  A1though  its  fossilized  remains  have  been  found  in  the  superficial 
deposits  of  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Algeria,  this  species  is  now  confined  to 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  where  it  was  formerly  spread  over  the  whole  of  the 
wooded  districts.  Owing,  however,  to  constant  persecution  for  the  sake  of  its  tusks, 
the  African  elephant  has  been  greatly  reduced  in  numbers,  and  is  now  practically 


THE  HAUNT  OF  THE  AFRICAN  ELEPHANT. 


ii36  THE    UNGULATES,   OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

exterminated  from  large  areas  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent.  Indeed, 
if  measures  are  not  shortly  taken  for  its  protection,  it  stands  a  good  chance  of 
sharing  the  fate  which  has  already  befallen  the  quagga  and  Burchell's  rhinoceros; 
although  it  may  survive  for  some  time  in  the  more  remote  equatorial  districts  and 
the  Sudan.  In  the  districts  lying  to  the  southward  of  the  Zambezi,  Messrs.  Nicolls 
and  Eglington  state  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  scattered  herds  in  the  more 
unfrequented  parts  of  Matabeleland  and  the  extremity  of  Northeastern  Mashona- 
land,  "  elephants  are  now  only  met  with  in  anything  like  reasonable  quantities  in 
the  impenetrable  bush  of  the  low-lying  coast  country  in  the  region  of  Sofala  bay. 
A  few  herds  may  possibly  exist  in  the  extreme  north  and  northeast  of  Ovamboland, 
bordering  on  the  Cunene  and  Okavango  rivers;  but  if  so,  they  are  only  a  few  tusk- 
less  males  or  young  females.  The  last  herd  frequenting  the  Botletli  and  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Lake  Ngami  was  completely  destroyed  some  years  ago  by  Bechua- 
nas;  and  although  a  good  many  are  certainly  to  be  met  with  in  the  country 
between  the  Chobe  and  Zambezi,  it  is  improbable  that  they  will  survive  the  attacks 
of  the  Barotsi  natives  during  the  next  two  or  three  years. ' '  Some  herds  are  pre- 
served in  a  protected  state  by  the  Government  in  the  forests  in  the  east  of  the  Cape 
Colony.  In  East  Africa,  in  the  Kilima-Njaro  district,  elephants  are  still  fairly  plen- 
tiful. There  they  ascend,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  to  an  elevation  of  nine 
thousand  or  ten  thousand  feet  among  the  damp  forests  clothing  the  sides  of  the 
mountains;  while  they  are  found  at  heights  of  from  seven  thousand  to  eight  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea  level  in  the  Abyssinian  highlands. 

All  observers  seem  to  agree  that  the  African  elephant  is  a  more  power- 
ful and  more  active  animal  than  its  Asiatic  cousin,  displaying  marvel- 
ous capacities  for  getting  over  precipitous  and  rocky  ground,  and  being  altogether 
more  rapid  in  its  movements.     Moreover,  most  writers  consider  its  disposition  de- 
cidedly fiercer  than  that  of  the  other  species. 

Although  there  is  probably  some  local  difference  in  this  respect,  the  African 
elephant,  according  to  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  is  far  less  intolerant  of  intense  solar  heat 
than  the  Indian  species;  and  in  the  Sudan  these  animals  may  frequently  be  observed 
"enjoying  themselves  in  the  burning  sun  in  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day,  among 
plains  of  withered  grass,  many  miles  from  a  jungle." 

The  difference  in  the  structure  of  their  molar  teeth  would  of  itself  be  an  indica- 
tion of  a  marked  distinction  in  the  diet  of  the  two  species;  and  from  what  we 
know  in  the  analogous  instance  of  the  two  African  species  of  rhinoceroses  it  would 
be  inferred  that  the  nutriment  of  the  African  elephant  is  composed  of  coarser  and 
harder  substances  than  those  eaten  by  the  Indian  species.  This  inference  appears 
to  be  supported  by  the  results  of  observation.  Thus,  in  parts  of  South  Africa,  Liv- 
ingstone states  that  great  numbers  of  trees  may  be  seen  "  broken  off  by  elephants  a 
foot  or  two  from  the  ground,  in  order  that  they  may  feed  on  the  tender  shoots  at 

tops;  the  trees  thus  seem  pollarded  from  that  point.    In  spite  of  this  practice,  the 

lephant  never  seriously  lessens  the  number  of  trees;  indeed,   I  have  often  been 

ruck  by  the  very  little  damage  he  does  in  a  forest.     His  food  consists  for  the  most 

t  of  bulbs,  tubers,  roots,  and  branches;  the  natives  in  the  interior  believe  that  he 

never  touches  grass;  and  the  only  instance  I  saw  of  his  having  grazed  was  near  Tete, 


THE  AFRICAN  ELEPHANT  1137 

when  the  grass  was  in  seed,  and  when  he  might  have  been  attracted  by  the  farina- 
ceous matter,  which  exists  in  such  quantities  in  the  seed  that  the  natives  collect  it  for 
their  own  food."  In  another  passage  the  great  explorer  states  that  the  African  ele- 
phant "  is  a  most  dainty  feeder,  and  particularly  fond  of  certain  sweet-tasted  trees 
and  fruits,  such  as  the  mohonono  [a  tree  said  to  resemble  the  cedar  in  appearance] , 
the  mimosa,  and  others,  which  contain  much  saccharine  matter,  mucilage,  and 
gum.  He  may  be  seen  putting  his  head  to  a  lofty  palmyra,  and  swaying  it  to  and 
fro  to  shake  off  the  seeds;  he  then  picks  them  up  singly  and  eats  them.  Or  he  may 
be  seen  standing  by  the  masuka  and  other  fruit  trees,  patiently  picking  off  the  sweet 
fruits  one  by  one.  The  selection  of  these  kinds  of  food  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
herds  of  elephants  produce  but  small  effect  on  the  vegetation  of  a  country  —  quality 
being  more  requisite  to  them  than  quantity." 

From  his  experience  in  the  Sudan,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  observes  that  "  the  African 
elephant  is  a  more  decided  tree-feeder  than  the  Indian,  and  the  destruction  committed 
by  a  large  herd  of  such  animals  when  feeding  in  a  mimosa  forest  is  extraordinary; 
they  deliberately  march  forward,  and  uproot  or  break  down  every  tree  that  excites 
their  appetite.  The  mimosas  are  generally  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  and, 
having  no  taproot,  they  are  easily  overturned  by  the  tusks  of  the  elephants,  which 
are  driven  like  crowbars  beneath  the  roots,  and  used  as  levers,  in  which  rough  labor 
they  are  frequently  broken.  Upon  the  overthrow  of  a  tree,  the  elephants  eat  the 
roots  and  leaves,  and  strip  the  bark  from  the  branches  by  grasping  them  with  their 
rough  trunks. ' '  In  another  passage  the  same  writer  expresses  his  belief  that  two 
elephants  may  sometimes  unite  their  strength  in  order  to  overthrow  a  tree  of  more 
than  ordinary  size.  The  discrepancy  in  the  two  foregoing  accounts  as  to  the  amount 
of  damage  inflicted  by  elephants  in  a  forest,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  circum- 
stance that  while  in  the  one  district  their  food  consists  largely  of  twigs  and  fruits,  in 
the  other  it  is  mainly  composed  of  bark  and  roots.  In  Southeastern  Africa,  Mr.  Selous 
bears  testimony  to  the  digging  habits  of  the  elephant,  stating  that  he  has  seen  large 
areas  of  sandy  soil  plowed  up  by  the  tusks  of  these  animals  in  their  search  for  roots. 

In  digging,  as  already  incidentally  mentioned,  it  appears  that  the  elephant 
always  uses  one  particular  tusk,  which,  in  consequence,  is  much  more  worn  than 
the  other.  According  to  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  it  is  nearly  always  the  right  tusk  which 
is  selected  for  this  duty,  and  the  one  so  used  is  termed  by  the  Sudanis  the  hadam, 
or  servant.  A  curious  question  arises  whether  this  preferential  use  of  the  right 
tusk  has  any  connection  with  our  own  right-handedness. 

In  South  Africa,  at  least,  elephants  drink  almost  every  night,  but  only  rarely 
during  the  day.  In  that  part  of  the  continent  they  seek  the  deepest  shades  of  the 
forest  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  generally  appear  to  sleep  in  a  standing  posture. 

The  African  elephant  associates  in  herds  of  varying  size,  which  appear  to  be 
generally  family  parties;  but  the  old  bulls  may  be  solitary,  in  pairs,  or  in  small  parties, 
and  keep  apart  from  the  larger  herds,  which  usually  consist  of  young  males,  females, 
and  calves.  One  of  the  largest  herds  seen  by  Mr.  Selous  was  estimated  to  contain 
from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  head,  but  such  assemblages  are  rare.  In  many 
parts  of  Africa,  including  Abyssinia,  Kilima-Njaro,  and  the  Sudan,  elephants 
undertake  periodical  migrations,  apparently  necessitated  by  the  supply  of  food,  or 
72 


"38 

induced  by  the  ripening  of  certain  kinds  of  fruit  in  particular  districts.  At  such 
times  it  appears  that  the  old  bulls  rejoin  the  herds  to  which  they  belong.  Once, 
and  once  only,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  had  the  opportunity  of  witnessing  such  a  mi- 
gration, which  he  describes  as  follows:  "We  were  marching  through  an  unin- 
habited country  for  about  thirty  miles,  and  in  the  midst  of  beautiful  park-like 
scenery,  we  came  upon  the  magnificent  sight  of  vast  herds  of  elephants.  These 
were  scattered  about  the  country  in  parties  varying  in  number  from  ten  to  one 
hundred,  while  single  bulls  dotted  the  landscape  with  their  magnificent  forms 
in  all  directions.  In  some  places  there  were  herds  of  twenty  or  thirty,  entirely 
composed  of  large  tuskers;  in  other  spots  were  parties  of  females  with  young  ones 
interspersed,  of  varying  growth;  and  this  grand  display  of  elephantine  life  con- 
tinued for  at  least  two  miles  in  length  as  we  rode  parallel  with  the  groups  at  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant.  It  would  have  been  impossible  to  guess  the  number,  as 
there  was  no  regularity  in  their  arrangement,  neither  could  I  form  any  idea  of  the 
breadth  of  the  area  that  was  occupied. ' ' 

In  describing  his  first  view  of  the  largest  company  of  elephants  he  ever  en- 
countered, Oswell  writes  that  "  as  I  got  clear  of  the  bush  I  came  upon  at  least  four 
hundred  elephants  standing  drowsily  in  the  shade  of  the  detached  clumps  of  mimosa 
trees.  Such  a  sight  I  had  never  seen  before,  and  never  saw  again.  As  far  as  the 
eye  could  reach,  in  a  fairly  open  country,  there  was  nothing  but  elephants.  I  da 
not  mean  in  joined  masses,  but  in  small  separate  groups.  Lying  on  the  pony's  neck, 
I  wormed  in  and  out,  looking  for  the  bulls  whose  '  spoor '  we  had  been  following, 
and  while  doing  so  was  charged  by  a  very  tall,  long-legged,  ugly  beast,  who  would 
take  no  denial,  and  I  was  obliged  to  kill  him." 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  maximum  pace  of  the  Indian  ele- 
Pace 

phant  is  estimated  at  about  fifteen  miles  an  hour;  but  this  can  only  be 

maintained  for  a  couple  of  hundred  yards  or  so,  after  which  the  rate  sinks  to  eight 
or  six  miles  an  hour.  On  the  other  hand,  Sir  Samuel  Baker  is  of  opinion  that  the 
African  elephant  might  be  able  to  maintain  the  maximum  pace  of  fifteen  miles  an 
hour  for  a  hundred  yards  longer  than  its  Asiatic  cousin,  and  that  it  would  settle 
down  to  a  pace  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  which  could  be  kept  up  for  at  least  that  period 
of  time.  The  relatively-longer  limbs  and  stride  of  the  African  species  fully  bear  out 
this  view  as  to  its  speedier  movements. 

Senses  ^e  sense  °^  SGent  appears  to  be  very  strongly  developed  in  this  spe- 

cies, inasmuch  as  it  can  discover  the  presence  of  a  human  being  at  an 
immense  distance  when  the  wind  is  favorable.  As  soon  as  an  elephant  scents  a  man, 
it  starts  off  at  once  at  a  rapid  pace,  which  will  be  maintained  sometimes  for  hours; 
and  since  in  most  parts  of  Africa  the  wind  is  constantly  veering,  this  constitutes  one 
of  the  great  difficulties  in  elephant  stalking.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sight  of 
these  animals  is  most  defective,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  their  hearing  is  particu- 
larly good.  On  account  of  these  deficiencies,  it  is  possible  to  approach  a  wild  Afri- 
can elephant  from  the  leeward  to  within  a  very  short  distance,  and  we  have  been 
informed,  on  good  authority,  that  a  hunter  once  wagered  that  he  would  write 
his  initials  on  the  hind-quarters  of  one  of  these  animals  while  alive,  and  that  he 
actually  succeeded  in  doing  so. 


THE  AFRICAN  ELEPHANT  1139 

It  is  somewhat  curious  that  the  natives  of  Africa  display  no  aptitude 
n  for  the  domestication  of  the  wild  animals  of  their  country,  in  which 
respect  they  stand  in  marked  contrast  to  the  Malays  and  other  Eastern  nations.  In 
the  later  ages  of  Rome,  as  shown  on  coins,  the  African  elephant  was  tamed  and  ex- 
hibited in  the  arena;  and  these  animals  are  commonly  stated  to  have  been  employed 
by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  Punic  wars  (B.  C.  264-216),  no  less  than  thirty-seven 
of  them  accompanying  Hannibal's  army  across  the  Alps.  On  this  point,  however, 
Oswell  writes  as  follows:  "I  believe  some  people  suppose  the  Carthaginians  tamed 
and  used  the  African  elephants;  they  could  hardly  have  had  mahouts,  Indian  fash- 
ion, for  there  is  no  marked  depression  in  the  nape  of  the  neck  for  a  seat,  and  the 
hemming  of  the  ears,  when  erected,  would  have  half  smothered  them.  My  knowl- 
edge does  not  allow  me  to  raise  any  argument  on  this  point;  but  might  not  the  same 
market  have  been  open  to  the  dwellers  at  Carthage  as  was  afterwards  to  Mithridates, 
who,  I  suppose,  drew  his  supply  from  India,  where  they  have  been  broken  and  made 
to  do  man's  work  from  time  immemorial?  "  In  a  note  he  adds  that  "  I  know  in  the 
representations  on  the  medals  of  Faustina  and  of  Septimius  Severus  the  ears  are  Af- 
rican, though  the  bodies  and  heads  are  Indian;  but  these  were  struck  nearly  four 
hundred  years  after  Carthaginian  times,  when  the  whole  known  world  had  been  ran- 
sacked by  the  Romans  for  beasts  for  their  public  shows;  and  I  still  think  it  possible 
that  the  Carthaginians — the  great  traders  and  colonizers  of  old  —  may  have  obtained 
elephants,  through  some  of  these  colonies,  from  India."  From  the  disposition  of 
"  Jumbo,"  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  species  could  be  as  easily  tamed,  and  would 
prove  as  docile  as  the  Indian  elephant;  but  there  is  the  difficulty  that  the  natives  of 
Africa  probably  could  not  be  trained  to  act  as  efficient  drivers,  and  without  a  de- 
pendable native  attendant  the  best  elephant  would  be  worse  than  useless. 

The  general  testimony  of  those  who  have  had  experience  of  both  the 
African  and  the  Indian  elephants  points  to  the  conclusion  that  the  for- 
mer is  the  more  dangerous  animal  of  the  two,  and  the  one  that  is  more  ready  to 
charge.  The  females,  especially  those  that  are  barren  and  have  small  tusks,  are 
said  to  be  far  more  dangerous  than  males,  frequently  charging  without  the  least 
provocation,  even  when  un wounded;  and  it  is  stated  that  hunters  will  sometimes 
take  the  trouble  to  kill  one  of  these  worthless  females  before  attacking  the  tuskers. 
Indeed,  Mr.  W.  H.  Drummond  is  of  opinion  that  the  greater  number  of  accidents 
that  have  occurred  in  African  elephant  shooting  may  be  set  down  to  females.  From 
the  testimony  of  Gordon  Cumming,  supported  by  that  of  the  writer  last  quoted,  it 
would  appear  that  the  African  elephant,  unlike  its  Indian  cousin,  charges  with  its 
trunk  uplifted,  and  loudly  trumpeting. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  firearms,  it  appears  that  in  South 
Pits 

and  Southeastern  Africa,  at  any  rate,  the  natives  but  seldom  attacked 

the  elephant,  and  effected  little,  if  any  diminution  in  its  numbers.  Occasionally,  as 
narrated  by  Livingstone,  they  attacked  the  unfortunate  animal  with  assagais,  and 
gradually  harried  it  to  death  from  the  loss  of  blood  caused  by  hundreds  of  weapons. 
In  other  cases  poisoned  arrows  were  the  weapons  used.  A  more  general  method  is 
that  of  digging  pits  in  the  paths  frequented  by  the  elephants  on  their  way  to  water. 
These  pits,  according  to  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  are  usually  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  in 


n4o  THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

depth,  and  are  covered  with  light  wood  and  branches  or  reeds,  upon  which  a  thin 
covering  of  grass  is  spread.  In  some  cases,  Sir  Samuel,  states  that  several  individ- 
uals out  of  a  herd  may  be  captured  in  this  manner  in  Central  Africa;  the  animals 
being  put  to  death,  when  thus  helpless,  with  spears.  In  the  Kilima-Njaro  district, 
however,  the  pit  system,  according  to  Mr.  Hunter,  does  not  appear  to  be  very  suc- 
cessful. 

During  the  dry  season,  when  the  grass  of  ten  or  fourteen  feet  in 
By  Fire  height  is  as  inflammable  as  tinder,  the  natives  of  Central  Africa  have 

a  cruel  way  of  killing  elephants  by  forming  a  circle  of  fire  round  a  herd.  As  the 
fiery  circle,  which  may  be  a  couple  of  miles  in  diameter,  gradually  contracts,  the 
elephants  (to  quote  from  Sir  Samuel  Baker's  graphic  description)  "  at  first  attempt 
to  retreat,  until  they  become  assured  of  their  hopeless  position;  they  at  length  become 
desperate,  being  maddened  by  fear,  and  panic-stricken  by  the  wild  shouts  of  the 
thousands  who  have  surrounded  them.  At  length,  half  suffocated  by  the  dense 
smoke,  and  terrified  by  the  close  approach  of  the  roaring  flames,  the  unfortunate 
animals  charge  recklessly  through  the  fire,  burned  and  blinded,  to  be  ruthlessly 
speared  by  the  bloodthirsty  crowd  awaiting  this  last  stampede. ' '  As  many  as  a  hun- 
dred, or  even  more,  may  be,  it  is  said,  killed  by  this  method  on  a  single  occasion. 

The  intrepid  Hamram  Arabs  of  the  Sudan  slay  the  elephant  in  the 
"igmg  same  manner  as  the  rhinoceros,  by  hamstringing  it  with  a  long  two- 
edged  sword.  Three  or  four  mounted  hunters,  singling  out  a  tusker  and  separating 
it  from  its  fellows,  follow  it  until,  tired  out,  the  animal  faces  its  pursuers,  and  pre- 
pares to  charge.  Directly  it  does  so,  the  hunter  who  is  the  object  of  the  charge 
puts  his  horse  to  a  gallop,  and  is  closely  followed  by  the  elephant.  Thereupon,  two 
of  his  companions  follow  at  their  best  pace  behind;  and  as  soon  as  they  come  up 
with  the  fleeing  animal,  one  seizes  the  reins  of  the  horse  of  his  fellow,  who  imme- 
diately leaps  to  the  ground,  and  with  one  blow  of  his  huge  sword  divides  the  tendon 
of  the  elephant's  leg  a  short  distance  above  the  heel.  The  ponderous  beast  is  at  once 
brought  to  a  standstill,  and  is  at  the  mercy  of  its  aggressors. 

A  somewhat  similar  method,  according  to  Mr.  Selous,  was  formerly  practiced 
in  Mashonaland,  only  there  the  hunters  went  on  foot,  and  their  weapon  was  a 
broad -bladed  ax;  with  this  they  crept  up  behind  a  sleeping  elephant,  and  severed 
the  back  tendon  of  the  leg  in  the  same  manner  as  above. 

.  Other  tribes  in  the  same  district  employ  a  heavily-weighted  spear, 
Spears  which  is  plunged  into  the  animal's  back  by  a  hunter  seated  on  a  bough 
overhanging  one  of  the  most  frequented  pathways.  On  receiving  the 
weapon,  the  elephant  of  course  immediately  rushes  of,  and  the  weight  of  the  spear, 
aided  by  blows  from  boughs,  soon  so  enlarges  the  wound,  that  the  animal  quickly 
sinks  to  the  ground,  exhausted  from  loss  of  blood.  In  other  districts,  as  in  parts  of 
Equatoria,  the  weighted  spear  is  suspended  from  a  horizontal  bar  fixed  between  two 
tiers  or  poles.  The  spear  or  knife,  according  to  Major  Casati's  description,  is  kept 
in  position  "  by  a  cord,  which  is  held  down  by  a  stake  that  is  directed  horizontally 
toward  the  middle  of  the  trap;  and  by  another  which,  at  a  convenient  angle,  is  in- 
terposed between  this  and  the  end.  The  animal,  striking  with  his  feet,  loosens  the 
contrivance,  which  then  falls  violently;  the  knife  wounds  the  animal  with  singular 


EXTINCT  ELEPHANTS  1141 

exactness  in  the  spot  where  the  brain  unites  with  the  nape  of  the  neck.     The  blow 
falls  like  a  thunder  clap;  and  if  the  trap  is  well  made,  the  elephant  struggles  and  dies." 

The  European  sportsman  kills  the  African  elephant  either  by  lying 
s  in  wait  at  one  of  its  drinking  places,  or  by  attacking  it  in  the  open, 
either  on  foot  or  on  horseback.  At  the  present  day,  however,  most  or  all  of  the 
elephants  remaining  in  Southeastern  Africa  are  restricted  to  districts  infested  by  the 
tsetse  fly,  where  horses  cannot  exist,  and  the  pursuit  must  consequently  be  under- 
taken on  foot.  Owing  to  the  conformation  of  its  skull,  the  front  shot,  so  frequently 
employed  in  the  case  of  the  Indian  elephant,  is  ineffectual  with  the  African  species, 
and  there  are  but  two  spots  where  a  bullet  may  be  expected  to  prove  fatal;  one  of 
these  being  in  the  head  behind  the  eye,  and  the  other  in  the  shoulder  immediately 
behind  the  flap  of  the  ear. 

Stories  of  hairbreadth  escapes  from  charges  of  the  African  elephant  may  be 
reckoned  by  the  score,  but  we  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  one  narrated  by  Mr. 
Selous.  That  gentleman  had  wounded  a  female  elephant  at  a  time  when  his  horse 
was  thoroughly  knocked  up.  On  a  sudden  the  beast  turned  to  charge,  before  there 
was  time  to  get  a  fair  start.  "  Digging  the  spurs  into  my  horse's  ribs,"  writes  the 
narrator,  "  I  did  may  best  to  get  him  away,  but  he  was  so  thoroughly  done  that, 
instead  of  springing  forward,  which  was  what  the  emergency  required,  he  only 
started  at  a  walk,  and  was  just  breaking  into  a  canter  when  the  elephant  was  upon 
us.  I  heard  two  short,  sharp  screams  above  my  head,  and  had  just  time  to  think  it 
was  all  over  with  me,  when,  horse  and  all,  I  was  dashed  to  the  ground.  For  a  few 
seconds  I  was  half  stunned  by  the  violence  of  the  shock,  and  the  first  thing  I  be- 
came aware  of  was  a  very  strong  smell  of  elephant.  At  the  same  instant  I  felt  that 
I  was  still  unhurt,  and  that,  though  in  an  unpleasant  predicament,  I  had  still  a 
chance  for  life.  I  was,  however,  pressed  down  on  the  ground  in  such  a  way  that  I 
could  not  extricate  my  head.  At  last,  with  a  violent  effort,  I  wrenched  myself 
loose,  and  threw  my  body  over  sideways  so  that  I  rested  on  my  hands.  As  I  did  so 
I  saw  the  hind-legs  of  the  elephant  standing  like  two  pillars  before  me,  and  at  once 
grasped  the  situation.  She  was  on  her  knees,  with  her  head  and  tusks  in  the 
ground,  and  I  had  been  pressed  down  under  her  chest,  but  luckily  behind  her  fore- 
legs. Dragging  myself  from  under  her,  I  regained  my  feet,  and  made  a  hasty  re- 
treat; having  had  rather  more  than  enough  of  elephants  for  the  time  being." 

Although  highly  appreciated  by  the  natives,  the  flesh  of  the  African 

elephant  is  coarse  and  rank  in  the  extreme;  portions  of  the  trunk, 

although  tough,  are,  however,  said  to  be  fairly  good.    Baked  elephant's  foot,  cooked 

in  the  skin,  and  scooped  out  like  a  Stilton  cheese,  was  formerly  considered  a  dainty, 

but  most  of  those  who  have  tasted  it  of  late  years  express  their  disapproval. 

EXTINCT  ELEPHANTS 

In  addition  to  the  mammoth,  there  are  a  number  of  other  extinct  elephants 
more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  living  species,  together  with  others  of  a  totally  dif- 
ferent type.  The  whole  of  these  are  confined  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Africa; 
the  only  American  species  being  the  Columbian  elephant  alluded  to  above. 


1 142  THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

The  earliest  of  the  species  allied  to  the  living  Indian  one  is  the 
Sutledje  gutledje  elephant    (E.   hysudricus}   from   the    Pliocene  rocks   of   the 

'  Siwalik  hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas.  This  species  had  the  plates 
of  the  molar  teeth  very  thin,  but  less  tall  and  less  numerous  than  in  the  Indian  ele- 
phant. Its  skull  resembled  that  of  the  latter;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  in  this 
species  we  may  have  the  ancestor  of  both  the  Indian  elephant  and  the  mammoth. 

The  Pleistocene  deposits  of  the  Narbada  valley  in  India  yield  the  re- 

L    mains  of  a  very  large  elephant  (E.  namadicus),  which  takes  its  name 

from  the  locality  in  question.     In  the  structure  of  its  molar  teeth,  one 

of  which  is  represented  on  p.  1117,  this  species  connects  the  Indian  elephant  with  the 

one  following.     It  is  characterized  by  its  very  short  skull,  which  has  an  enormous 

ridge  running  transversely  across  the  forehead,  and  some  of  the  bones  of  this  species 

appear  to  indicate  animals  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  feet  in  height,  since  they  are 

vastly  longer  than  those  of  the  Calcutta  skeleton  of  the  Indian  elephant  mentioned 

on  p.  1118.     This  species  ranged  eastward  into  Japan. 

The   straight-tusked  elephant  (E.   antiguus)  from  the  Pleistocene 

deposits  of  Europe,  differs  from  the  mammoth   by  its    smaller  and 
Tusked 
Elephant    comparatively-straight  tusks,  and  the  fewer  and  wider  plates  in  the  molar 

teeth,  of  which  the  crowns  are  generally  narrow.  Indeed,  some  of 
these  teeth  come  so  close  to  those  of  the  African  elephant  as  to  indicate  the  near 
relationship  between  that  species  and  the  fossil  one.  The  straight-tusked  elephant 
ranged  from  Yorkshire  to  Algeria. 

We  are  so  accustomed  to  regard  elephants  as  the  giants  of  creation, 
Pysftny 

Ele  hant    ^at  ^  *s  at  ^rst  Difficult  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  species  not 

exceeding  three  feet  in  height.  Yet  pygmy  elephants  (E.  mnaidrien- 
sis  and  E.  melitensis) ,  of  which  the  smallest  is  considered  to  have  reached  only  those 
diminutive  proportions,  were  abundant  in  Malta  and  some  of  the  neighboring 
islands  during  the  Pleistocene  period,  their  remains  occurring  in  the  caverns  and 
the  rock  fissures.  These  elephants,  many  of  which  were  not  larger  than  a  donkey, 
appear  to  have  been  closely  related  to  the  living  African  species,  and  were  doubt- 
less dwarfed  in  size  from  the  small  area  of  the  islands  they  inhabited. 
g  .  The  southern  elephant  (E.  meridionalis}  from  the  upper  Pliocene 

Elephant    roc^s  °f  Italy  and  France,  and  also  found  in  the  forest  bed  on  the  coast 

of  Norfolk,  and  at  Dewlish  in  Dorsetshire,  was  the  largest  of  all  the 
European  species,  its  height  at  the  shoulder  having  been  estimated  at  upward  of 
fifteen  feet.  The  molar  teeth  of  this  giant  have  very  wide  crowns,  with  the  plates 
very  broad  and  widely  separated  from  one  another,  and  somewhat  less  numerous 
than  in  the  African  species.  The  flat-headed  elephant  (E.  planifrons]  from  the 
Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  hills,  was  an  allied  Indian  species,  distinguished 
from  all  the  other  true  elephants  by  the  circumstance  that  two  of  the  milk-molar 
teeth  were  vertically  replaced  by  premolars;  this  elephant  thus  having  eight  more 
teeth  than  any  other  species,  and  thereby  showing  evident  traces  of  closer  kinship 
with  the  mastodons. 

The  so-called  stegodont  elephants  (so  named  from  the  roof-like  form  assumed  by 
the  ridges  of  their  molar  teeth)  of  India  and  other  parts  of  Southeastern  Asia,  form 


THE   MASTODONS  1143 

an  exceedingly  interesting  group,  which  almost  completely  connects  the  true  ele- 
phants with  the  under-mentioned  mastodons.     A  molar  tooth  of  one  of  the  species  of 
this  group  is  represented  on  p.  1115;  this  tooth,  as  already  mentioned, 

being  characterized  by  the  small  number  of  its  ridges  (in  this  instance 
Elephants 

six),  which   are  very   low   and  wide,  with   the  shallow  intervening 

valleys  devoid  of  cement.  In  other  species  of  the  group  the  ridges  were,  however, 
somewhat  more  numerous  and  more  elevated,  while  the  valleys  were  partially  rilled 
with  cement;  and  these  serve  to  connect  the  figured  Cliffs  elephant  with  species 
like  the  southern  elephant.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  tooth  of  Cliffs  elephant, 
represented  on  p.  1115,  agrees  with  existing  species  in  having  the  transverse  ridges 
undivided  by  any  distinct  longitudinal  cleft.  One  of  the  stegodont  elephants  (E. 
ganesa)  is  remarkable  for  the  enormous  size  of  its  tusks,  those  in  a  skull  from  the 
Siwalik  hills,  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  measuring  upward  of  twelve  feet 
nine  inches  in  length,  with  a  maximum  girth  of  twenty-six  inches.  Representa- 
tives of  this  group  also  occur  in  China,  Japan,  and  Java. 


THE  MASTODONS 
Genus  Mastodon 

The  above-mentioned  stegodont  elephants  so  closely  connect  the  genus  Elephas 
with  the  extinct  animals  known  as  the  mastodons,  that  the  division  between  the 
two  genera  is  a  somewhat  arbitrary  one.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  species  of  mas- 
todons most  nearly  related  to  the  stegodont  elephants  are  found  in  the  same  regions 
as  the  latter,  from  which  me  may  infer  that  the  evolution  of  the  elephants  from  the 
mastodons  took  place  in  Southeastern  Asia. 

Mastodons  are  distinguished  by  their  molar  teeth,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  the 
next  page  and  the  one  on  p.  1145,  having  comparatively-few  transverse  ridges,  which 
are  low,  and  more  or  less  completely  divided  by  a  longitudinal  cleft  into  inner  and 
outer  columns.  These  ridges  are  separated  by  valleys  in  which  there  is  little  or  no 
cement;  and  when  worn  down  by  use  they  exhibit  more  or  less  trefoil-shaped  sur- 
faces of  ivory,  quite  different  from  the  elongated  ellipses  formed  in  those  of  the  true 
elephants.  In  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  molar  teeth  of  the  stegodont  elephants, 
the  number  of  transverse  ridges  is  usually  more  than  six,  but  in  the  mastodons  it  is 
generally  either  four  (as  shown  in  the  cut  on  p.  1 144)  or  three,  although  occasionally 
there  may  be  as  many  as  five.  Moreover,  the  sixth  or  last  molar  generally  has  only 
four  or  five  such  ridges,  in  place  of  from  nine  to  eleven  found  in  the  stegodont  ele- 
phants. In  all  these  respects  the  mastodons  exhibit  a  less  specialized  type  of  struc- 
ture than  that  existing  in  the  elephants,  and  thereby  approximate  to  ordinary 
Ungulates.  This  simpler  dental  structure  is  further  evidenced  by  the  circumstance 
that  portions  of  three  molar  teeth  may  be  in  use  at  the  same  time,  whereas  in  ele- 
phants only  two  such  teeth  are  ever  present  contemporaneously  on  one  side  of  the 
jaw.  Then,  again,  nearly  all  the  mastodons  had  premolar  teeth  vertically  replacing 
their  milk-molars,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  other  Ungulates. 


1 144  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Another  peculiarity  of  some,  although  by  no  means  all  mastodons,  is  the  presence 
of  a  pair  of  larger  or  smaller  tusks  in  the  lower  as  well  as  in  the  upper  jaw;  the  ex 
tremity  of  the  lower  jaw  in  such  species  being  prolonged  into  a  spout-like  projection 

'    There  are  a  larger  number  of  species  of  mastodons,  ranging  over  a  great  part 
Europe  Southeastern  Asia,  and  the  whole  of  America;    the  earliest  representatives 
of  the  group  occurring  in  Europe  in  the  middle  division  of  the  Miocene  period.  _  And 
it  is  noteworthy  that  all  these  earlier  species  had  but  three  transverse  ridges  m  t. 
third  fourth  and  fifth  molar  teeth,  thus  approximating  the  closest  to  other  Ungul 


THE  LAST  LEFT  UPPER  MOLAR  TEETH   OF  TWO  SPECIES  OF  INDIAN   MASTODONS. 

The  upper  figure  (two-thirds  natural  size)  belongs  to  M.  latidens,  and  the  lower  (one-half 
natural  size)  to  M.  cautleyi.  In  the  specimen  represented  in  the  upper  figure  the 
first  two  ridges  are  partially  worn,  while  in  the  lower  one  they  are  intact. 

One  of  the  best-known  species  is  the  North- American  mastodon  (Mastodon 
americanus) ,  of  which  teeth  and  bones,  and  sometimes  entire  skeletons,  are  found  in 
enormous  quantities  in  the  peat  and  lacustrine  deposits  of  Ohio  and  Missouri.  This 
animal  had  enormous  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  either  none  or  mere  rudiments  in 
the  lower  jaw;  and  its  molar  teeth,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  had  only  three 
ridges,  in  which  the  longitudinal  cleft  was  but  slightly  marked.  Some  of  the  teeth 
are  so  fresh  looking  as  to  appear  almost  like  those  of  recent  elephants,  and  it  seems 


THE  MASTODONS 


s  1145 

In  height  the  skeleton 


that  this  mastodon  lived  on  till  within  the  human  period, 
stood  about  twelve  feet  at  the  shoulder. 

In  the  Old  World,  mastodons  disappeared  at  an  earlier  date,  none  being  known 
to  have  survived  the  close  of  the  Pliocene  period.  Remains  of  several  species  occur 
in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  Continent,  while  detached  teeth  are  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  shelly  deposits  on  the  coast  of  Essex,  Suffolk,  and  Norfolk, 
locally  known  as  crags.  In  Northern  India  there  were  an  extraordinary  number  of 


TWO  SPECIMENS    OF    MOLAR    TEETH    OF    INDIAN    MASTODONS. 

(Natural   size.) 

(Both  teeth  are  unworn;  and  while  the  upper  belongs  to  M.  cautleyi,  the  lower 
belongs  to  M.  perimensis. ) 

species  of  these  animals;  and  among  these  the  broad-toothed  mastodon  (M.  latidens), 
ranging  from  India  through  Burma  to  Borneo,  is  the  one  approaching  most  closely 
to  the  elephants.  In  some  of  these  Indian  mastodons,  as  in  one  of  those  from  the 
English  crags,  the  inner  and  outer  columns  of  the  ridges  of  the  molar  teeth  are  com- 
pletely separated  from  one  another,  and  are  arranged  somewhat  alternately;  and 
from  the  nipple-like  form  assumed  by  these  columns  in  the  species  in  question,  the 
generic  name  of  Mastodon  takes  its  origin. 


ii46  THE    UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

THE  DINOTHERE 
Family    DlNOTHERIID^ 

A  remarkable  animal  known  as  the  dinothere  (Dinotherium  giganteum),  the 
remains  of  which  are  found  in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  rocks  of  Europe  and  India, 
presents  us  with  the  most  generalized  type  of  Proboscidian  yet  known.  In  this 
animal,  which  must  have  been  fully  as  large  as  an  elephant,  there  appears  to  have 
been  no  upper  tusks,  but  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  was  sharply  bent  down, 
and  terminated  in  a  pair  of  very  massive  and  somewhat  curved  tusks.  As  in  the 
elephants  and  mastodons,  there  were  no  canine  teeth,  and  the  cheek-teeth  carried 
transverse  ridges.  The  whole  of  the  permanent  series  of  cheek-teeth  were,  how- 
ever, in  use  at  the  same  time,  as  in  ordinary  Ungulates,  and  their  ridges  were  low 
and  simple,  and  either  two  or  three  in  number.  Very  little  else  is  known  of  the 
skeleton  of  this  strange  animal,  and  there  have  been  many  conjectures  as  to  the  use 
of  the  downwardly-curved  lower  tusks.  Possibly  the  creature  may  have  been  more 
or  less  aquatic  in  its  habits,  and  have  used  these  weapons  to  drag  up  water  plants 
from  the  beds  and  banks  of  lakes  or  rivers.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  equally  well 
have  been  purely  terrestrial,  and  have  used  its  tusks,  after  the  manner  of  the  African 
elephant,  in  turning  up  the  soil  in  search  of  roots  and  tubers. 

With  this  animal,  an  illustration  of  whose  skull  is  given  on  p.  1147,  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  Proboscidians  and  their  ancestors  comes  to  an  abrupt  termination. 

THE  SHORT-FOOTED  UNGULATES 

SUBORDER  Amblypoda 

There  are  several  extinct  groups  of  Ungulates  differing  so  markedly  from  the 
living  forms  that  they  cannot  be  included  in  any  of  the  groups  into  which  the  lat- 
ter are  divided,  and  consequently  have  to  be  classed  in  groups  by  themselves. 

The  name  of  short-footed  Ungulates  is  applied  to  one  of  these  groups  which  is 
confined  to  the  Eocene  division  of  the  Tertiary  period,  and  is  more  developed  in 
the  United  States  than  in  Europe.  It  is  represented  in  both  continents  by  the 
coryphodons  of  the  lower  and  middle  Eocene  beds,  and  in  America  by  the  uintatheres 
of  the  upper  Eocene.  In  these  animals  the  feet,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  742, 
were  very  short,  and  were  each  provided  with  five  toes,  the  mode  of  walking  being 
partly  plantigrade.  The  molar  teeth  were  of  the  type  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  the 
next  page,  having  short  crowns  and  the  ridges  arranged  in  a  V-shape  in  those  of 
the  upper  jaw.  The  two  bones  in  the  fore-arm,  as  well  as  those  in  the  lower  leg, 
were  quite  distinct  from  one  another. 

The  coryphodons  were  animals  which  may  be  compared  in  size  to  a  bear,  and 
possessed  the  full  typical  number  of  forty-four  teeth,  with  the  tusks  (canines)  well 
leveloped.  They  had  no  horn-like  processes  to  the  skull.  In  the  fore-feet  (see  p. 
742)  only  the  terminal  bones  of  the  toes  touched  the  ground,  but  in  the  hind 
ones  the  whole  sole  was  applied  to  the  ground,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  a  bear. 


THE    SHORT-FOOTED    UNGULATES 


1147 


The  American  uintatheres,  on  the  other  hand,  were  much  larger  animals,  rival- 
ing the  Indian  rhinoceros  in  bulk.  Their  skulls  were  provided  with  three  pairs  of 
bony  processes,  which  during  life 
were  probably  covered  with  horn; 
and  the  upper  tusks  were  developed 
into  enormous  sabre-like  teeth,  pro- 
tected by  a  descending  flange  on 
each  side  of  the  front  of  the  lower 
jaw.  There  were  no  incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  first  pre- 
molar  tooth  was  wanting  in  both 
jaws,  the  total  number  of  teeth  be- 
ing thirty-four.  Both  feet  resembled 
the  fore-feet  of  the  coryphodons  in 
general  structure,  and  the  bones  of 
the  limbs  approximated  to  those  of 
the  elephants.  The  brain  was  mar- 
velously  small  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  skull  and  body,  indicat- 
ing that  these  animals  must  have 
been  of  a  stupid  and  sluggish  na- 
ture. The  uintatheres  are  evidently 
a  specialized  development  of  the 
coryphodon  stock,  which  died  out 
with  the  appearance  of  the  former. 

Professor  Cope,  who  considered  that  the  hind-feet  of  the  coryphodon  were  of 
the  same  type  as  the  front  pair,  remarks  that  the  movements  of  this  animal  "doubt- 
less resembled  those  of  the  elephant  in  its  shuffling  and  ambling  gait,  and  may  have 
been  even  more  awkward  from  the  inflexibility  of  the  ankle.  But  in  compensation 


SKUU,   OF   DINOTHERE. 
(Greatly  reduced.) 


THE    LEFT   UPPER   CHEEK-TEETH    OF    THE   UINTATHERE. 

(Three-fourths   natural   size.) 

(From  Marsh.) 

for  the  probable  lack  of  speed,  these  animals  were  most  formidably  armed  with  tusks. 
These  weapons,  particularly  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  were  more  formidable  than 
those  of  the  Carnivora,  and  generally  more  robust."  In  length,  one  of  the  Ameri- 
can species  was  probably  about  six  feet. 


!i48  THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 

Although  the  uintatheres  have  only  been  known  to  science  for  rather  more 
than  twenty  years,  their  skulls  and  bones  long  ago  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
wandering  Indians,  and  such  squatters  and  trappers  whose  business  led  them  into 
the  district  known  as  the  "Bad  Lands."  On  returning  to  civilization,  these  pio- 
neers brought  news  of  the  skeletons  of  marvelous  monsters  staring  at  them  from  the 
rock-bound  canons;  and  at  length  these  attracted  the  attention  of  the  late  Professor 
Leidy,  to  whom  belongs  the  honor  of  having  made  known  these  strange  creatures  to 
a  wondering  world.  Describing  the  region  where  these  remains  occur,  Professor 
Marsh  writes  that  bare,  treeless  wastes  of  naked  stone  rise  here  and  there  into  ter- 
raced ledges  and  strange  tower-like  prominences,  or  sink  into  hollows  where  the 
water  gathers  in  salt  or  bitter  pools.  Under  the  cloudless  sky,  and  in  the  clear,  dry 
atmosphere,  the  extraordinary  coloring  of  the  rocks  form,  perhaps,  the  most  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  weird  landscape. 

THE  MACRAUCHENIA  AND  ITS  ALLIES 
SUBORDER   Litopterna 

South  America  was  the  home  of  numerous  extinct  Ungulates,  quite  unlike  those 
found  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  and  which,  while  allied  in  some  respects  to 
the  Old-Toed  group,  appear  to  represent  three  distinct  suborders.  Among  these, 
not  the  least  remarkable  was  the  so-called  Macrauchenia,  the  typical  representative 
of  the  suborder  L/itopterna.  The  members  of  this  group  are  characterized  by  having 
cheek-teeth  approximating  in  structure  to  those  of  the  European  palseotheres 
(p.  1104),  the  upper  molars  having  their  outer  wall  divided  into  two  distinct  lobes. 
Although  the  long  toes  were  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Odd-Toed  group 
of  Ungulates,  and  were  never  more  than  three  in  number,  the  structure  of  both  the 
wrist  and  ankle  joints  were  different.  Thus,  in  place  of  the  component  bones  of 
these  joints  alternating  with  one  another,  they  were  arranged  directly  one  above 
another,  after  the  so-called  linear  type  characterizing  the  modern  elephants  (see  p. 
1117).  The  huckle  bone,  or  astragalus,  of  the  ankle  resembles  that  of  the  Odd-Toed 
group  in  being  grooved  superiorly;  but  the  heel  bone,  or  calcaneum,  differed  in  hav- 
ing a  small  surface  for  the  articulation  of  the  fibula,  or  smaller  bone  of  the  leg,  as  in 
the  Even-Toed  group.  The  long  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  although  showing  the  same 
flat  terminal  ends  characterizing  the  allied  extinct  South-American  groups,  are 
peculiar  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  canal  for  the  great  artery  of  the  neck,  and 
in  this  respect  agree  with  the  camels  and  llamas  alone  among  living  Ungulates. 
The  thigh  bone,  or  femur,  has  a  small  third  trochanter  representing  the  larger  one 
characteristic  of  the  Odd-Toed  group.  In  build,  the  members  of  the  present  group 
were  tall,  slender  Ungulates,  with  long  legs,  feet  and  neck;  and  thus  very  different 
in  appearance  from  the  under-mentioned  toxodonts,  which  were  short-limbed,  short- 
necked,  and  heavily-built  creatures. 

The  Litopterna  are  divisible  into  two  families,  of  which  the  first  (Macrau- 
cheniida)  is  represented  by  the  macrauchenia  and  certain  allied  forms,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  the  presence  of  forty-four  teeth,  forming  an  uninterrupted  series  in  the 


THE  ASTRAPOTHERES  AND    THEIR  KIN 


1149 


jaws.  Macrauchenia  itself,  which  was  discovered  by  Darwin  in  the  superficial  deposits 
of  Patagonia,  was  an  animal  somewhat  larger  than  a  horse,  presenting  the  remarkable 
peculiarity  of  having  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils  in  the  skull  situated  in  the  middle 
of  the  forehead;  although  during  life  it  is  probable  that  they  terminated  in  a  short 
trunk.  In  the  lower,  or  Miocene  Tertiaries  of  Patagonia  the  family  was  represented 
by  smaller  and  less  specialized  forms  (such  as  Oxyodontotherium] ,  in  which  the  nos- 
trils were  more  normal  in  position,  and  the  crowns  of  the  molar  teeth  lower  and  simpler. 
In  the  second  family,  or  Proterotheriidce ',  represented  principally  in  the  lower 
Patagonian  Tertiary  deposits,  the  teeth  were  reduced  in  number,  and  formed  an  unin- 
terrupted series,  a  pair  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  being  much  longer  than  the 
rest.  In  these  proterotheres  the  molar  teeth  had  a  considerable  resemblance  to  those 
of  the  palseotheres;  but  the  feet  were  of  the  general  type  of  those  of  the  three-toed 
horses,  or  hipparions,  and  in  some  cases  it  appears  that  only  the  middle  toe  was 
functionally  developed. 

THE  ASTRAPOTHERES  AND  THEIR  KIN 
SUBORDER  Astrapotheria 

In  this  second  South-American  group,  represented  only  in  the  Miocene  deposits 
of  Patagonia,  all  the  species 
are  of  large  size,  and  possess 
rooted  cheek-teeth  of  a  rhi- 
nocerotic  type,  and  lacking 
the  marked  curvature  of  the 
crown  characterizing  those  of 
the  toxodonts.  The  verte- 
brae of  the  neck  are  com- 
paratively short,  with  flat- 
tened articular  surfaces,  and 
the  lateral  canal  piercing  the 
transverse  process  in  the 
ordinary  manner.  The  wrist 
and  ankle  joints  were  prob- 
ably of  the  linear  type;  the 
calcaneum  articulated  largely 
with  the  fibula;  and  the 
astragalus  was  quite  flat,  and 
furnished  with  a  large  head 
for  articulation  with  the 
navicular  bone.  The  femur, 
when  known,  had  a  large 
third  trochanter. 

In  both  families  the  up- 
per cheek-teeth  were  of  a 
rhinocerotic  type  of  structure,  having  a  continuous  external  wall  undivided  into 


PALATE    OF    THE    HOMALODONTOTHERE,    WANTING 

SOME    OF    THE    FRONT    TEETH. 

(Much  reduced.) 


1150 


THE  UNGULATES,  OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


lobes.  The  group  is  widely  distinguished  from  the  Amblypoda  by  the  structure  of 
the  cheek-teeth,  and  not  improbably  by  the  number  of  digits  having  been  three  in 
place  of  five.  It  is,  however,  decidedly  the  most  generalized  of  the  three  South- 
American  extinct  suborders,  as  is  specially  shown  by  the  flattened  astragalus.  The 
remarkable  similarity  of  the  molars  of  Astrapotherium  to  those  of  rhinoceroses  must 
probably  be  considered  as  largely  due  to  parallelism,  since  the  structure  of  the  ankle 
in  the  allied  Homalodontotherium  indicates  that  the  group  diverged  from  the  common 
ancestor  before  the  modern  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  had  required  their  characteristic 
foot  structure. 

In  the  homalodontothere,  representing  the  first  family,  the  teeth,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration  on  p.  1149,  comprise  the  full  number  of  z'f,  c\,  p\,  raf,  and  have 
no  gap;  the  canines  being  rooted,  and  of  relatively-small  size,  and  the  molars  with 
comparatively-short  crowns.  The  upper  premolars  are  nearly  as  complex  as  the 


I.OWER   JAW  OF    THE    ASTRAPOTHERE. 

(Much  reduced.) 

molars;  and  the  third  upper  molar  is  not  very  markedly  different  from  the  two 
preceding  teeth.  The  lower  molars  are  in  the  form  of  double  crescents,  of  which 
the  anterior  develops  a  loop  like  that  found  in  the  horses.  It  is  stated  that  the  toes 
terminated  in  claws.  The  one  known  species  of  the  genus  was  an  animal  of  the 
approximate  size  of  the  Sumatran  rhinoceros. 

The  gigantic  astrapothere,  which  alone  represents  the  second  family,  differs 
from  the  last  genus  by  the  more  specialized  and  reduced  dentition,  the  enlarged 
teeth  of  each  jaw  taking  the  form  of  permanently-growing  tusks,  which  are  worn  in 
nearly  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  pigs.  The  molars  are  more  distinctly  rhi- 
nocerotic  in  structure,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  having  taller  crowns  than  those  of  the 
homalodontothere,  with  a  large  posterior  valley,  and  a  well-developed  projection  in 
the  middle  valley.  The  last  of  the  series  has  the  same  triangular  form  as  in  the 
majority  of  species  of  rhinoceroses;  while  the  premolars  are  simpler  than  the  molars. 


THE    TOXODONTS  1151 

In  the  lower  jaw  the  molars  form  nearly  simple  crescents,  very  similar  to  those  of 
rhinoceroses,  but  the  last  crescent  of  the  third  of  the  series  is  more  elongated. 

The  dentition  may  apparently  be  represented  by  the  formula,  i\,  c\,  p\,  m\\ 
the  premolars  being  separated  from  the  incisors  or  canines  by  a  long  gap. 

The  front  of  the  apex  of  the  upper  tusk  is  worn  to  an  oblique  facet  by  the 
attrition  of  the  lower  canine.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  tusk  is  considerably  smaller 
than  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  is  still  triangular  in  section,  although  with  the  sharp  edge 
in  front.  The  inner  surface  is  concave  anteriorly  and  convex  posteriorly;  while  the 
outer  one  is  wholly  convex,  and  passes  imperceptibly  into  the  small  hinder  surface. 
The  extremity  of  the  latter  is  worn  into  a  long  oblique  facet,  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  corresponding  tooth  of  a  peccary.  The  six  lower  incisors  are  inclined  for- 
ward, and  arranged  in  a  circle  so  as  to  fill  up  the  interval  between  the  tusks.  Their 
crowns,  which  vary  in  shape  in  the  two  species  of  the  genus,  are  short  and  spatu- 
late,  with  the  upper  surface  slightly  concave,  and  the  lower  one  convex;  a  deep, 
longitudinal  groove  traversing  the  middle  of  each  of  these  two  surfaces,  and  uniting 
in  a  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  unworn  crown.  The  lower  cheek-teeth  call  for  no 
special  remark,  as  they  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  rhinoceroses.  In  the  lower 
jaw,  the  tusks  certainly  correspond  to  the  canines;  and  it  would  appear  at  first  sight 
that  the  same  would  hold  good  with  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  but  from  the  analogy 
of  the  proterothere  it  is  more  probable  that  the  latter  really  belong  to  the  incisor 
series. 

THE  TOXODONTS 
SUBORDER  Toxodontia 

The  toxodonts  may  be  defined  as  a  group  of  more  or  less  aberrant  Ungulates 
with  tall-crowned  and  curved  cheek-teeth,  some  or  all  of  which  grow  from  persistent 
pulps,  either  permanently  or  during  life;  while  at  least  one  pair  of  incisors  in  each 
jaw  are  rootless,  and  the  third  upper  incisor,  when  present,  is  placed  in  the  line  of 
the  cheek-teeth.  The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  short,  with  flattened,  articular  faces 
to  the  bodies,  and  the  vertebral  artery  piercing  the  transverse  process  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  The  wrist  (when  known)  is  of  the  alternating  type,  while  the  ankle  joint 
is  formed  on  the  linear  plan.  The  astragalus  is  slightly  grooved  on  its  superior 
face,  and  inferiorly  is  like  that  of  the  Odd-Toed  group,  having  no  head  for  the  navic- 
ular;  but  the  calcaneum,  which  is  truncated  inferiorly,  has  a  large  articular  surface 
for  the  fibula,  as  in  the  Even-Toed  section.  The  number  of  toes  varies  from  five  to 
three;  the  middle  one  being  larger  than  either  of  the  others,  and  symmetrical  in 
itself.  The  femur  may  or  may  not  have  a  third  trochanter.  The  number  of  trunk 
vertebras  in  the  typical  genus  is  twenty,  or  intermediate  between  that  of  the  Even 
and  Odd-Toed  groups.  In  form  the  cheek-teeth  of  the  less  specialized  forms  ap- 
proximate to  the  Odd-Toed  plan  of  structure;  and  in  all  the  genera  the  enamel  is 
most  developed  on,  or  even  confined  to,  the  outer  sides  of  the  cheek-teeth,  although 
there  may  be  vertical  bands  on  some  of  the  other  surfaces.  More  specialized  in  the 
structure  of  the  feet  and  teeth  than  the  last  group,  phylogenetically  the  toxodonts 
may  apparently  be  regarded  as  related  to  the  Odd-Toed  Ungulates,  but  as  retaining 


1 1 52  THE   UNGULATES,    OR  HOOFED  MAMMALS 


o 


THE    TOXODONTS 


"53 


certain  features  now  common  to  the  Even-Toed  group,  which  have  probably  been 
inherited  from  common  ancestors. 

While,  as  aforesaid,  the  more  generalized  members  of  the  suborder  ap- 
proximate in  the  structure  of  their  teeth  and  feet  to  the  Odd-Toed  group,  the 
specialized  forms  assume  a  more  or  less  Rodent-like  type  of  dentition  and  limb 
structure,  which  must  probably  be  regarded  as  an  instance  of  parallelism.  It 
may  be  added  that,  from  the  retention  of  clavicles,  these  Rodent-like  types  must 
be  derived  from  some  form  less  specialized  than  the  toxodon,  in  which  those  bones 
have  disappeared. 

The  toxodon  was  of  the  size  of  a  large  rhinoceros,  and  characterized  by  the 
long  and  curved  crowns  of  its  molar  teeth,  which  continued  to  grow  throughout  life. 
There  were  only  two  pairs  of  incisor 
teeth  and  no.  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw, 
although  in  the  lower  jaw  the  full 
number  of  these  teeth  were  developed. 
The  feet  were  furnished  with  three  toes. 

This  genus  occurs  in  the  superfi- 
cial deposits  of  Argentine,  but  is  re- 
placed in  the  Miocene  Tertiaries  of 
Patagonia  by  certain  allied  forms 
known  as  nesodons,  which  may  be 
briefly  defined  as  including  toxodonts 
of  medium  or  small  size,  in  which  the 
limbs,  and  probably  also  the  neck, 
were  relatively  longer  and  more  slen- 
der than  in  the  typical  genus;  while 
all  the  teeth,  with  the  exception  of 
the  second  upper  and  third  lower  in- 
cisors, developed  roots  in  the  adult 
state,  and  the  upper  molars  were  of 
a  type  approaching  that  of  the  Odd- 
Toed  group,  with  a  distinct  posterior 
valley,  and  the  middle  column  form- 
ing a  distinct  lobe  projecting  into  the 
median  valley.  The  second  upper 
and  the  third  lower  incisors  formed 
a  pair  of  permanently-growing  tusks, 
which  were,  however,  not  fully  de- 
veloped till  late  in  life. 

Even  more  strange  than  the  toxodon  was  the  smaller  typothere  of  the  same 
region,  which  represents  a  remarkable  approximation  in  the  characteristics  of  its 
skull  and  teeth  to  the  Rodents.  While  the  molars  were  not  unlike  those  of  the 
toxodon,  the  upper  incisors  were  reduced  to  a  single  chisel-shaped  pair,  and  there 
were  no  tusks  in  either  jaw.  The  lower  jaw  carried  one  large  pair  of  chisel-like 
incisor  teeth,  behind  which  there  came  a  much  smaller  second  pair.  The  typothere 
73 


UNDER  SURFACE  OF  SKULI.  OF  THE   NESODON. 
(One-fourth  natural  size.) 


•1154 

differed  from  all  living  Ungulates,  and  thereby  again  resembled  Rodents,  in  having 
collar  bones  (clavicles). 

Finally,  certain  animals  from  the  Eocene  of  North  America,  known  as  tillodonts, 
seem  to  combine  the  characteristics  of  the  modern  Ungulates,  Carnivores,  and 
Rodents,  and  thus  almost  defy  classification. 

The  occurrence  of  all  these  remarkable  Ungulates,  so  utterly  different  from 
those  of  all  other  parts  of  the  world,  indicates  that  during  the  Miocene  period 
South  America,  with  its  many  peculiar  types  of  Edentates,  must  have  been  com- 
pletely cut  off  from  the  northern  half  of  the  continent.  During  the  later  Pleistocene 
period,  the  two  areas  must,  however,  have  become  connected,  since  at  that  epoch 
we  first  meet  with  horses,  deer,  llamas,  and  other  northern  types  in  South  America; 
while  some  southern  forms  obtained  an  entrance  into  North  America. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
MANATEES  AND  DUGONGS— ORDER  SIRENIA 

THE  purely  aquatic  Mammals  known  as  manatees  and  dugongs,  together  with 
the  northern  sea-cow,  which  has  become  extinct  within  the  last  century  and  a  half, 
constitute  an  order  by  themselves,  and  may  be  collectively  known  as  Sirenians. 
Although  they  are  as  well  fitted  for  an  aquatic  life  as  the  Cetaceans,  these  animals 
have  no  sort  of  relationship  with  the  members  of  that  order,  and  have  evidently 
been  derived  quite  independently  from  terrestrial  Mammals.  Such  resemblances  as 
do  exist  between  Sirenians  and  Cetaceans  are  entirely  of  an  adaptive  nature,  and 
have  been  produced  merely  by  the  two  groups  of  animals  leading  a  somewrhat  simi- 
lar mode  of  life. 

Although  the  existing  Sirenians  resemble  the  Cetaceans  in  having 
cs  their  fore-limbs  converted  into  flippers,  and  having  lost  all  traces  of 
the  hind-limbs,  while  the  tail  is  converted  into  a  horizontally-expanded  rudder-like 
organ,  comparable  to  the  flukes  of  the  whales  and  dolphins,  their  general  conforma- 
tion is  very  different.  In  the  first  place,  although  the  body  is  somewhat  Cetacean- 
like,  without  any  well-defined  neck  and  with  no  distinction  between  the  trunk  and 
tail,  it  is  markedly  depressed,  instead  of  being  more  or  less  compressed  from  side  to 
side.  Then  again,  the  head  departs  but  little  from  the  ordinary  Mammalian  type, 
being  comparatively  small  in  proportion  to  the  body,  with  the  summit  rounded,  and 
the  nostrils,  which  are  double  and  capable  of  being  closed  at  will  by  valve-like  flaps, 
placed  above  the  extremity  of  the  abruptly-truncated  muzzle.  The  back  fin,  so 
commonly  present  in  the  Cetaceans,  is  totally  wanting.  In  the  flippers,  although 
the  whole  of  the  toes  are  inclosed  in  a  paddle-shaped  mass  of  integument,  traces  of 
nails  are  still  in  some  cases  retained.  The  eyes  are  small,  with  imperfectly- 
developed  lids,  and  the  minute  aperture  of  the  ear  is  unprovided  with  any  external 
conch.  The  mouth  is  small,  with  thick,  fleshy  lips,  upon  which  grow  a  number  of 
bristly  hairs,  which  persist  throughout  life.  The  skin  is  thick,  and  either  finely 
wrinkled  or  rugged  and  bark-like,  sometimes  with  fine  hairs  thinly  distributed  upon 
it.  The  female  has  a  single  pair  of  teats  placed  on  the  breast.  The  teeth  are  very 
variable,  being  totally  wanting  in  the  northern  sea-cow,  while  in  the  other  two  liv- 
ing genera  they  consist  of  incisors  and  cheek-teeth.  The  structure  of  the  cheek- 
teeth is,  however,  very  different  in  the  two  latter,  and  in  one  of  them  their  number 
is  much  greater  than  among  less  aberrant  Mammals.  The  living  forms  have  been 
recently  discovered  to  possess  rudimental  milk-teeth,  and  in  some  extinct  species 
such  teeth  were  well  developed.  Certain  extinct  members  of  the  order  were,  more- 
over, furnished  with  a  complete  set  of  teeth,  comparable  to  those  of  ordinary  Mam- 
mals. All  the  recent  forms  have  horny  plates  on  the  palate  and  on  the  opposing 
surface  of  the  lower  jaw. 

("55) 


II56  MANATEES  AND    DUGONGS 

In  the  skeleton,  the  bones  are  distinguished  by  their  solid  and  dense  structure; 
this  being  especially  noticeable  in  those  of  the  skull  and  in  the  ribs.  The  skull  is 
depressed  and  has  a  more  or  less  distinctly  deflected  beak-like  snout,  much  flat- 
tened from  side  to  side.  It  is  further  characterized  by  the  very  large  size  of  the 
aperture  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  which  is  somewhat  pear-shaped,  and  placed  rela- 
tively further  back  than  usual.  In  the  living  forms  the  nasal  bones  were  either 
rudimentary  or  totally  absent;  but  in  some  of  the  fossil  species  they  were  better  de- 
veloped, and  partially  roofed  over  the  nasal  cavity  in  the  ordinary  manner.  This 
abortion  of  the  nasal  bones  in  both  the  Sirenians  and  Cetaceans  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  necessity  for  a  large  nasal  aperture  in  the  skull,  owing  to  the  peculiarities  in 
the  respiration  of  these  animals.  The  vertebrse  are  peculiar  in  that  during  the 

young  state  they  do 
not  show  separate 
plate-like  ossifications 
XL  each  end  of  their 
bodies,  like  those  de- 
veloped in  other  Mam- 
mals. Rudiments 
of  these  so-called  epiph- 
SKEUSTON  OF  MANATEE.  yscs  have,  however, 

been  shown  to  exist  in 

the  extremely  young  state;  and  they  were  more  fully  developed  in  certain  extinct 
forms.  As  in  Cetaceans,  none  of  the  vertebrse  in  the  hinder  region  of  the  trunk 
unite  to  form  a  sacrum;  and  it  is  evident  that  a  solid  immovable  structure  in  this 
part  of  the  backbone  would  be  not  only  a  serious  disadvantage  to  a  swimming  ani- 
mal, but  likewise  of  no  possible  use  to  one  which  has  no  hind-limbs  to  support. 
Sirenians  resemble  Ungulates  in  having  no  collar  bones.  In  the  fore-limb  the  upper 
bone,  or  humerous,  is  of  considerable  length,  and  differs  from  that  of  the  Cetaceans 
in  having  distinct  pulley-like  surfaces  at  its  lower  end  for  the  articulation  of  the 
bones  of  the  fore-arm  (radius  and  ulna),  thus  permitting  of  a  certain  amount  of  free 
motion  at  the  elbow  joint.  The  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm  are,  however,  generally 
united  at  the  lower  end.  The  number  of  the  digits  is  five,  and  none  of  these  con- 
tain more  than  the  ordinary  number  of  three  joints,  in  addition  to  the  metacarpus. 
None  of  the  recent  Sirenians  show  any  trace  of  the  hind-limb,  although  the  pelvis 
is  represented  by  a  pair  of  splint-like  bones;  but  in  some  fossil  forms  there  was  a 
rudimentary  thigh  bone,  or  femur. 

There  are  several  peculiarities  connected  with  the  soft  internal  parts;  but 
it  will  suffice  to  mention  here  that  the  lungs  are  extremely  long  and  narrow,  ex- 
tending beneath  the  backbone  nearly  as  far  back  as  the  last  rib.  To  permit  of 
this  backward  extension,  the  midriff,  or  diaphragm,  is  placed  very  obliquely. 
The  larger  arteries  of  the  body  form  peculiar  net-like  expansions  in  certain 
regions,  which  render  the  animals  able  to  remain  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water  for  a  longer  period  than  would  otherwise  be  possible,  as  partly  oxygenated 
blood  can  be  retained  for  some  time  in  these  structures  before  it  is  passed  through, 
the  heart. 


MANATEES  AND    DUGONGS  1157 

Although  the  manatees  and  dugongs  never  leave  the  water,  and  are 
as  well  adapted  for  an  aquatic  life  as  Cetaceans,  yet  they  cannot  swim 
in  the  rapid  manner  characteristic  of  many  of  the  latter,  and  are  never  found 
inhabiting  the  open  sea.  On  the  contrary  they  frequent  shallow  seas  and  bays, 
lagoons,  estuaries,  and  large  rivers.  As  regards  their  food,  these  animals  are 
entirely  herbivorous;  browsing  upon  seaweeds  or  other  aquatic  plants  growing  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are  slow  and  sluggish  in  their  movements, 
while  in  disposition  they  are  harmless  and  inoffensive,  and  appear  to  be  endowed 
with  but  a  comparatively-small  amount  of  intelligence. 

Both  dugongs  and  manatees  produce  but  a  single  offspring  at  a  birth,  which  is 
attended  with  assiduous  care  by  its  parent.  When  suckling,  the  females  raise  their 
heads  and  breasts  above  the  water,  and  exhibit  the  young  clinging  to  them,  and 
partially  supported  by  their  flippers,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  this  habit 
has  given  origin  to  the  legendary  mermaid.  In  describing  the  dugong,  Sir  Emerson 
Tennent  wrote  as  follows  concerning  this  point:  "The  rude  approach  to  the  human 
outline  observed  in  the  shape  of  the  head  of  this  creature,  and  the  attitude  of  the 
mother  when  suckling  her  young,  clasping  it  to  her  breast  with  one  flipper,  while 
swimming  with  the  other,  holding  the  heads  of  both  above  water;  and  when  dis- 
turbed, suddenly  diving  and  displaying  her  fish-like  tail, —  these,  together  with  her 
habitual  demonstrations  of  strong  maternal  affection,  probably  gave  rise  to  the  fable 
of  the  mermaid;  and  thus  that  earliest  invention  of  mythical  physiology  may  be 
traced  to  the  Arab  seamen  and  the  Greeks,  who  had  watched  the  movements  of  the 
dugong  in  the  waters  of  Manaar.  Megasthenes  records  the  existence  of  a  creature 
in  the  ocean  near  Taprobane  [Ceylon],  with  the  aspect  of  a  woman;  and  ^lian, 
adopting  and  enlarging  upon  his  information,  peoples  the  seas  of  Ceylon  with  fishes 
having  the  heads  of  lions,  panthers,  and  rams,  and,  stranger  still,  Cetaceans  in  the 
form  of  satyrs.  Statements  such  as  these  must  have  had  their  origin  in  the  hairs 
which  are  set  round  the  mouth  of  the  dugong,  somewhat  resembling  a  beard,  which 
^Elian  and  Megasthenes  both  particularize  from  their  resemblance  to  the  hair  of  a 
woman."  The  belief  in  the  existence  of  mermaids  was  firmly  credited  by  the  early 
Portuguese  and  Dutch  voyagers  to  the  East. 

Distribution  ^e  living  members  of  the  order,  which  generally  associate  in  small 
herds,  frequent  the  coasts  and  larger  rivers  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic, 
and  also  those  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Indian  Ocean,  parts  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and 
Australia.  The  northern  sea-cow  was,  however,  an  inhabitant  of  the  cold  regions 
of  Behring  Sea;  and  during  the  Tertiary  period  Sirenians  were  distributed  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  globe.  The  group  is,  therefore,  evidently  a  waning  one.  From 
their  herbivorous  habits  and  the  structure  of  their  molar  teeth  the  suggestion  natu- 
rally arises  that  the  Sirenians  are  connected  with  the  Ungulates;  and  the  resemblances 
of  their  teeth  are  nearer  to  the  Even-Toed  than  to  the  Odd-Toed  section  of  that  order. 
The  retention  of  five  toes  by  the  Sirenians  seems,  however,  to  indicate  that  if  they 
are  really  connected  with  the  Ungulates,  they  must  have  diverged  from  that  group 
at  a  very  early  period  of  its  existence. 

It  has  been  very  generally  considered  that  each  of  the  three  genera  of 
Sirenians  that  have  existed  during  the  historic  period  is  entitled  to  constitute 


II58  MANATEES  AND  DUGONGS 

a  family  by  itself.     The  whole  are,  however,  so  nearly  allied,  and  are  so  closely 

connected   by  fossil   forms,  that  it   seems   preferable  to   follow  3 
Classification    Blanford  in  regarding   them   as  members  of   a   single   family  — the 

Halicoridce. 

THE  MANATEES 
Genus  Manatus 

The  manatees-so  named  from  the  hand-like  use  of  the  nippers  when  nursing 
the  young— are  characterized  by  the  nostrils  being  situated  at  the  apex  of  the  muz- 


AMERICAN   MANATEE. 

(One- twentieth  natural   size.) 

zle,  by  the  rounded  margin  of  the  expanded  tail,  and  the  -usual  presence  of  three 
minute  rudimentary  nails  on  each  of  the  flippers.  In  the  skull,  the  beak  and  ex- 
tremity of  the  lower  jaw  are  comparatively  small,  and  but  very  slightly  bent  down- 
ward. The  incisor  teeth  are  rudimentary,  being  concealed  beneath  the  horny  plates 
of  the  mouth,  and  disappearing  before  the  animal  becomes  adult.  The  cheek-teeth, 
of  which  eleven  are  developed  on  each  side  of  the  jaws,  have  squared  crowns,  with 


THE  MANATEES  1159 

transverse  ridges,  thus  presenting  some  resemblance  to  the  lower  teeth  of  the  tapir. 
Generally  there  are  seldom  more  than  six  of  these  teeth  in  use  at  the  same  time  on 
one  side  of  each  jaw;  the  front  ones  falling  out  before  those  further  back  have  come 
into  use.  In  the  skeleton  tne  manatees  present  the  remarkable  peculiarity  of  having 
only  six  vertebrae  in  the  neck,  and  are  thereby  almost  unique  among  Mammals. 

Manatees,  when  full  grown,  attain  a  length  of  about  eight  feet.  Their  dark, 
grayish-colored  skin  is  marked  by  a  number  of  fine  wrinkles,  and,  at  least  in  the 
young  condition,  is  covered  with  a  number  of  very  fine,  sparsely-distributed  hairs.. 

One  of  the  most  peculiar  features  connected  with  the  manatees  is  to  be  found  in 
the  conformation  of  the  mouth.  On  this  point  the  late  Professor  Garrod  observes 
that  "  the  upper  lip  is  prehensile;  in  other  words  the  animal  is  able,  by  its  unaided 
means,  to  introduce  food  placed  before  it  into  the  mouth  without  the  assistance  of 
the  comparatively-insignificant  lower  lip."  The  front  of  the  muzzle  of  the  manatee 
is  of  a  triangular  form,  with  the  apex,  in  which  are  situated  the  nostrils,  upward. 
The  lower  border  of  this  triangle  is  bounded  by  two  rounded  fleshy  pads,  forming  the 
angles  of  the  upper  lip.  These  lip-pads  can  be  either  approximated  to  one  another, 
or  widely  separated,  at  the  will  of  their  owner.  "  When  the  animal,"  writes  Pro- 
fessor Garrod,  "  is  on  the  point  of  seizing,  say  a  leaf  of  lettuce,  the  pads  are  diverged 
transversely  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  median  gap  of  considerable  breadth. 
Directly  the  leaf  is  within  grasp,  the  lip-pads  are  approximated,  the  leaf  is  firmly 
seized  between  their  contiguous,  bristly  surfaces,  and  then  drawn  inward  by  a  back- 
ward movement  of  the  lower  margin  of  the  lip  as  a  whole.  The  appearance  pro- 
duced by  the  movements  of  this  peculiar  organ  is  very  much  the  same  as  that  of  the 
mouth  in  the  silkworm  and  other  caterpillars  while  devouring  a  leaf,  the  jaws  in 
these  insects  diverging  and  converging  laterally,  in  a  very  similar  manner  during 
mastication."  In  regard  to  the  mechanism  for  closing  the  nostrils  during  submer- 
sion, the  same  writer  adds  that  "these  circular  orifices  have  each  a  flap  valve,  which 
forms  the  floor  or  inferior  wall  of  the  nasal  tubes  when  the  animal  is  breathing 
but  which  rises  and  completely  occludes  it  when  closed." 

Distribution  Manatees  are  found  in  the  rivers  and  on  the  coasts  of  the  two  sides  of 
and  Num-  the  tropical  portions  of  the  Atlantic;  but  are  mainly  fluviatile,  ascend- 
ber  of  Spe-  ing  the  larger  rivers,  such  as  the  Amazon,  almost  to  their  sources, 
cies  ""There  appear  to  be  three  well-defined  species,  namely,  the  American 

manatee  (M.  amerlcanus},  the  African  manatee  (M.  senegalensis) ,  readily  distin- 
guished from  the  former  by  the  characteristics  of  the  skull,  and  the  nailless  manatee 
(M.  inunguis},  from  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco. 

Owing  to  the  constant  persecution  for  the  sake  of  their  oil  and  hides, 
manatees  have  been  of  late  years  much  diminished  in  numbers,  and  in 
most  accessible  districts  they  are  now  becoming  comparatively-scarce  animals. 
Their  general  habits  are  those  noticed  under  the  head  of  the  order;  but  some  more 
minute  observations,  which  have  been  gathered  from  captive  specimens,  may  be 
noticed  in  detail.  The  first  living  manatee  brought  to  England  was  received  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  early  in  August  1875,  but  did  not  long  survive;  and  a  second 
specimen  was  obtained  in  March  1889.  A  third  lived  in  the  Brighton  Aquarium  for 
upward  of  sixteen  months.  All  these  animals  were  fed  chiefly  upon  lettuce,  although 


Il6o  MANATEES  AND    DUGONGS 

they  would  also  eat  other  vegetables.  The  following  observations  were  made  by 
Professor  Garrod  on  the  one  first  acquired  by  the  Zoological  Society:  "Looking  at 
the  living  animal  generally  the  most  striking  peculiarity  was  the  sluggishness  of  its 
movements,  when  crossing  its  pond  there  was  none  of  the  lateral  movement  of  the  body 
so  characteristic  of  the  seals.  All  flexions  were  up  and  down,  the  whole  trunk 
bending  a  little  in  that  direction,  the  base  of  the  tail  doing  so  freely  at  a  clearly- 
marked  transverse  fold-line  in  that  region.  An  opportunity  occurred  for  seeing  it 
out  of  water,  when  its  pond  was  drained  dry  for  a  short  time.  From  my  obser- 
vations on  this  occasion,  it  was  perfectly  evident  that  the  manatee  is  purely  aquatic 
in  habits,  and  that  it  never  willingly  quits  the  water.  When  on  land,  it  seemed 
perfectly  unable  to  advance  or  recede,  the  only  movements  it  performed  being  that 
from  its  belly  to  its  back,  and  vice  versd.  The  power  of  moving  the  slightly  exserted 
elbow  was  considerable,  while  that  of  the  wrist  was  small  but  apparent.  It  used  its 
limbs  much  more  freely  than  do  the  seals,  sometimes  employing  the  extreme  mar- 
gins of  the  paddles  to  assist  in  introducing  food  into  its  mouth,  at  others  employing 
them  in  progression  along  the  bottom  of  the  pond  during  which  time  the  swimming 
tail  could  not  be  brought  into  play  to  any  extent. ' ' 

Beyond  the  fact  that  only  a  single  young  is  produced  at  a  time,  there  appears 
to  be  no  accurate  observations  as  to  the  breeding  habits  of  the  manatee;  neither  are 
we  acquainted  with  the  length  of  time  these  animals  can  remain  submerged. 

The  flesh  of  the  manatee,  which  is  very  light  in  color,  is  eaten  by  the  natives 
of  the  Amazon  region,  and  is  compared  by  Bates  to  pork.  The  fat  is  reported,  how- 
ever, to  have  a  disagreeable  flavor. 

THE  DUGONG 
Genus   Halicore 

The  dugong,  or  as  it  should  properly  be  termed,  from  its  Malayan  name, 
duyong,  is  a  very  different  animal,  both  externally  and  as  regards  the  structure  of 
its  skull  and  teeth,  from  the  manatee.  Externally,  it  is  characterized  by  the  nos- 
trils being  situated  on  the  upper  part  of  the  muzzle,  by  the  tail  being  crescent 
shaped  and  concave  posteriorly,  and  by  the  total  absence  of  any  trace  of  nails  on  the 
flippers.  The  skull  is  characterized  by  the  great  thickness  and  massiveness  of  the 
beak  and  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw,  both  of  which  are  sharply  bent  down  so 
as  to  form  almost  a  right  angle  with  the  long  axis  of  the  skull.  The  teeth  grow 
throughout  life,  and  in  the  adult  state  comprise  a  pair  of  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw, 
and  five  molars  on  each  side  of  both  jaws.  In  the  females,  the  incisors  are  small 
and  do  not  pierce  the  gums,  but  in  the  males  they  assume  the  form  of  rather  large 
and  nearly  straight  tusks  which  are  partially  coated  with  enamel,  and  are  directed 
downward.  The  molars  are  cylindrical  in  form,  the  last  in  each  jaw  being  more 
complex  than  the  others,  and  looking  as  if  it  were  composed  of  two  cylinders  joined 
together.  These  teeth  have  no  enamel,  and,  as  in  the  manatee,  some  of  the  front 
ones  are  shed  before  those  behind  come  into  use.  There  can  be  little  doubt  but 
that  the  molar  teeth  of  the  dugong  present  one  step  in  the  process  of  degeneration 
which  has  resulted  in  their  complete  disappearance  in  the  northern  sea-cow.  In 


THE   DUGONG 


1161 


color,  the  dugong  is  either  uniformly  bluish  gray,  or  the  under  parts  may  have  a 
more  or  less  distinct  whitish  tinge.  The  normal  length  attained  by  these  animals 
varies  from  five  to  seven  feet,  but  they  occasionally  measure  from  eight  to  nine  feet. 
In  a  specimen  of  eight  and  one-half  feet  in  length,  the  maximum  girth  was  six  feet. 
Dugongs  are  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  for  about 
fifteen  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  Equator,  from  East  Africa  to  Aus- 
tralia, and  likewise  around  the  Red  Sea.  They  are  not  uncommon  on  parts  of  the 
coasts  of  Ceylon,  and  around  the  Andaman  and  Nicobar  islands.  Although  it  has 
been  considered  that  the  dugong  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  also  the  one  found  on  the 


Distribution 


Vi^^^^^^^^^ 


THE    DUGONG. 
(One-thirtieth  natural  size.) 


Habits 


Australian  coasts,  are  specifically  distinct  from  the  Indian  dugong  (Halicore  dugong), 
this  is  extremely  doubtful. 

Except  that  it  is  a  marine  animal,  never  ascending  rivers,  and  feed- 
ing chiefly  upon  seaweed,  the  dugong  appears  to  be  very  similar  in  its 
general  mode  of  life  to  the  manatee.  Formerly,  these  animals  are  reported  to  have 
been  found  in  large  herds,  comprising  several  hundreds  of  individuals,  and  to  have 
been  so  fearless  of  man  that  they  would  allow  themselves  to  be  touched  with  the 
hand.  Now,  however,  they  are  only  to  be  met  with  in  twos  or  threes,  or  small 
parties,  and  they  have  become  very  shy  and  wary.  Dugong  fishing  is  practiced  as  a 
regular  industry  on  the  Australian  coast;  the  clear,  limpid  oil  obtained  from  these 


Il62 


MANATEES  AND    DUGONGS 


animals  bearing  a  high  value.  The  flesh  of  the  dugong  is  described  as  being  of  ex- 
cellent quality  and  flavor,  by  those  who  have  tried  it.  The  natives  of  Torres  Straits, 
according  to  the  late  Professor  Moseley,  are  in  the  habit  of  using  dugong  skulls  and 
ribs  for  the  decoration  of  their  huts. 

THE  NORTHERN  SEA-COW 
Genus  Rhytina 

On  his  return  in  1741  from  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  Alaska,  the  navigator 
Behring  had  the  misfortune  to  be  shipwrecked  on  the  island  which  now  bears  his 
name;  that  island,  together  with  the  adjacent  Copper  island, 
constituting  the  Commander  group,  which  lie  in  Behring  Sea, 
at  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  coast  of 
Kamchatka.  At  the  time  of  their  involuntary  sojourn,  Behr- 
ing and  his  companions  found  the  shores  of  these  islands  in- 
habited by  a  hitherto  unknown  animal,  evidently  allied  to  the 
manatee,  but  of  much  greater  dimensions.  This  creature  was 
the  northern  sea-cow  (Rhytina  stelleri),  then  found  in  vast 
numbers  on  the  islands  in  question,  but  which  within  a  period 
of  thirty  years  from  that  date  appears  to  have  been  totally 
exterminated  by  the  hand  of  man.  Indeed,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  fortunate  circumstance  that  Behring  was  accompanied 
by  the  naturalist  Steller,  we  should  probably  never  even  have 
heard  of  the  very  existence  of  this  animal,  except  through 
some  slight  mention  in  the  accounts  of  certain  contemporary 
voyagers.  Unfortunately,  no  skins  and  only  some  imperfect 
skeletons  of  the  animal  appear  to  have  been  preserved 
by  the  survivors  of  Behring' s  party;  but  of  late  years,  a  con- 
siderable number  of  more  or  less  imperfect  skeletons  have  been 
reclaimed  from  the  frozen  soil  of  the  Commander  islands. 

This  gigantic  Sirenian  differed  from  all  its  allies  in  having 
no  teeth,  the  functions  of  which  were  performed  by  the  horny 
plates  covering  the  palate  and  opposing  surface  of  the  lower 
jaw.  The  head  was  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  body,  and 
the  extremities  of  the  jaws  were  somewhat  bent  downward. 
The  tail  was  forked,  after  the  manner  of  that  of  the  dugong. 
The  flippers  were  very  small  and  truncated,  and  were  covered 
with  bristly  hairs.  Steller  expressly  states  that  there  were  no 
bones  in  the  hand,  and  it  is  certain  that  none  have  hitherto 
been  found.  The  skin  was  naked,  and, covered  with  a  thick, 
rugged  epidermis,  which  was  compared  to  the  bark  of  a  tree; 
in  Places  this  epidermis  was  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  so  tough 
that  it  required  the  use  of  an  ax  to  cut  it.  The  skin,  accord- 
ing to  Steller 's  description,  was  dark  brown  in  color,  some- 
times marked  with  streaks  or  spots  of  white.  A  drawing  of 


W      Ul* 

*  «  w 

Z    O    w 
H   U   ^'  b 

3  a  p<  g 

|g  «8 


TERTIARY  SI  REN  I  A  NS  1163 

c^ 

the  animal  left  by  Waxell,  the  navigator  of  Behring's  party,  represents  it,  however, 
as  being  marked  with  alternate  dark  and  light  transverse  stripes.  The  skeleton  here- 
with figured  measures  nineteen  and  one-half  feet  in  length,  which  would  indicate  a 
length  of  about  twenty  feet  in  the  living  state;  but  Steller  states  that  the  animal 
sometimes  attained  a  length  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet.  The  girth  of  the 
body  was  nineteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  the  estimated  weight  eight  thousand  pounds. 
With  the  exception  of  a  single  rib  from  Altu,  no  remains  of  the 

northern  sea-cow  have  been  obtained  elsewhere  than  on  Barren  and 
and  Habits 

Copper  islands.      It  is,  however,  almost  impossible   to  believe  that 

such  a  large  animal  could  always  have  had  such  a  restricted  distribution,  and  it  is 
hence  probable  that,  when  discovered,  this  Sirenian  was  already  on  the  wane,  and 
that  the  Commander  islands  were  its  last  resorts  from  a  more  extended  distribution. 
Not  the  least  remarkable  circumstance  connected  with  this  animal  is  that,  although 
closely  allied  to  the  typical  dugong,  it  should  have  inhabited  such  a  cold  and  north- 
erly region. 

At  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  Behring's  party,  the  northern  sea-cow  was 
abundant  in  the  bays  and  river  mouths  of  the  Commander  islands,  where  it  lived  in 
herds  of  considerable  size.  It  fed  chiefly  on  seaweeds,  and  more  especially  on  the 
tangle  which  grows  so  abundantly  in  the  northern  seas.  It  was  described  as  a 
stupid,  sluggish,  and  comparatively-helpless  animal,  which  was  unable  to  dive,  and 
was  not  uufrequently  washed  ashore  by  the  waves.  From  its  inability  to  dive,  it 
was  compelled  to  obtain  its  food  in  shallow  water;  and  from  being  often  unable  to 
approach  the  shore  during  the  storms  of  winter,  the  animal  was  generally  in  poor 
condition  by  spring. 

Within  nine  years  of  its  discovery,  the  northern  sea-cow  was  ex- 
'"  terminated  on  Copper  island;  while  on  Behring  island  it  had  become 
very  scarce  by  1763,  and  the  last  of  its  race  appears  to  have  been  killed  in  the  year 
1767  or  1768.  It  was  long  thought  that  the  creature  was  practically  exterminated 
by  Behring's  party  during  their  sojourn  of  ten  months  on  the  island  named  after 
their  leader.  This,  however  was  not  the  case,  as  they  killed  but  very  few.  Soon 
after  the  return  of  Behring's  crew  to  Kamchatka  several  expeditions  were  fitted  out 
for  the  purpose  of  wintering  on  the  Commander  islands  and  hunting  fur-bearing 
animals;  the  sea-cows  offering  the  inducement  of  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  food. 
Ships  sailing  to  Alaska  were  also  in  the  habit  of  touching  at  these  islands  to  take  in 
a  supply  of  salted  sea-cow  meat.  With  such  stupid  and  helpless  habits  as  charac- 
terized the  animal,  it  is  no  wonder  that  its  complete  extirpation  was  soon  accom- 
plished. Generally,  the  sea-cow  was  harpooned  from  a  boat,  but,  by  approaching 
stealthily,  hunters  were  also  enabled  to  kill  them  with  lances  as  they  lay  asleep  near 
the  shore. 

TERTIARY  SIRENIANS 

Throughout  a  large  portion  of  the  Tertiary  period  various  species  of  extinct 
Sirenians  were  common  in  Europe,  and  they  have  also  been  sparingly  met  with  in 
England.  The  best  known  of  these  was  the  halithere  (Halitherium) ,  which  forms 


n64  MANATEES  AND   DUGONGS 

in  some  respects  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  manatee  and  the  dugong.  It 
resembled  the  latter  in  having  the  extremities  of  the  jaws  deflected,  and  in  the 
presence  of  a  pair  of  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw;  but  its  molar  teeth  were  more  like 
those  of  the  manatee,  although  with  a  pattern  recalling  that  obtaining  on  the 
crowns  of  those  of  the  hippopotamus.  The  most  interesting  points  about  this  ani- 
mal are  the  evidences  it  affords  of  being  a  more  generalized  type  than  either  of  its 
existing  allies.  Thus,  the  premolar  teeth  had  milk -predecessors,  the  skull  was 
furnished  with  distinct  nasal  bones,  and  there  was  a  rudimentary  hind-limb. 

There  is,  however,  another  extinct  member  of  the  order,  which,  although  un- 
fortunately known  only  by  the  skull,  presents  indications  of  a  still  closer  affinity  with 
ordinary  Mammals.  This  is  the  Prorastoma,  of  which  the  remains  have  been  found 
in  strata,  probably  belonging  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  Eocene  period  in  Jamaica 
and  Italy.  This  creature  had  three  pairs  of  incisors,  and  a  pair  of  canines,  as  well 
as  seven  or  eight  pairs  of  cheek-teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  thus  approximated  very  closely 
to  the  ordinary  Mammalian  type;  the  front  and  premolar  teeth  doubtless  having 
milk-predecessors.  Although,  therefore,  we  have  not  at  present  actually  succeeded 
in  tracing  the  origin  of  the  Sirenians  into  terrestrial  Mammals,  yet  we  have  been 
able  to  go  such  a  long  way  in  this  direction  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  they  have 
been  so  derived  by  some  evolutionary  process. 


INDEX 


VOL.    II 


Addax,  867. 

nasomaculatus,  867. 
yEluropus,  619. 

melanoleuctis,  619. 
sElurus,  624. 

fulgens,  624. 
s&pyceros,  887. 

melampus,  887. 

petersi,  889. 
^Equitun,  892. 
A  fees,  962. 

latifrons,  964. 

mac /ill's,  963. 
Alpaca,  1004. 
Amblypoda,  1146. 
A  in  in  odor  cas,  883. 

clarkei,  883. 
Amynodon,  1073. 
Anchithere,  1103. 
Anoa,  795. 
Antelopes,  855. 

Addax,  867. 

American,  913. 

Baker's,  875. 

Beatrix,  872. 

Beisa,  871. 

Beni-Israel,  897. 

Black  Buck,  889. 

Blaubok,  874. 

Blesbok,  912. 

Blue  Buck,  899. 

Bohor,  891. 

Bongo,  862. 

Bontebok,  912. 

Bubaline,  907. 

Chiru,  885. 

Clarke's,  883. 

Duikerbok,  897. 

Elands,  855. 

Equine,  873. 

Fossil,  876. 

Four-Horned,  900. 

Gazelles,  877. 

Gemsbok,  869. 

Gnu,  901. 

Grysbok,  897. 

Guih,  865. 

Harnessed,  863. 

Hartbeests,  907. 

Herota,  910. 

Impala,  887. 

Impofo,  855. 

Indian,  889. 

Kirk's,  897. 

Klipspringer,  894 

Konze,  909. 

Korrigum,  911. 


Antelopes  —  continued. 

Kudus,  859. 

Lichi,  891. 

Madoqua,  899. 

Nagor,  891. 

Nakong,  864. 

Nyala,  863. 

Nylghau,  865. 

Oribi,  896. 

Oryx,  869. 

Pala,  887. 

Philantomba,  899. 

Prong-Horned,  913. 

Puku,  892. 

Pygmy,  899. 

Red  Buck,  899. 

Reedbuck,  890. 

Rheeboc,  893. 

Rietboc,  890. 

Roan,  873. 

Roi  Rheeboc,  891. 

Royal,  896. 

Sable,  872. 

Sabre- Horned,  872. 

Saiga,  886. 

Salt's,  897. 

Sassaby,  911. 

Senegal,  911. 

Sing-Sing,  892. 

Sititunga,  864. 

Springbok,  878. 

Steinbocks,  895. 

Sunu,  892. 

Tibetan,  885. 

Titel,  907. 

Tora,  908. 

Water  Buck,  891. 

Wildebeests,  901. 

Wood,  900. 

Zebra,  900. 
Antilocapra,  913. 

americana,  913. 
Antilocaprid(z,  913. 
A  nt Hope,  889. 

cerrn'capra,  889. 
Aoudad,  822. 
Aoul,  883. 
Arctocephahis,  696. 
Arctonvx,  679. 

coflaris,  679. 

taxoides,  679. 
Arctothere,  621. 
Argalis,  806. 

Mongolian,  806. 

Tibetan,  806. 
Arui,  822. 
Asses,  1096. 


Asses  —  continued. 

African,  1099. 

Asiatic,  1097. 

Domestic,  iroo. 
Astrapotheria,  1149. 
Aswal,  614. 
Aurochs,  752. 
Awuk,  720. 

Babiroussa,  1022. 

alfurus,  1022. 
Badgers,  674. 

American,  674. 

Chinese,  676. 

Common,  675. 

Fossil,  678. 

Hog,  679. 

Malayan,  678. 

Persian,  676. 

Sand,  679. 

White-Tailed,  676. 
Banteng,  770. 
Barasingha,  948. 
Bassaricyon,  631. 
Bassaris,  630. 
.  astuta,  630. 

sumichrasti,  631. 
Bears,  591. 

American  Black,  606. 

Brown,  598. 

Cave,  613. 

Crowther's,  603. 

Grizzly,  603. 

Himalayan  Black,  608. 

Malayan,  613. 

Parti-colored,  619. 

Polar,  594. 

Sloth,  614. 

Spectacled,  613. 
Beisa,  871. 
Beni-Israel,  897. 
Bhalu,  614. 
Bharal,  820. 
Bighorn,  802. 
Bison,  777. 

American,  780 

European,  777 
Black  Buck,  889. 
Blastomervx,  973- 
Blaubok,  874.  • 
Blesbok,  912. 
Blue  Buck,  899. 
Bohor,  891. 
Bongo,  862. 
Bontebok,  912. 
Boa,  750. 

actiticornis,  795. 

("65) 


n66 


INDEX 


Bos  —  continued. 

acutifrons,  765. 

americanus,  780. 

bonassus,  777. 

bubalus,  793. 

caffer,  787. 

depressicornis,  795. 

etruscus,  772- 

frontalis,  769. 

gaurus,  765. 

grunniens,  772. 

indicus,  762. 

latifrons,  787. 

mindorensis,  795. 

namadiciis,  765. 

occipitalis,  795- 

platyceros,  795. 

pumilus,  791. 

sondaicus,  770. 

taurus,  752. 
Bosch-Varks,  1020. 
Boselaphus,  865. 

tragocamclus,  865. 
Bovidcz,  747,  750. 
Bramathere,  925. 
Brock,  675.. 
Brockets,  974. 

Brazilian,  974. 

Ecuador,  975. 

Red,  974. 

Wood,  975. 
Bubalis,  905. 

albifrons,  912. 

cama,  907. 

cookei,  908. 

Jiunteri,  910. 

jacksoni,  907. 

licJitenstcini.  909. 

lunata,  911. 

major,  907. 

mauri/anica,  907. 

pygargus,  912. 

senegalensis,  91 1. 

swaynei,  908. 

tor«,  908. 
Budorcas,  848. 

taxi  color,  848. 
Buffalo,  787. 

Cape,  787. 

Indian,  793. 

Red,  791. 

Short-Horned,  791. 
Bush  Bucks,  862. 

Bongo,  862. 

Guib,  865. 

Nakong,  864. 

Nyala,  863. 

Sitituriga,  864. 

West-African,  863. 
Bush  Pigs,  1020. 

Cacomixle,  630. 
C<7  »/  el  id  a;,  990 . 
Camels,  990. 

Arabian,  992. 

Bactrian,  997. 
Cainclits,  992. 

frtictrit/ntis,  997. 

dromedarius,  992. 


Capra,  823. 

(Egagrtts,  829. 

caucasica,  826. 

cylindricornis,  825. 

dor cas,  831. 

falconeri,  839. 

hircus,  831. 

/&?#,  834. 
pyrenaica,  826. 

severtzozvi,  826. 

sibirica,  836. 

sinaftica,  839. 

•walie,  839. 
Capreolus,  969. 

caprea,  969. 
pygargus,  970. 
Carcajou,  662. 
Cariacus,  972. 

antisicnsis,  975. 

campestris,  975- 

chilcnsis,  975. 

clavatus,  975. 

columbianus,  982. 

gymnotis,  981. 

leucurus,  977. 

macrotis,  981. 

mcxicanus,  977. 

nemorivagus,  975. 

palustris,  977. 

rujinus,  975. 

rufus,  974. 

simplicorniS)  974. 

virgin/amis,  977. 
Caribou,  961. 
Cattle,  751. 

Alderney,  758. 

Ayrshire,  758. 

Cadzow,  754. 

Chartley,  756. 

Chillingham,  754. 

Continental,  760. 

Devon,  758. 

Galla,  764. 

Galloway,  758. 

Hereford,  759. 

Highland,  757. 

Humped,  762. 

Indian,  760. 

Jersey,  758. 

Kerry,  757. 

Longhorn,  759. 

Niata,  762. 

Park,  753. 

Polled  Angus,  757. 

Shetland,  757. 

Shorthorn,  760. 

Suffolk,  758. 

Welsh,  757. 
Cemas,  846. 

ctnerea,  847. 

goral,  846. 

grisea,  847. 
Cephalophtis,  897. 

abyasittictts,  899. 

dories,  900. 

grim  mi,  898. 

jentinki,  900. 

maxivclli,  899. 

monticola,  899. 


Ccphalophus  —  continued. 

natalensis,  899. 

sylvicultor ,  900. 
Cercoleptes,  632. 

catidivolvulus,  632. 
Cervicapra,  890. 

arundineum,  890. 

bo/ior,  891. 

lalandi,  891. 

rcdunca,  891. 
Cervidce,  926. 
Cervnlus,  953. 

crinifrons,  955. 

/?«,  955- 
lacrymans,  955. 
munt/ac,  954. 
reevesi,  955. 
Cervus,  929. 
affinis,  935. 
alfredi ,  946. 
rt^r/.T,  940. 
canadensis,  937. 
caskmirianus,  934. 
caspicus,  940. 
dam  a,  950. 
davidianus,  949. 
duvauceli,  947. 
dyboTvskii,  939. 
elaplius,  929. 
e/<f?',  949. 
equinus,  945. 
custephanus,  935. 
giganteus,  952. 
hippelaphus,  945. 
kaslimirianus,  934. 
kuhli,  946. 
leudorji,  936. 
mantchuricus,  939. 
maral,  935. 
mcsopotamicus,  951. 
moliiccensis,  946. 
philippinus,  946. 
porcinus,  947- 

'•"^i  953- 

sc/iomburgki,  949. 

j/X-a,  939. 

taevanus,  939. 

timorensis,  946. 

unicolor,  943. 

xanthopygus,  932. 
Chalicothere,  1104. 
Chamois,  850. 
Chevrotains,  986. 

Indian,  988. 

Malayan,  988. 

Philippine,  989 

Stanley's,  988. 

Water,  989. 
Chiru,  885. 
Chital,  940. 
Chitra,  940. 
Ch<xrohyus,  1030. 
Chceropotamus,  1030 
Chousingha,  900. 
Coatis,  631. 

Red,  631. 

White-Nosed,  631. 
Cobus,  891. 

co/;,  892. 


INDEX 


1167 


Cobus  —  continued. 

defassa,  892. 

ellipsiprymnuS)  891. 

leche,  892. 

leucotis,  892. 

Tar  don  i,  892. 
Conepatus,  664. 

mapurito,  664. 
Connochaetes,  901. 

^»w,  902. 

tanrina,  902. 
Coryphodons,  1146. 
Couagga,  1094. 
Creodonts,  739. 
Cystophora,  733. 

cristata,  733. 

Deer,  926. 

American,  972. 
Axis,  940. 
Barking,  954. 
Black-Tailed,  982. 
Brocket,  974. 
Caribou,  961. 
Caspian,  940. 
Costa  Rica,  975. 
David's,  949. 
Dybowski's,  939. 
Eld's,  949. 
Extinct,  952. 
Fallow,  950. 
Formosan,  939. 
Guazu,  977. 
Guazuti,  975. 
Hog,  947. 
Irish,  952. 
Japanese,  939. 
Kashmir,  934. 
Kuhl's,  946. 
Leudorf's,  936. 
Manchurian,  939. 
Marsh,  977. 
Mexican,  977. 
Michie's,  956. 
Moluccan,  946. 
Moose,  962. 
Mule,  981. 
Muntjac,  954. 
Musk,  983. 
Naked-Eared,  981. 
Pampas,  975. 
Persian  Fallow,  951. 
Prince  Alfred's,  946. 
Pudu,  983. 
Red,  929. 
Rein,  957. 
Roe,  969. 
Ruff's,  952. 
Sambur,  943. 
Schomburgk's,  949. 
Shou,  935. 
Spotted,  940. 
Swamp,  947. 
Thian-Shan,  935. 
Tibetan,  956. 
Timor,  946. 
Tufted,  956. 
Virginian,  977. 
Wapiti,  937. 


Deer  —  continued. 

Water,  971. 

White-Tailed,  977. 
Dicotyles,  1028. 

labiatus,  1029. 

tajacu, 1028. 
Dicotylidcz,  1028. 
Dinothere,  1146. 
DinotheriidcB,  1146. 
Dinotherhim,  1146. 

giganteum,  1146. 
Donkeys,  noo. 
Dorcatherium ,  989. 

aquaticum,  989. 
Dugong,  1155,  1161. 
Duikerbok,  897. 

Eland,  856. 

Derbian,  859. 
Elap/iodus,  956. 

mic/iianus,  956. 

cephalophus,  956. 
Elasmothere,  1073. 
Ele-phantid.ee,  mi. 
Elephants,  1106. 

African,  1133. 

Armenian,  1131. 

Clifts,  1143. 

Flat-Headed,  1142. 

Indian,  1117. 

Mammoth,  1131. 

Narbada,  1142. 

Pygmy,  1142. 

Southern,  1142. 

Straight-Tusked,  1142. 

Stegodont,  1143. 

Sutledje,  1142. 
Elephant  Seal,  735. 
Elephas,  1117. 

africanus,  1133. 

antiquus,  1142. 

armeniacus,  1131. 

colnmbi,  1132. 

ganesa,  1143. 

Aysudricus,  1142. 

indicus,  1117. 

melitensis,  1142. 

meridionaliS)  1142. 

mnaidricnsis,  1142. 

namadicus,  1142. 

planifrons,  1142. 

primigenius,  1131. 
Elk,  962.  ' 
Equidce,  1074. 
Equus,  1076. 

asinus,  1099. 

but-chelli,  1092. 

cabal lus,  1079. 

grevyi,  1093. 

hemionus,  1096. 

prefevalskii ,  1082. 

quagga,  1094. 

zebra,  1091. 
Ermine,  653. 

Fallow  Deer,  950. 
Ferret,  650. 
Ferret-Badgers,  669. 
Brown,  670. 


Ferret-Badgers  —  continued. 

Burmese,  670. 

Chinese,  670. 
Fur-Seals,  695,  712. 

Cape,  712. 

New  Zealand,  713. 

Northern  Sea-Bear,  704. 

South-American,  712. 

Galictts,  636. 

allemandi,  638. 

bar  bar  a,  637. 

vittata,  638. 
Gaur,  765. 
Gayal,  769. 
Gaze/la,  877. 

arabtca,  881. 

bennetti,  881. 

cuvieri,  88 1. 

da  ma,  883. 

dorcas,  880. 

granti,  882. 

gutturosa,  882. 

euchore,  878. 

isabellina,  881. 

Icevipes,  88 1. 

leptoceros,  881. 

mohr,  883. 

picticaudata,  882. 

rujifrons,  881. 

spekei,  88 1. 

stxmmerringi,  883. 

subgutturosa,  882. 

thomsoni,  882. 

tilonura,  88 1. 
Gazelles,  877. 

Arabian,  881. 

Bennett's,  881. 
'Black-Tailed,  881. 

Dama,  883. 

Dorcas,  880. 

Grant's,  882. 

Indian,  881. 

Isabelline.  881. 

Korin,  881. 

Mongolian,  882. 

Mountain,  881. 

Persian,  882. 

Small-Horned,  881. 

Speke's,  88  r. 

Sundevall's,  881. 

Swift,  883. 

Thomson's,  882. 

Tibetan,  882. 

Waller's,  884. 
Ge locus,  990. 
Gemsbok,  869. 
Gems,  850. 
Gerenuk,  884. 
Ghorkar,  1097. 
Girajfa,  918. 

camelopardalis,  918. 
Giraffe,  918. 
Girajfidte,  918. 
Glutton,  660. 
Gnu,  901. 
Goa,  882. 
Goats,  823. 

Angora,  832. 


1168 

Goats  —  continued. 

Caucasian,  825. 

Domestic,  831. 

Egyptian,  833. 

Feral,  834. 

Giura,  830. 

Ibex,  834. 

Kashmir,  833. 

Markhoor,  839. 

Nilgiri,  843. 

Persian,  829. 

Rocky-Mountain,  849. 

Spanish,  826. 

Spiral-Horned,  839. 

Sudan,  833. 

Syrian,  833. 
Gorals,  847. 

Ashy,  847. 

Gray,  847. 

Long-Tailed,  847. 
Grison,  636. 
Grysbok,  897. 
Guanaco,  1002. 
Guemals,  975. 

Chilian,  975. 

Peruvian,  975. 
Guib,  865. 
Gulo,  660. 

luscus,  660. 

Hair-Seals,  695. 

Australian,  704. 
Californian  Sea-Lion,  702. 

Hooker's  Sea-Lion,  764. 
Northern  Sea-Lion,  699. 

Southern  Sea-Lion,  697. 
Halichoerus,  723. 
grypus,  723. 
Halicore,  1160. 

dugong,  1161. 
Halicoridce,  1158. 
Halitherium,  1163. 
Hangul,  935. 
Haploceros,  849. 

montanus,  849. 
Harnessed  Antelopes,  863. 

Bongo,  862. 

Guib,  865. 

Nakong,  864. 

Nyala,  863. 

Sititunga,  864. 

West-African,  863. 
Hartbeests,  905. 

Bastard,  911. 

Cooke's,  908. 

Extinct,  912. 

Hunter's,  910. 

Jackson's,  907. 

Swayne's,  908. 

True,  907. 

Tunisian,  907. 
Helictis,  669. 

moschata,  670. 

orientalist,  670, 

personata,  670. 

xabaurantiaca,  670. 
Helladothere,  924. 
Hemicyon,  622. 
Hemitragus,  843. 


INDEX 

Hemitragus  —  continued. 

hylocrius,  845. 
jemlaiciis,  843. 
ierota,  910. 
Hipparion,  1075. 
Hipp  id  turn,  1102. 
iippopotami,  1030. 

Algerian,  1040. 

Burmese,  1040. 

Common,  1032. 

Indian,  1040. 

Liberian,  1039. 

Madagascar,  1040. 

Maltese,  1039. 

Narbada,  1040. 

Pentland's,  1039. 

Pygmy.  I039- 

Siwalik,  1040. 
Hippopotamidce,  1030. 
Hippopotamus,  1030. 

a  mph  ibius ,  1 03  2 . 

bonariensis,  1040. 

iravadicus,  1040. 

lemerlei,  1040. 

liberiensis,  1039. 

minutus,  1039. 

namadicus,  1040. 

palaindictis,  1040. 

pentlandi,  1039. 

sivalensis,  1040. 
Hippotragus,  873. 

bakeri,  875. 

equinus,  873. 

leucophcBiis,  874. 

»'>«•,  875- 
Hog-Deer,  947. 
Hollow-Horned  Ruminants, 

741.  747- 

Homalodontotherium,  1150. 
Hoofed  Mammals,  741. 
Horses,  1074. 

American,  1088. 

Arab,  io8g. 

Barb,  1085. 

Cart,  1089. 

Clydesdale,  1090. 

Common,  1079. 

Fossil,  1102. 

Hunters,  1087. 

Levant,  1086. 

Persian,  1086. 

Prejevalski's,  1082. 

Race,  1086. 

Shetland  Ponies,  1088. 

Shire,  1089. 

Siwalik,  1 102. 

Steno's,  1102. 

Suffolk,  1091. 

Tarpan,  1081. 

Trotters,  1088. 
Hycznarctus,  622. 
Hycenodon,  740. 
Hydaspithere,  925. 
Hydropotes,  97 1 . 

i tier mis,  971. 
Hyomosclius,  989. 
Hyopotamus,  1008. 
Hy  other  iiim,  1030. 
Hypcrtragulus,  990. 


iyrax, 1108. 

Cape,  1109. 

Syrian,  mo. 

Tree,  mo. 
tfy  r  acoidea,  1107. 
iyracothere,  1103. 

bex,  834. 

Abyssinian,  839. 

Alpine,  834. 

Arabian,  839. 

Egyptian,  839. 

Himalayan,  836. 

Persian,  829. 

Spanish,  826. 
Ictonyx,  668. 

frenata,  668. 

zorilla,  668. 
^mpala,  887. 
^mpofo.  855. 
[zard,  853. 

Kabaoba,  1068. 
Kakar,  954. 
Kastura,  985. 
Keitloa,  1061. 
Kiang,  1097. 
Kinkajou,  632. 
Klipspringer,  894. 
Konze,  909. 
Korin,  881. 
Korrigum,  911. 
Koulan,  1097. 
Kudu,  859. 

Lesser,  862. 

Lama,  999. 

glama,  1004. 
guanacus,  1002. 
pacos,  1004. 

•victinia,  1000. 
Latax,  688. 

lutris,  688. 
Leopard-Seal,  732. 
Leptonychotes,  733. 

tveddelli,  733. 
Libythere,  924. 
Lichi,  892. 
Listriodon,  1030. 
Lithocranius,  884. 

•walleri,  884. 
Litopterna,  1148. 
Llama,  999. 
Lobodon,  732. 

carcinophaga,  732- 
Lop/iiodon,  1103. 
Lutra,  680. 

brasiliensis,  685. 

canadensis,  684. 

tapensis,  687. 

cinerea,  686. 

fclina,  686. 

macrodus,  686. 

maculicollis,  687. 

palceindica,  686. 

paranensis,  686. 

sumatrana,  686. 

vulgaris,  681. 


INDEX 


1169 


Madoqua,  899. 
Macrauchenia,  1148. 
Macrorhintis,  735- 

leoninus,  735- 
Mammoth,  1131. 
Manatees,  1155. 

African,  1159. 

American,  1159. 

Nailless,  1159. 
Manatus,  1158. 

americatius,  1159. 

inunguis,  1159. 

senegalensis,  1159. 
Maral,  935. 
Markhoor,  839. 

Astor,  841. 

Baltistan,  841. 

Cabul,  841. 

Pir-Panjal,  841. 

Suliman,  841. 
Martens,  639. 

American,  645. 

Beech,  641. 

Fisher,  645. 

Indian, 646. 

Pine,  639. 
Mastodon,  1143. 

americanus,  1144. 

cautleyi,  1144. 

latidens,  1145. 

perimensis,  1145. 
Mastodons,  1143. 

Broad-Toothed,  1145. 

Cautley's,  1144. 

North-American,  1144. 

Old- World,  1145. 
Meles,  674. 

anacuma,  676. 

canescens,  676. 

chinensis,  676. 

leucurus,  676. 

taxus,  674. 
Mellivora,  67 1 . 

ratel,  671. 

indica,  671. 
Melursus,  614. 

ur sinus,  614. 
Mephitis,  664. 

macrura,  664. 

mephitica,  664. 

putorius,  664. 
Mink,  657. 

European,  657. 

Siberian,  659. 
Mohohu,  1068. 
Monachus,  731. 

albiventer,  731. 

tropicalis,  731 
Moose,  962. 
Morse,  713. 
Moschus,  983. 

moschifcrus,  983. 

sifanirus,  984. 
Mouflon,  814. 
Mule,  1102. 
Muntjacs,  953. 

Fea's,  955. 

Hairy-Fronted,  955. 

Indian,  9^4. 

11-74  " 


Muntjacs  —  continued. 

Reeve's,  955. 

Sclater's,  955. 
Musk  Deer,  983. 
Musk  Ox,  797. 
Mustela,  639. 

alpina,  656. 

americana,  645. 

cat hi  a,  656. 

erminea,  653. 

eversmanni,  648. 

flavigula,  646. 
foina,  641. 
frenata,  656. 

hemachclana,  656. 

larvata,  648. 

longicauda,  656. 

lutreola,  657. 

martes,  639. 

nigripes,  648. 

pennanti,  645. 

putorius,  647. 

sarmaticus,  648. 

sibirica,  657. 

strigidorsus,  656. 

vison,  657. 

vulgaris,  651. 

zibellina,  643. 
Mustelidce,  635. 
My  da  us,    678. 
Meliceps,  678. 

Nagor,  891. 
Nakong,  864. 
Nanotragus,  895. 

campestris,  895. 

melanotis,  897. 

montanus,    897. 

moschatus,  896. 

pygmtzus,  896. 

scoparia,  896. 
JVemorhcedus,  847. 

bubalinus,  847. 

crispus,  848. 

sumatrensis,  848. 

stvinhoei,  848. 
Neotragus,  897. 

kirki,  897. 

saltianus,  897. 
Nesodon,  11153. 
Nylghau,  865. 
Northern  Sea-Cow,  1162. 
Nyala,  863. 

Ogmorhinus,  732. 

leptonyx,  732. 
Ommatophoca,  733. 

rojj/,  733. 
Onager,  1097. 
Oreotragus,  894. 

saltator,  894. 
OriVz.*,  855. 

canna,  857. 

de.rbianus,  859. 
Oribi,  896. 
Oryx,  869. 

Fringe-Eared,  872. 
Oryx,  869. 

beatrix,  872. 


Oryx  —  continued. 

beisa,  871. 

callotis,  872. 

gazella,  869. 

leucoryx,  872. 
Otaria,  695. 

australis,  712. 

cinerea,  713. 
forsteri,  713. 

gillespii,  702. 

hookeri,  704. 

jubata,  697. 

lobata,  704. 

pusilla,  712. 

stelleri,  699. 

ursina,  704. 
Otariida,  695. 
Otters,  680. 

African,  687. 

Brazilian,  685. 

Clawless,  687. 

European,  681. 

Extinct,  687. 

Feline,  686. 

Hairy-Nosed,  686. 

North-American,  684. 

Sea,  688. 

Smooth  Indian,  686. 

Spotted-Necked,  687. 
Ovibos,  797. 

moschatus,  797. 
Ovis,  801. 

ammon,  806. 

aries,  816. 

blanfordi,  813. 

canadensis,  802, 

gmelini,  813. 

Jiodgsoni^  806. 

jubata,  807. 

karelini,  809. 

musimon,  814. 

nahura,  820. 

nigrimontana,  808. 

nivicola,  802. 

ophion,  813. 

/<?//,  809. 

tragelaphus,  822. 

vignei,  812. 
Oxen,  750. 
Oxyodontotlierium,  1149. 

Palceomcryx,  973. 
Palaoniciis,  740. 
Pal&osyops,  1 104. 
Palaeothere,  1103. 
Palas,  887. 

Angola,  889. 

Lesser,  888. 
Panda,  624. 
Pantholops,  885. 

hodgsoni,  885. 
Para,  947. 
Park  Cattle,  753. 
Pasang,  829. 
Peccaries,  1028. 

Collared,  1028. 

White-Lipped,  1029. 
,  893. 

capreola,  893. 


II70 

PJiacochcerus,  1025. 
africanus,  1026. 
pallasi,  1026. 
P/ienacodus,  1103. 
Philantomba,  899. 
Phoca,  725. 

barbata,  730. 
caspica,  730. 
grxnlandica,  725. 
hispida,  729. 
sibirica,  730. 
vitulina,  725. 
Phocidtz,  720. 
Pigs,  1007. 

Andaman,  1015. 
Bush,  1020. 
Celebes,  1015. 
Ceram,  1015. 
Collared,  1015. 
Domestic,  1016. 
Extinct,  1022. 
Formosan,  1015. 
Indian,  1012. 
Japan,  1015. 
Malayan,  1015. 
Masked,  1019. 
Papuan,  1015. 
Pygmy.  1015. 
Sennar,  1016. 
Titan,  1022. 
True,  ion. 
Warty,  1015. 
White-Whiskered,  1015. 
Fine-Marten,  639. 
Plesictis,  656. 
Pofbrotherium,  1006. 
Pcecilogale,  660. 

albinucha,  660. 
Polecats,  647. 

Black-Footed,  648. 
Cape,  668. 
Sarmatian,  648. 
Ponies,  1088. 

Primitive  Carnivores,  739 
Proboscidea,  un. 
Procavia,  1108. 

abyssinica,  1108. 
arborea,  mo. 
brucei,  1109. 
cafensis,  1109. 
dorsalis,  mo. 
shoana,  1109. 
syriaca,  mo. 
valida,  mo. 
Procaviid(z,  1107. 
Procamelus,  1106. 
Procyon,  626. 

cancrivorus,  630. 
lotor,  627. 
Procyonidce,  623. 
Prongbuck,  913. 
Prorastoma,  1164. 
Proterotheres,  1149. 
Proterotheriidce,  1149. 
Prodremotherium,  990. 
Protohippus,  1102. 
Pterodon,  740. 
Pudu,  983. 
Pudua,  983. 


INDEX 

'udua  — continued. 

humilis,  983. 
uku,  892. 
'iitorius,  639. 

Quagga,  1094. 

Raccoons,  623,  626. 
Common,  627. 
Crab-Eating,  630. 
Rangifer,  957. 

grcenlandicus,  961. 
tarandus,  957. 
Ratels,  670. 
Cape,  671. 
Indian,  671. 
Red  Buck,  899. 
leed  Buck,  890. 
Reindeer,  957. 
Rheeboc,  890. 
Vaal,  893. 
Rietboc,  893. 
Rhinoceros,  1050. 

antiquitatis,  1072. 
bicornis,  1061. 
deccanensis,  1073. 
etruscus,  1072. 
karnuliensis,  1073. 
lasiotis,  1059. 
leptorhinus,  1072. 
megarliinus,  1072. 
pachygnathus,  1066. 
palceindictis,  1057. 
platyrhinus,  1072. 
schleiermacheri,  1060. 
simus,  1066. 
sivalensis,  1057. 
sondaicus,  1056. 
sumatrensis,  1057. 

unicornis,  1052. 
Rhinoceroses,  1050. 

African,  1061,  1062. 

Asiatic,  1052. 

Boreli,  1064. 

Broad-Nosed,  1072. 

Burchell's,  1066. 

Deccan,  1073. 

Etruscan,  1072. 

Extinct,  1071. 

Holmwood's,  1071 

Hornless,  1073. 

Indian,  1052. 

Javan, 1056. 

Kabaoba,  1068. 

Karnul,  1073. 

Keitloa,  1061. 

Kulumani,  1061. 

Leptorhine,  1072. 

Megarhine,  1072. 

Mohohu,  1068. 

Schleiermacher's,  1060. 

Siwalik,  1057. 

Square-Mouthed,  1066. 

Sumatran,  10^7. 

Upetyani,  1061. 

White,  1066. 

Woolly,  1072. 
Rhinocerotidce,  1050. 
Rliytina,  1162. 


Rhytina  —  continued. 

stelleri,  1162. 
iver  Hog,  1021. 
loan  Antelope,  873. 
ocky-Mountain  Goat,  849. 
oedeer,  969. 

Tartarian,  970. 
luminants,  748. 
Rupicapra,  850. 
tragiis,  850. 

iable,  643. 

.able  Antelope,  872. 
Iaiga,  886. 
Saiga,  886. 

tartarica,  886. 
lambur,  943. 
.amothere,  925. 
land- Baggers,  679. 
sassaby,  911. 
lea-Bears,  704. 

Northern,  704. 
Sea-Cow,  Northern,  1162. 
Sea-Lions,  697. 

Californian,  702. 
Hooker's,  704. 
Northern,  699. 
Southern,  697. 
Seals,  692. 

Australian  Hair,  704. 
Baikal,  730. 
Bearded,  730. 
Bladder,  733. 

Californian  Sea-Lion,  702. 
Cape,  712. 
Caspian,  730. 
Common,  726. 
Crab-Eating,  732. 
Crested,  733. 
Eared,  695. 
Earless,  720. 
Elephant,  735. 
Falkland  Island,  712 
Fur,  695,  704. 
Greenland,  725. 
Gray,  723. 
Hair,  695,  704. 
Harp,  728. 
Hooded,  733. 
Hooker's  Sea-Lion,  704. 
Leopard,  732. 
Monk,  731. 
New  Zealand,  713. 
Northern  Sea-Bear,  704. 
Northern  Sea-Lion,  699. 
Ringed,  729. 
Ross's,  733. 
Saddle-Backed,  728. 
Siberian,  730. 
South-American,  712. 
Southern  Fur,  712. 
Southern  Sea-Lion,  697. 
Weddell's,  733. 
West-Indian,  731. 
Sea-Otter,  688. 
Serows,  847. 

Burmese,  848. 
Common,  847. 
Japanese,  848. 


INDEX 


II7I 


Serows  —  continued. 

Swinhoe's,  848. 
Sha,  812, 
Sheep,  801. 

American,  802. 

Armenian,  813. 

Barbary,  822. 

Bharal,  821. 

Bighorn,  802. 

Cheviot,  819. 

Cretan,  814. 

Cyprian,  814. 

Domestic,  816. 

Dorset,  820. 

Flat-Tailed,  817. 

Heath,  819. 

Irish,  819. 

Kamchatkan,  802,  805. 

Long-Woolled,  820. 

Merino,  820. 

Mongolian,  806. 

Mouflon,  814. 

Moor,  1 20. 

Norfolk,  819. 

Pamir,  809. 

Scotch,  818. 

Shetland,  818. 

Tibetan,  806. 

Urial,  812. 

Welsh,  818. 
Shou,  935. 
Sing-Sing,  892. 
Sirenians,  1156. 

Dugongs,  1160. 

Manatees,  1158. 

Sea-Cow,  1162. 

Tertiary,  1163. 
Sititunga,  864. 
Sivathere,  925. 
Sloth-Bear,  614. 
Skunks,  663. 

Common,  664. 

Lesser,  664. 

Long-Tailed,  664. 

White-Backed,  664. 
Springbok,  878. 
Steinbock,  895. 

Zanzibar,  896. 
Stoat,  653. 

Long-Tailed,  656. 
Strepsiceros,  859. 

imberbis,  862. 

kudu,  859. 
S  n  idee,  1007. 
Sunu,  892. 
Sus,  ion. 

africanus,  1020. 

andamanensis,  1015. 

arvernensis,  1022 

barbatus,  1016. 

celebensis,  1016. 

ceramensis,  1015. 

cristatus,  1012. 
falconer i,  1022. 

indicus,  1018. 

leucomystax,  1015. 

papuensis,  1015. 

porcus,  1 02 1. 

sal-van  ius,  1015. 


Sus  —  continued. 

scrofa,  1012. 

sennarensis,  1016. 

taevanus,  1015. 

titan,  1022. 

verrucosus,  1015. 
Swine,   1009. 

Andaman,  1015. 

Bush,  102 1. 

Celebes,  1015. 

Ceram,  1015. 

Collared,  1015. 

Domestic,  1016. 

Extinct,  1022. 

Formosan,  1015. 

Indian,  1012. 

Japan,  1015. 

Malayan,  1015. 

Masked,  1019. 

Papuans,  1015. 

Pygmy,  1015. 

Sennar,  1016. 

Titan,  1022. 

True,  ion. 

Warty,  1015. 

White- Whiskered,  1015. 

Tahr,  843. 
Takin,  848. 
Tamarao,  795. 
Tapiridce,  1044. 
Tapirs,  1044. 

American,  1046. 

Baird's,  1047. 

Dow's,  1047. 

Malayan,  1046. 

Roulin's,  1047. 
Tapirus,  1044. 

americanus,  1046. 

bairdi,  1047. 

doivi,  1047. 

indicus,  1046. 

roulini,  1047. 
Tarpan,  1081. 
Taxidea,  672. 

americana,  672. 
Tayra,  636. 
Tetraceros,  900. 

quadricornis,  900. 
Tillodonts,  1154. 
Titanothere,  1104. 
Titel,  907. 
Toxodon,  1151. 
Toxodontia,   1151. 
Toxodonts,  1151. 
Tragelaphus,  862. 

angasi,  863. 

euryceros,  862. 

gratus,  863. 

scriptus,  865. 

spekei,  864. 
Tragulidce,  986. 
Tragulina,  986. 
Tragulus,  987. 

javanicus,  988. 

meminna,  988. 

nigricans,  989. 

stanleyanus,  988. 
Trichechidce,  713. 


Trickechus,  713. 

rosmarus,  713. 
Tur,  825. 

Caucasian,  826. 

Pallas's,  825. 

Severtzow's,  826. 
Tylopoda,  986. 
Typothere,  1153. 

Uintatheres,  1146. 
Ungulates,  741. 

Even-Toed,  747. 

Odd-Toed,  1042. 

Short-Footed,  1146. 
Upetyani,  1061. 
Urial,  812. 
Ursidce,  591. 
Ursus,  594. 

americanus,  606. 

arctos,  598. 

arvernensis,  614. 

cinnamonus,  603. 

croivtheri,  603. 

gedrosianus,  611. 

horribilis,  603. 

japonicus,  611. 

malayanus,  613. 

maritimus,  594. 

ornatus,  613. 

richardsoni,  603. 

speltzus,  613. 

theobaldi,  614. 

torquatus,  608. 

Vicuna,  rooo. 

Walrus,  713. 
Wapiti,  937. 
Warri-atu,  845. 
Wart  Hogs,  1025. 

^Elian's,  1026. 

Pallas's,  1026. 
Water  Buck,  891. 
Water  Deer,  971. 
Weasels,  635. 

Bridled,  656. 

Common,  651. 

Himalayan,  656. 

Pale,  656. 

South-African,  660. 

Striped,  656. 

Yellow-Bellied,  656. 
Wild  Boars,  1012. 

European,  1012. 

Indian,  1012. 
Wildebeests,  901. 

Blue,  902. 

Brindled,  902. 

White-Tailed,  902. 
Wolverene,  660. 

Yak,  772. 

Zebras,  1091. 

Burchell's,  1092. 
Gravy's,  1093. 
Mountain,  1091. 
True,  1091. 


* 


General  Library     . 
University  of  Calif ortua 
Berkeley 


LD  21-50m-12,'61 
/C4796slO)476 


